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Insulation materials: Fundamentals and Applications

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Insulation Materials
Fundamentals and Applications

By: Dr. Tawfeeq Wasmi M. Salih

Assistant Professor
Department of Materials Engineering
Mustansiriyah University
Baghdad, Iraq
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Copyright © 2021 Mustansiriyah University
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, scanning or others, without a prior written permission of the
publisher.

Address: Mustansiriyah University, College of Engineering, Baghdad, Iraq

Website: https://uomustansiriyah.edu.iq/

Salih, Tawfeeq W., 2021

Insulation materials: fundamentals and applications, 1st edition
198 pages

ISBN: 978-9922-20-958-6

Approved by Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research-Iraq under the number (623)
on (8 Mar 2021).

2
Dedicated to

My Family

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4
 Preface
Since the last decades, world has seen wide spread of modern materials and
corresponding functions in various kinds of applications such as: buildings,
transportation, services and tools. These facilities were associated with a significant
increase in fuel and electrical energy consumption. In order to reduce rapidly growing
demand for energy, protect the environment resulting from the greenhouse gas emissions
and pollution, and to achieve satisfaction in comfort requirements, it is necessary to
develop insulation materials and improve the performance of construction elements and
take advantage of clean energy and passive techniques.
In this book, some aspects of the insulation materials have been clarified telling us where
technically and economically feasible, whether thermally or acoustically and also to
protect buildings from external or internal moisture, which can cause damage and
contamination in the building.
Thermal insulation materials are specifically designed to reduce the heat flow by limiting
heat conduction, convection, radiation. The main functions are conserving energy by
reducing heat loss or gain, controlling surface temperatures for comfort living and saving
facilities for long time as well. Insulation done for the house helps in keeping the noise
away from adjoining rooms by preventing interfering with inside or outside. The quality
of the insulation materials should be chosen to satisfy balance between the economic cost
and achieving the requirements of good insulation or reduce energy consumption. It has
found that super thermal insulation of the building increases the cost of construction up to
20%, but this amount could be recovered as a result of lower electricity bills in a few
years.
Another profit is that insulation helps in reducing the reverberations and in maintaining
the right acoustic atmosphere in specialized skilled areas like recording studios, opera
halls and theatres. Furthermore, buildings need insulation from moisture, rain,
groundwater and surface water because the dampness causes in damage of the
construction materials and releases undesired smells with the breeding of insects and mice
and bring diseases. In order to choose the appropriate waterproofing it must take into
accounts the nature of the ground as well as the climate.
Dielectric materials are wide used in many applications to keep safe against electrical
shocks. Every electric conductor, whether it is cable, switch in a motor, transformer, etc.,
should carefully covered with a form of electrical insulation. To understand insulation
method, it is required to present some mathematical relations in electrical engineering.
Workers in nuclear facilities and X-ray labs exposed to the risk of radiation, which affects
the face, hands or internal parts due to the entry of radioactive particles into the body
through breathing or food. To avoid the radiation risk in this area it is necessary to know
the nature of radiation and methods of isolating and comply with the instructions.

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This book is intended for students, engineers, consultants, designers, researchers and
those involved in the manufacturing of insulation. It uses theory and measurements to
explain concepts that are important for the application, interpretation and understanding
of guidance documents, test reports, product data sheets, published papers, regulations,
and standards. The intention is to enable the reader to tackle many different aspects of
insulation by providing a textbook easy and principle. Readers with a background can
jump straight to the topic of interest in chapters. All methods, models and measurement
have their limitations, but with knowledge of their strengths and weaknesses it becomes
much easier to make design decisions and to find solutions for many applications. Some
models are considered as theoretical procedures, while some others depend on empirical
relations. Studies and debate about potential negative environmental and health impacts
of insulation products have been included. However, these concerns range from
detrimental health effects for the individual installer to depletion of the earth’s ozone
layer. So, it should take care of that and the corresponding industrial safety as well.

The author

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 Contents

Item Title Page

Preface 5
Contents 7
Chapter One: Thermal Insulation 11
1.1 Definition of Thermal Insulators 13
1.2 Applications of Thermal Insulation 13
1.3 Advantages of Thermal Insulation in Buildings 15
1.4 Classification of Thermal Insulators 15
1.5 Commercial Insulators 16
1.6 Thermal Contribution of Construction Materials 19
1.7 Properties of Thermal Insulators 21
1.8 Modes of Heat Transfer 26
1.9 Thermal Insulation in Buildings 27
1.10 Thermal Insulation Expression 28
1.11 Engineering Calculations 30
1.12 Electricity Demand Reduction 34
1.13 Reduce Oil Consumption 35
1.14 Greenhouse Effect 35
1.15 Thermal Images 37
1.16 Economical Effect 38
1.17 Useful Applications 39
1.18 Techniques of Materials in Energy Saving 42
1.19 Thermal Insulation in High Temperature Applications 49
Exercises No. (1) 51
Chapter Two: Acoustic Insulation 57
2.1 Definition of Acoustic Insulation 59
2.2 Architectural Procedures to Control the Acoustics 59
2.3 Objective of Acoustic Insulation 59

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 2.4 Procedures of Acoustic Insulation 60
2.5 Classification of Materials with Respect to Sound 60
2.6 Features of Sound Absorbing Materials 61
2.7 Commercial Insulators 63
2.8 Applications of Soundproofing 65
2.9 Acoustical Engineering 67
2.10 Sound Transmission 71
2.11 Sound Absorption 72
2.12 Noise Reduction (Attenuation) 73
2.13 Engineering Calculations 74
2.14 Effectiveness of Absorption in Porous Materials 77
2.15 Reverberation Time 79
2.16 Controlling the Impact Sound through Floors 80
2.17 Controlling the Transmission across the Windows 83
2.18 Noise Pollution in Industrial 83
2.19 Combining Noise Sources 88
2.20 Measuring the acoustic performance of the Materials 89
2.21 Reducing of Earthquake Effects on Buildings 91
Exercises No. (2) 95
Chapter Three: Waterproofing Insulation 101
3.1 Waterproofing 103
3.2 Effect of Dampness 103
3.3 Causes of Dampness 104
3.4 Types of Waterproofing Insulators 105
3.5 Practical Waterproofing Treatments 107
3.6 Waterproofing for Huge Structures 110
3.7 Engineering Calculations of Water Transfer 111
Exercises No. (3) 117
Chapter Four: Electrical Insulation 119
4.1 Introduction to Electrical Insulation 121

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 4.2 Classification of Materials 122
4.3 Properties of Dielectric Materials 125
4.4 Purposes of Dielectric Materials 129
4.5 Applications of Dielectric Materials in Insulation 131
4.6 Applications of Dielectric Materials for Energy Storage 145
Exercises No. (4) 151
Chapter Five: Radiation Insulation 155
5.1 Introduction to Radiation 157
5.2 Definition of Radiation 157
5.3 Classification of Radiation 157
5.4 Non-Ionizing Radiation 158
5.5 Ionizing Radiation 159
5.6 Radioactivity 161
5.7 Risks of Ionizing Radiation 162
5.8 Radiation Measuring 162
5.9 Means to Minimize the Risk of Radiation 163
5.10 Linear Attenuation Coefficient 164
5.11 Calculation of Radiation Attenuation 166
5.12 Applications of Radiation Insulation 168
5.13 Advanced Techniques in Shielding 168
5.14 Protective Garments 172
Exercises No. (5) 175
Chapter Six: Fireproofing Insulation 179
6.1 Introduction to Fireproofing 181
6.2 Types of Fireproofing Materials 182
6.3 Application of Fireproofing 183
6.4 Contemporary Ways of Fireproofing 185
Exercises No. (6) 187
Answers 189
References 195

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10
 Chapter One
Thermal Insulation

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12
 Chapter One

Thermal Insulation

1.1 Definition of Thermal Insulators

Thermal insulation materials are those materials that prevent or reduce various modes of
heat transfer (conduction, convection and radiation) from the outside to the inside or the
opposite direction, whether the environment temperature is high or low. This term usually
used with building applications. Thermal insulation includes the use of appropriate
insulation materials and design adaptations for buildings to reduce heat loss or gain. The
transfer of heat is caused by the temperature difference between indoors and outdoors.

1.2 Applications of Thermal Insulation

According to American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) thermal insulation is
one of the most used forms of insulation for businesses and homes. It is used in order to
contain heat as long as possible or avoid it, thus it installed in the roof, floor and walls of
a building. However, there are range of applications and conditions where thermal
insulation is used, for example thermal insulation is applied to:

- Buildings
- Furnaces
- Ducts
- Refrigerators and freezers
- Water heaters and boilers
- Pipes and vessels
- Mugs and containers
- Aircrafts and spacecrafts
- Clothes
- Equipment

13
Figure (1.1) Applications of thermal insulation

14
 1.3 Advantages of Thermal Insulation in Buildings
It could say that the direct and indirect benefits of using the thermal insulation in
buildings are:
1. Reduce the amount of heat transmitted through the parts of the house.
2. Reduce the energy required for heating or cooling the house.
3. Make the internal temperature of the building stable, non-volatile.
4. Keep the temperature of the building elements stable thus long time life.
5. Reduce energy bills.
6. Reduce the burning of fuel in power plants.
7. Reduce the emission of greenhouse gases.

1.4 Classification of Thermal Insulators

Thermal insulators could be classified according to the structure of the materials or to the
shape formed the materials, as following:

• According to the structure

- Organic materials: such as cotton, wool, natural rubber and cellulose.

- Inorganic materials: such as glasswool, rockwool, perlite, asbestos and calcium

silicate.

• According to the shape

- Fill (loose): this type is the most common insulator which is produced as a blanket or a
roll, like: glass wool, rock wool and polyethylene (EPE or XPE). It has various degrees
of flexibility as well as the ability to bend, and it could be fastened by nails.

- Slab (panel): it is a rigid type due to the mixing with some resins, like: fiberglass,
polyurethane panels, cellulose sheets and polystyrene sheets (EPS or XPS). It comes in
different dimensions and thicknesses.

- Granular: a powder or grain placed in the spaces between the walls and it can be mixed
with some other materials. Examples of such materials granulated cork and polymers.

- Liquid or gaseous fluids: poured or sprayed on to form the desired layer, such as
polyurethane foam and epoxy.

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• According to the usage

- Polystyrene (EPS or XPS): it is usually used with low-temperature applications like

buildings and containers.

- Glass wool or rock wool: it is usually used with high-temperature applications like
boilers and ovens, but it could be used with buildings and ducts.

- Polyurethane: due to its efficient insulation, it is usually used with refrigerators,

ducts, pipes and energy efficient buildings.

- Calcium silicate: it is used with furnaces due to its strength and resistance to high
temperature.

1.5 Commercial Insulators

The thermal insulation refers to all isolators systems and processes that reduce the heat
exchange between inside and outside. Thermal insulation in buildings in hot climates is
designed to prevent the entry of heat to the building. Thus, the using of thermal
insulation materials reduces the heat transfer. The most important thermal insulators are
glass wool, cork, polyurethane and other polymeric materials as well as evacuated
panels. It should refer here that air is one of the best thermal insulators due to its low
coefficient of thermal conductivity (0.025 W/m.K) and availability everywhere.

The most common insulators are:

1. Cellulose: which is made from recycled wood or waste paper and is characterized by
its susceptibility to water and dust absorption.
2. Cork: this is taken from cork trees. Also, it could be made industrial from petroleum
product which is called Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) or the rigid type Extruded
Polystyrene (XPS). It comes as panels and used as thermal and acoustic insulators.
3. Glass wool: is an insulating material made from glass strings with a binder to give a
texture similar to wool. It is a loose or fill material widely used to insulate buildings, as
well as boilers.
4. Rock wool: this material is similar to glasswool but it made out of rock and used to
isolate the buildings and storages.
5. Ceramic wool: is a refractory material, a particular substance that has a heat-resistant
property. It primarily consists of aluminum silicate, which includes fiber made from
various polycrystalline fibers and molten glass or ceramic. It is an excellent material for
insulation, and can be used for numerous applications.
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6. Polyurethane: is a polymer formed by reacting of isocyanate with polyol. Usually
uses as insulated panel for buildings and refrigerators or foam to fill the cracks.
7. Polyethylene layers: it comes as Expanded Polyethylene (EPE) or Extruded
Polyethylene (XPE). It may have a reflective layer, and then it is called as astro-foil
layer. This type consists of two parts; polyethylene as bubbly air cells and a cover of
aluminum foil to reflect the radiation. This insulator is good in the summer to reduce the
solar gain.
8. Polycarbonate panels: These sheets are lightweight panels, and are composed of
several layers to withstand the shocks with the presence of air cavities for the purposes
of thermal insulation.
9. Calcium silicate: is an asbestos-free thermal insulation product that can withstand
continuous high operating temperatures. Thus, it is commonly used in furnaces and
oven. It is a white free-flowing powder obtained by reacting calcium oxide and silica. It
has a low bulk density and high physical water absorption.
10. Evacuated panel: also called a vacuum insulated panel (VIP) is a form of thermal
insulation consisting of a tight enclosure surrounding a rigid core, from which the air
has been evacuated. It is used in building construction and refrigeration units. It
provides better insulation performance than conventional insulation material due to less
conduction, convection and radiation.
11. Reflective materials: such as aluminum panels, alu-cobond and reflective paints.
These materials are used to reflect solar radiation on the exterior walls.
12. Fire retardant sheets: are wooden panels characterized by their ability to delay the
fire growth in addition to the advantage of thermal insulation.

Furthermore, there are many insulation materials available for different applications
such as: polypropylene, phenol, melamine and expanded rubber.

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Figure (1.2) Thermal insulators

18
1.6 Thermal Contribution of Construction Materials
Many construction materials have been developed to minimize the energy consumption
for air-conditioning. These materials could be used for walls, roof and foundation. These
combinations include:

- Composite wall
- Sandwich panel
- Dry wall
- Thermostone
- Clay brick
- Hollow block with a piece of insulated material like EPS.
- Hollow block made by perlite or other low thermal conductive materials.
- Hollow core wall
- Light weight concrete (LWC) or foamed concrete

The studies show the benefits of using these construction materials instead of using
common concrete blocks and bricks. For example, the comparison between thermostone
as a construction material for the whole building regarding to the hollow concrete,
yields that the annual electrical energy demand for a house built using the thermostone
would consume 25% less energy than one built from hollow concrete. The economic
analysis shows that building with thermostone can cut the annual cost of electricity by
30% as compared to buildings with hollow concrete blocks.

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Figure (1.3) Developed construction materials

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1.7 Properties of Thermal Insulators
The selecting of an insulation material depends on its properties as well as the operating
conditions. The coefficient of thermal conductivity is the most important property of any
insulator; it indicates the resistance to heat transfer. The other thermal properties are:
reflectivity, absorptivity, heat capacity, density, coefficient of thermal expansion and the
coefficient of thermal bridging.

1. Thermal conductivity: it is the property of a material to conduct heat. Heat

transfer occurs at a higher rate across materials of high thermal conductivity than
across materials of low thermal conductivity. Correspondingly, materials of high
thermal conductivity are widely used in heat sink applications and materials of
low thermal conductivity are used as thermal insulation. The reciprocal of thermal
conductivity called thermal resistivity. The unit of thermal conductivity is
(W/m.K). Good insulation material should have a thermal conductivity less than
(0.2 W/m.K). The coefficient of thermal conductivity can be measured by a
thermal conductivity meter apparatus. Temperature is an important parameter that
affects the thermal conductivity value. It is found generally increasing of thermal
conductivity with the increase of temperature but within the limited temperature
range depending on the climatic conditions. On the other hand, the thermal
conductivity is increased with increasing of moisture content, thus less thermal
resistance.

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 Table (1.1) Thermal conductivity for common insulators
Item Material Thermal Conductivity (W/m.K)
1 Astro-foil (XPE) 0.08
2 Asbestos 0.12
3 Asphalt 0.69
4 Alucobond 0.15
5 Acrylic 0.2
6 Aerogel 0.02
7 Bitumen 0.17
8 Calcium silicate 0.05
9 Cellulose 0.08
10 Coal 0.24
11 Cotton 0.04
12 Cork (EPS) 0.05
13 Ceramic fiber 0.08
14 Engine Oil 0.15
15 Epoxy 0.35
16 Glass Fiber 0.03
17 Glass Wool 0.04
18 PVC 0.2
19 Paraffin Wax 0.25
20 Plywood 0.13
21 Polycarbonate 0.19
22 Perlite 0.05
23 Polystyrene (XPS) 0.08
24 Polyurethane 0.02
25 Rubber 0.35
26 Vacuumed panel 0.007
27 Vermiculite 0.06
28 Wool 0.05

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 Table (1.2) Thermal conductivity for common construction materials
Item Material Thermal Conductivity (W/m.K)
1 Basalt 2.3
2 Block (Hollow) - 20 cm 0.5
3 Block (Hollow) – 15 cm 0.6
4 Block (Hollow) – 10 cm 0.7
5 Block (Solid) 0.9
6 Brick (Cavity) 0.4
7 Brick (Solid) 0.5
8 Concrete (Reinforced) 2
9 Concrete (Not Reinforced) 0.8
10 Cement plaster 1
11 Clay 1.2
12 Dry Wall – 10 cm 0.3
13 Granite 3
14 Gypsum 0.8
15 GRC 0.9
16 Glass 1
17 Limestone 1.5
18 Mica 0.7
19 Marble 2.2
20 Porcelain 1.5
21 Sandstone 1.5
22 Sandwich Panel – 10 cm 0.04
23 Sandwich Panel – 5 cm 0.05
24 Thermostone – 20 cm 0.3
25 Thermostone – 10 cm 0.4
26 Wood 0.15

Table (1.3) Thermal conductivity for common metals

Item Material Thermal Conductivity (W/m.K)
1 Aluminum (AL) 200
2 Bronze 110
3 Copper (Cu) 400
4 Iron (Fe) 80
5 Lead (Pb) 35
6 Silver (Ag) 450

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 Table (1.4) Thermal conductivity for common gases
Item Material Thermal Conductivity (W/m.K)
1 Air 0.025
2 Argon 0.015
3 Bromine 0.04
4 Carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.014
5 Helium 0.15
6 Methane 0.03

2. Reflectivity: it is the ratio of reflected radiation from a surface to the total

incident radiation. The factors affecting the amount of reflectivity are the color
and the level of fine-tuning the surface. The following table shows values of
reflectivity for some materials.

Table (1.5) Reflectivity for common materials

Material Reflectivity (%)
Aluminum 80
Gypsum 70
Cork 45
Concrete 35
Plastic 20
Wood 17
Glass 10
Asphalt 3

3. Absorptivity: it is the ratio of absorbed radiation by the surface. The color of the
surface affects the amount of absorption. The following table shows absorptivity
values for some materials.

Table (1.6) Absorptivity for common colors

Color Solar Absorptance
Green 0.47
Ochre 0.6
Dark Beige 0.7
Blue 0.7
Red 0.75
Brown 0.75
Dark Brown 0.83
Dark Colors 0.9
Black 0.95

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4. Heat capacity: it is the ability of material to store the heat. The material with high
heat capacity is called thermal mass
5. Density: it is the mass of matter in a certain volume. The unit is (kg/m3).
6. Thermal expansion coefficient: is the amount of change in the volume of
material as a result of temperature change.

Table (2.7) Thermal properties of some materials

Heat capacity Density Thermal expansion
Item Material
(J/kg.K) (kg/m3) (1/K) x10-6
1 Brick 850 1900 5
2 Concrete 900 2500 14
3 Granite 900 2750 8
4 Thermostone 750 890 16
5 Aluminum 900 2700 24
6 Iron 450 8000 12
7 Wood 1700 750 50
8 Rubber 1600 950 600
9 Marble 850 2800 8
10 Glass 600 2500 9
11 Water 4200 1000 210
12 Gypsum 1000 1500 10
13 EPS 1500 24 300
14 XPS 1900 32 200
15 Glass wool 700 24 30
16 Cellulose 1750 1200 70
17 Polyurethane 500 12 50

7. Coefficient of thermal bridge: which describes the amount of heat transfer in

certain areas called thermal bridges. Thermal bridge is an area in the building
envelope in which the highest heat transfer compared with neighboring areas, this
causing the failure of building materials, the spread of moisture and mold growth.
Examples of these areas:
- The joints between the ceiling and walls
- Link areas between windows and walls
- Piles and foundations
8. Moisture absorption: The presence of water or humid air in the insulator reduces
the thermal insulation value of the material and it may destruct the material
rapidly. The moisture is measured by the effect of moisture absorption and
permeability.

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 9. Mechanical: Such as durability, compression, tensile and shear stresses. Some
insulators are characterized by strength and endurance than others. That makes
sense to be used for supporting of the building beside to the goal of thermal
insulation.
10. Acoustical: Some insulating materials may be used as acoustic insulators as well
as thermal insulators.
11. Safety: Some insulating materials could get hurt to human during storage,
installation and usage. These may cause deformities in the human body,
poisoning, infections or allergies in the skin and eyes, which requires importance
of knowing the chemical composition of the material and ability to interact with
the environment and constitute a mold, germs and insects. There are some
physical properties should be considered like the ability of combustion and
sublimation.

1.8 Modes of Heat Transfer

Heat is a form of energy which transfers between bodies that are kept under thermal
interactions. When a temperature difference occurs between two bodies or a body with its
surroundings, heat transfer occurs. In this article, we are going to deal with the different
modes of heat transfer. Heat transfers basically in three modes:

1. Conduction: is the heat transfer through a wall from the hot face to the cold one. The
thermal conductivity varies from a substance to another. For example, concrete and steel
have high conductivity compared to an insulating material such as cork. The amount of
heat transfer by conduction depends on the temperature difference between the surfaces
of the wall, wall thickness, area of surfaces exposed to heat and coefficient of thermal
conductivity of the material, as well as the lag time (period of accumulated heat). This
mode of heat transfer could be reduced by the using of thermal insulation materials.

2. Convection: is the transfer of heat due to the ambient air nearby the wall. where, the
air molecules move from hot zone to cold zone carrying the thermal energy away and
replaced by air molecules have cold temperature. This process is known as convection
current. Air movement helps to increase the heat transfer rate. This mode of heat transfer
could be reduced by shading and planting.

3. Radiation: is the transfer of radiant heat across a transparent medium or vacuum. The
radiant heat is transferred from the hot source to the colder place, like the solar radiation
across the windows or the heat that emitted from furnace walls. Reflective surfaces such
as metallic foils could be used to reflect the thermal radiation and reduce heat absorption
by the walls.

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 Figure (1.4) Modes of heat transfer through the building

1.9 Thermal Insulation in Buildings

Buildings could be divided in terms of the acquisition method of heat into two types,
which are buildings in hot climates and buildings in cold climates. In hot climates, most
of the heat is gained from the outside through walls, ceilings and windows. The thermal
insulation has to be in the outer shell of the building to reduce the amount of heat gained
and this consequently leads to reduce the energy demand for cooling. But in cold
climates, heat is transferred from inside to out. Therefore, the insulating layers are placed
inside. It is found that the heat losses through the house are as following:
- About 60% of the heat is transmitted through the ceilings and walls of the building.
- About 15% of the heat is transmitted by the windows.
- About 25% of the heat is transferred through the vents and doors of the building.

27
 Figure (1.5) Contribution of buildings elements in heat transfer

1.10 Thermal Insulation Expression

There are some concepts must be defined before entering to the design, such as thermal
resistance, overall heat transfer coefficient and thermal load.
Thermal resistance: is the susceptibility of the material to resist the heat. Thermal
resistance has inverse relation with the coefficient of thermal conductivity. To find out the
total resistance of the wall or ceiling, the collection of resistors for all materials should be
included as well as the convection resistance adjacent to the external and internal
surfaces. Dealing with these resistors exactly like that used with electrical resistors, they
are either parallel or series. Resistance also called R-Value. It is worth noting that the US
R-Value is about six times the SI R-Value due to the different standards.

28
Now assume a composite wall of two layers of materials. The resistance for each layer
can be calculated by:

In case of convection presence, it is:

Figure (1.6) Composite wall

Overall heat transfer coefficient: is a factor used to determine the optimum thickness of
the insulation material in buildings. It is also called U-Value. And it can be calculated
from the following relationship:

The amount of heat transfer through a wall is given by the following relationship:
Q = U A (T1 – T2)

Where T is the temperature of the surface, while A is the surface area. The unit of U-
Value is (W/m2.K). The U-Value of un-insulated wall is high up (1-5), while the U-Value
of insulated wall is less than (1), while for super-insulation wall is less than (0.2). The
world is moving to standardize the U-Value for residential buildings as minimum as
possible toward satisfying the zero energy building.

29
 Figure (1.7) Effect of U-value in reducing the heat transfer

Thermal load: is the summation of all sources of heat on a building, such as heat loss
through the structure (walls, roof and floor), solar radiation through windows, indoor-
outdoor air temperature difference (ventilation and infiltration), internal heat (lighting,
respiration and equipment). The total heat transfer can be calculated by:

QTotal = QWalls + QRoof + QFloor + QWindows + QVentilation + Qlighting + QEquipment

Where, the product can be divided by 3600 to get the load in ton of refrigeration (TR).

1.11 Engineering Calculations

The theoretical calculation is quite systematic and easy to understand, but it is rather has a
slight difference to the practical results due to some common assumptions like ignoring
the floor gain or assign a constant value for the other sources of heat. However, the
following are some examples to show the effect of thermal insulation in energy
conservation.

30
 Example (1): Heat losses through the wall in the winter

Calculate the reduction in the amount of heat transmitted through the wall shown in the
figure due to the insulation. The area of the wall is 1 m2 and the coefficients of convection
heat transfer are:

- 10 W/m2.K for external surface

- 5 W/m2.K for internal surface

Note: Values of thermal conductivity of

the materials are:

Kplaster=1, Kbrick=0.5,
Kgypsum=0.8, Kglasswool=0.04

Solution:

• Before insulation

Plaster R1 = x1/k1 = 0.02/1 = 0.02

Brick R2 = x2/k2 = 0.24/0.5 = 0.48

Gypsum R3 = x3/k3 = 0.01/0.8 = 0.0125
External air Ro = 1/ho = 1/10 = 0.1
Internal air Ri = 1/hi = 1/5 = 0.2
Total resistance R = R1 + R2 + R3 + Ro + Ri = 0.8125
U = 1 / R = 1.23 W/m2.K
Q = U A (Ti-To) = 1.23 * 1 * (24-12) = 14.8 W

• After insulation
Glasswool Rg = xg/kg = 0.05/0.04 = 1.25
Total resistance R = R1 + R2 + R3 + Ro + Ri + Rg = 2.0625
U = 1 / R = 0.485 W/m2.K
Q = U A (Ti-To) =0.485 * 1 * (24-12) = 5.8 W

So the reduction in the heat loss = (14.8 – 5.8)/14.8 = 0.608 = 61 %

31
 Example (2): Calculation of the heat load in summer
Calculate the size of air-conditioning device (ton of refrigeration) required to cool a room
of 6 m x 4m x 3m before and after the insulation. Note that the wall and the roof materials
are shown in the figures below. Neglect the effect of radiation and convection heat
transfer. Add 3000 W to the total load due to the heat gained through windows,
ventilation, occupants and equipment.

Wall section Roof section

Kplaster=1, Kbrick=0.5, Kgypsum=0.8, Kpolyurethane=0.02, KRC=2, Kconcrete tiles=0.8

Solution:

• Before insulation
- Walls
Plaster R1 = x1/k1 = 0.02/1 = 0.02
Brick R2 = x2/k2 = 0.24/0.5 = 0.48
Gypsum R3 = x3/k3 = 0.01/0.8 = 0.0125
Total resistance R = R1 + R2 + R3 = 0.5125
U = 1 / R = 1.95 W/m2.K
A = (6*3*2) + (4*3*2) = 60 m2
Q = U A (Ti-To) = 1.95 * 60 * (45-28) = 1990 W

32
- Roof
Concrete tiles R1 = x1/k1 = 0.1/0.8 = 0.125
Reinforced con. R2 = x2/k2 = 0.2/2 = 0.1
Gypsum R3 = x3/k3 = 0.01/0.8 = 0.0125
Total resistance R = R1 + R2 + R3 = 0.2375
U = 1 / R = 4.21 W/m2.K
A = 6*4 = 24 m2
Q = U A (Ti-To) = 4.21 * 24 * (50-30) = 2021 W

Qtotal = Qwalls + Qroof + Qothers = 1990 + 2021 + 3000 = 7011 W

Load = Qtotal / 3500 = 7011/ 3500 = 2 TR

• After insulation
- Walls
Polyurethane Rp = xp/kp = 0.05/0.02 = 2.5
Total resistance R = 0.5125 + 2.5 = 3.0125
U = 1 / R = 0.332 W/m2.K
Q = U A (Ti-To) = 0.332 * 60 * (45-28) = 338 W

- Roof
Polyurethane Rp = xp/kp = 0.05/0.02 = 2.5
Total resistance R = 0.2375 + 2.5 = 2.7375
U = 1 / R = 0.365 W/m2.K
Q = U A (Ti-To) = 0.365 * 24 * (50-30) = 175 W

Qtotal = Qwalls + Qroof + Qothers = 338 + 175 + 3000 = 3513 W

Load = Qtotal / 3500 = 3513/ 3500 = 1 TR

33
1.12 Electricity Demand Reduction
The use of insulation keeps the indoor temperature stable as well as reduces the thermal
loads and thus the amount of electricity demand. Usually, the electricity consumption is
accounted in (kWh). In order to calculate the Annual Energy Demand (AED), the
following equation is used:
AED = Qtotal * N / 100

Where N is the number of days under use

The amount of the annual consumption of electric power determines the building
performance. The building performance factor could be calculated from the following
relationship depending on the floor area:
BPF = AED / Floor Area

The building performance factor (BPF) is used to determine the type of building in terms
of energy consumption, where high-energy building consumes more than (250 kWh/m2)
per year while medium-energy building consumes an average between (100-200 kWh/m2)
per year and low-energy building consumes less than (50 kWh/m2) per year.

Figure (1.8) Energy classification standards

34
1.13 Reduce Oil Consumption
It is found that roughly about 3,000 liters of oil equivalent each year are burned to
produce electricity for heating or cooling for uninsulated house. This could be saved up to
60% through the using of thermal insulation techniques. The approximate equation to
determine the relationship between energy demand and the annual oil consumption in
(liters/m2) of floor area is:
Oil Consumption = 1.5 * Exp (BPF/120)

1.14 Greenhouse Effect

Greenhouse gas is any compound gas in the atmosphere that is capable to absorb infrared
and keeping the heat from escaping out of the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases are
responsible of the phenomenon of global warming.

Figure (1.9) Greenhouse gases

The sector of residential building has the major impact on the increase of greenhouse
gases and it is considered as the most damage to the climate. The traditional house (non-
insulated) causes the emission of more than 7,000 kilograms of carbon dioxide CO2 into
the atmosphere each year. The approximate equation to determine the relationship
between energy demand and the annual CO2 emission in (kg/m2) of floor area is:
CO2 Emission = 3.5 * Exp (BPF/120)

35
Example (3): Extra calculations for oil consumption and CO2 emission
A house of 10 m x 5 m x 3 m dimensions has insulated walls and ceiling, as shown in the
figure. Neglect the effect of radiation and convection heat transfer. Add 4000 W due to
the heat gained through other sources. Calculate:
1. Total heat transmitted through the building.
2. Annual electricity consumption in the building
as a result of cooling (Suppose the use of air-
conditioning for 120 days).
3. Efficiency of the building.
4. Oil consumption in power plant as a result of
the annual consumption.
5. CO2 emissions in power plant.
Kplaster=1, KEPS=0.05, Kthermostone=0.3, Kgypsum=0.8

Solution:
1) Heat transfer
Plaster R1 = x1/k1 = 0.02/1 = 0.02
EPS R2 = x2/k2 = 0.04/0.05 = 0.8
Thermostone R3 = x3/k3 = 0.24/0.3 = 0.8
Gypsum R4 = x4/k4 = 0.02/0.8 = 0.025
Total resistance R = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 = 1.645
U = 1 / R = 0.608 W/m2.K
A = (10*3*2) + (5*3*2) + (10*5) = 140 m2 total area of walls and roof
Q = U A (Ti-To) = 0.608 * 140 * (48-25) = 1957 W

2) Annual Electricity Demand

Qtotal = 1957 + 4000 = 5957 W
AED = Qtotal * N / 100 = 5957 * 120 / 100 = 7148 kWh

3) BPF = AED / Floor Area = 7148 / 50 = 143 kWh/m2 medium energy house
4) Oil Consumption = 1.5 * Exp (BPF/120) = 1.5 * Exp (143/120) = 5 liters/m2
5) CO2 Emission = 3.5 * Exp (BPF/120) = 12 kg/m2

36
1.15 Thermal Images
Thermal images can be captured using thermal cameras like: FLIR, FLUKE and MSA. A
thermo-graphic image is used to illustrate the difference between the well and poorly
insulation levels. Heat loss through the wall is highlighted by several colors. The amount
of radiation emitted increases with temperature, therefore warm objects appears in red
color against blue colors for cool objects.

Question: Thermal images of a building have been captured in the winter, as shown in
the figure below. Explain your understanding.

a. Before insulation b. After insulation

Answer: In image (a), where there is no insulation, heat is transferred easily through the
walls and other building elements. Thus, the outer faces close to be red and yellow. On
the other hand, in image (b) after insulation, heat is accumulated inside and the outer
faces have the same ambient temperature, thus appeared in blue and green.

37
1.16 Economical Effect
From an economical point of view, the quality of insulation materials is chosen to satisfy
a balance between the reduction in energy consumption and added cost due to insulation.
It has found that super insulation of the building increases the cost of construction up to
20%, but this amount would be recovered as a result of lower electricity bills in a few
years. To make this process more economical, thermal insulation of the building must be
chosen carefully according to the following factors:

- The amount of insulation materials (areas and thicknesses required).

- The cost of insulation materials and labor costs (installation cost).
- The amount of energy saved for suitable period of time. Hence, the money saved.

The type of climate is directly affecting the need for insulation. In different climates, the
location of insulation and the reasons for insulating vary. Hot climates typically do not
need the same level of insulation as cold and mild climates. Cold climates that require a
lot of heating require high levels of insulation in the main areas of the home: roof, walls,
floors, and basement.
There are a few alternatives to the polyurethane foam and wool products used in
insulation processes. Many people believe that foam and glasswool can be hazardous to
their health and for environment. Some eco-friendly insulation options are available on
the market include: cellulose, sheep’s wool, cork, and natural fibers.

However, the revenue of insulation (RI) equals to the cost of air-conditioning used for a
certain period of time without insulation (CWO) minus the cost of air-conditioning used
with insulation (CW) minus the cost of the insulation (CI).

RI = CWO – CW - CI

Insulating the home saves the average energy by 40-60% for heating and cooling. This
will keep the money by 30-50%. Some countries have developed a policy to reduce the
electricity bills for low-energy homes as an encouragement. The following table shows
average prices of some insulators.

38
 Table (1.8) Average costs of some common insulators
Item Insulation Material Cost ($/m2) for each cm thickness
1 Alucobond 20
2 Asbestos 8
3 Asphalt 2
4 Cellulose 1.5
5 Cement 6
6 Clay 0.7
7 Coal 2
8 Cotton 3
9 Cork (EPS) 1.5
10 Glass Fiber 2.5
11 Glass Wool 2.5
12 Gypsum Plaster 3
13 Perlite 4
14 Polystyrene 3
15 Polyurethane 6
16 Rubber 2
17 Wood 15
18 Wool 8
19 Granite 18
20 GRC 10
21 Limestone 12
22 Sandstone 12
23 Marble 18
24 Basalt 12

1.17 Useful Applications

There are some tools used to obtain the contribution of thermal insulation to energy saving, fuel
consumption and CO2 emissions. The course included 2 hours of computer-lab training for the
following applications:

• Iraqi Passive House Planning Package (IPPP): It is a visual basic based design tool
that is used to find complete energy balance of passive or active buildings in Iraq. The
application is very responsible for the hot climate zone of Iraq. It includes the following
features:
- Meteorological data (18 cities in Iraq)
- Properties library for different construction materials and insulations
- Cooling and heating load calculation for residential building
- Electricity power consumption

39
- Contribution of renewable energy
- Indoor air quality and ventilation system
- Passive house standards verification
- Oil consumption
- CO2 emission
- Cost analysis

Figure (1.10) Main form of IPPP application

40
• RETScreen: is a clean energy management software system for energy efficiency,
renewable energy and cogeneration project feasibility analysis as well as ongoing energy
performance analysis. RETScreen 4 is an Excel-based clean energy project analysis
software tool that helps to determine the technical and financial viability of potential
clean energy projects. The application includes the following features:

Figure (1.11) Main form of RETScreen application

• More information are available on the site: http://www.retscreen.net/

41
1.18 Techniques of Materials in Energy Saving
With the constantly changing environment around us, it’s important to be
environmentally aware and active. It is even more important when consider how much
money it could save by building a green home. The methods and ways are going about
changing the home from an emission-producing powerhouse into more of a greenhouse.
Everything is available in order to save energy can be implemented in creating a green
space. In the long run, going green will save lots of money; the initial renovations needed
to go green can sometimes be costly. Nowadays, there are many techniques to invest the
natural materials and the parallel techniques in energy saving, such as: super insulation,
avoiding thermal bridges, advantage of thermal mass, phase change materials, glow
materials and smart materials.

1. Super insulation: is an approach to satisfy low energy building design that

dramatically reduces heat loss (and gain) by using much higher levels of insulation and
airtightness than normal. Super insulated buildings typically include:
• Very high levels of insulation (about 0.15 for walls and 0.1 W/m²·K for roof in SI U-
values)

• Details to ensure insulation continuity where walls meet roofs, foundations, and other
walls.

• Airtight construction, especially around doors and windows to prevent air infiltration
pushing heat in or out.

• Heat recovery ventilation system to provide fresh air.

• Low-e double or triple glazed windows.

• Much smaller than conventional heating system, sometimes just a small backup
heater.

• Usage of renewable energy sources.

42
Figure (1.12) Ways to satisfy super insulation

43
2. Avoiding thermal bridges: in some assemblies in the building envelope heat transfers
more than through the construction materials due to higher thermal conductivity. Such
regions are called thermal bridges. They are clearly noticed in the junctions between
windows and walls, doors and walls, walls and floors, walls and roofs and between
different walls. A thermal bridge increases heat loss through the structure, and in some
cases causes surface condensation or surface mould. The designer should identify and
treat all thermal bridges in the construction on site using suitable thermal insulators like
glasswool and EPS. However, good solutions to avoid thermal bridges for several
situations are described in figure below.

Figure (1.13) Avoiding thermal bridges

44
3. Advantage of thermal mass: where thermal mass is a term to describe the ability of a
material to absorb and store heat energy. A lot of heat energy is required to change the
temperature of high density materials like concrete, bricks, tiles and stones. They are
therefore said to have high thermal mass. Lightweight materials such as timber have
low thermal mass. The thermal mass will absorb thermal energy when the surroundings
are higher in temperature than the mass, and give thermal energy back when the
surroundings are cooler, without reaching thermal equilibrium. Scientifically, thermal
mass is equivalent to thermal capacitance or heat capacity, the ability of a body to
store thermal energy. Thermal mass may also be used for bodies of water, machines or
techniques like Trombe wall. Designers seek to find more active thermal mass like
Zeolite mineral.

Figure (1.14) Application of thermal mass in heating

4. Phase change materials (PCM): Those materials that are consequently oscillating
between liquid and solid phases, hence absorbing or releasing the heat depending on the
surrounding temperature. Many substances that can act as phase change materials such as
paraffin and salt hydrates. These materials could be used in moderate warm climate where
the ambient air is hot at the daytime and cool nightly. In the warm daytime, this material
absorbs the heat from indoor air and turns to be in the liquid state. In the cold night, the
material releases the heat and turns to be in the solid state again. By repeating this
process, the indoor air temperature remains stable without electricity.

45
 Figure (1.15) PCM behavior

National Gypsum has produced a phase change drywall with the following specifications:
• The phase change material is Micronal Paraffin
• Tiny spheres of paraffin (5-10 micrometers in diameter) are encapsulated in acrylic
shells, and these are mixed with the gypsum in drywall.
• Melting temperature is 24 oC and could be operated till 32 oC.
• Heat capacity is 125 W/m2.

Figure (1.16) Micronal paraffin as PCM in a dry wall

46
5. Glow materials: in some materials, light or heat is absorbed daytime and released
slowly in the form of light at night. The process is called phosphorescence. These
materials are used for "glow-in-the-dark" mechanism, where particles called
luminophores (phosphorescence, fluorescence, Zinc sulfide, Strontium aluminate) are
mixed with the asphalt. It collects energy from the sun during daytime. At night, it emits
the energy to glow the path for up to 10 hours.

Figure (1.17) Application of glow materials

47
6. Smart materials: Smart materials are designed to achieve certain functions by
controlling some properties of it like: temperature, moisture, electrical and stress. In
the field of energy saving, companies try to design what so called "smart window"
that controls the amount of light and heat that enters a space. The smart glass includes
some polymers and crystals. In clear mode an electrical current is passed through the
PDLC (Polymer Dispersed Liquid Crystal) interlayer which aligns the microscopic
crystals along a number of parallel axes, thus allowing vision and light through the
glass. When the temperature goes high it prevents the heat through in. actual thermal
image shows that the smart glass acts like insulation reflecting heat back.

Figure (1.18) Application of smart materials

48
1.19 Thermal Insulation in High Temperature Applications
Thermal insulation is important in high temperature applications such as furnaces and hot
pipes. The use of high temperature insulation can ensure that the heat is not transferred to
the outer body, reducing the risk of burns to operators. There is a range of materials that
are used as insulation materials in these applications, such as: fiberglass, calcium silicate,
asbestos, perlite and ceramics.

Example (4): Insulation for furnace

A furnace wall made of brick has 24 cm thickness (k=0.5 w/m.K), as shown in the figure
below. What is the thickness of asbestos (k=0.12 w/m.K) required to keep the external
face of the wall less than or equal to 40 oC, if the heat rate is 400 W/m2. Find also the
interference temperature.

Solution:

Q = U A ∆T = A ∆T / R

400 = (1) (900-40) / (0.24/0.5 + x /0.12)

x = 0.2 m = 20 cm

To find the interference temperature (Tf);

Q = U A ∆T = A ∆T / R

400 = (1) (900-Tf) / (0.24/0.5)

Tf = 708 oC

49
Example (5): Insulation for pipe

Find also the critical thickness of the insulation if external convection heat coefficient is 5
W/m.K.

Solution:

q = U A ∆T = A ∆T / R

To find the critical thickness of the insulation;

rc = k / h = 0.2/5 = 0.04 m = 4 cm

50
 Exercises No. (1)
Q1) Complete the following sentences:
1. The polyurethane (PU) has better thermal insulation than the polyethylene (PE) due to
its lower ------------- property.
2. The polystyrene is a good thermal insulator, and it could be found as expanded
polystyrene (EPS) and -------------.
3. In a cold climate, the thermal insulation is covered the --------------- face of the walls.
4. In a hot climate, the thermal insulation is covered the --------------- face of the walls.
5. The material that absorbs heat in daytime and releases it overnight is called -------------.
6. ------------- is a term using to describe a region in the building where the heat is
transferred more than others.
7. In order to eliminate the radiation heat transfer, the thermal insulator material is
covered by ---------------- layer.
Q2) What are the advantages of thermal insulation?
Q3) What are the properties that affect the performance of thermal insulator?
Q4) Thermal images of different glasses in a building have been captured outside a house
in the summer, as shown in the figure. Describe the features of these images according to
your understanding.

Q5) Air could not be used individually as a thermal insulator instead of solid insulators
even though its thermal conductivity is low. Why?

51
Q6) Define the following terms: thermal mass, PCM, thermal bridge, thermal resistance,
overall heat transfer coefficient, thermal load.
Q7) Select the right image for each of the following insulators:
1. Glasswool, 2. Expanded polystyrene (EPS), 3. Polyurethane panels, 4. Polycarbonate

A B C D

Q8) Calculate the size of air-conditioning (tons) required to cool a room of 7 m x 4 m x

3.5 m before and after the insulation. Note that the materials of the walls and the roof are
shown in the figures below. Neglect the effect of radiation and convection heat transfer.
Add 3500 W to the total load due to the heat gained through windows, ventilation,
occupants and equipment.
Kplaster=1, Kbrick=0.5, Kgypsum=0.8, Kpolystyrene=0.08, KRC=2, Kconcrete tiles=0.8

Wall section Roof section

52
53
Q11) A room of 8 x 5 x 3 m3 has different construction materials as shown in the figure
below. What is the difference in air-conditioning if EPS is replaced by PU. The additional
heat due to other sources is 4000 W. (∆T=22 oC).
KPlaster=1, KEPS=0.05, KGypsum=0.8, KBrick=0.5, KR.C.=2, KFiberglass=0.06, KPU =0.02

Q12) A house has composite walls, as shown in the figure. Neglect the effect of radiation
and convection heat transfer. Calculate the thickness of EPS required to save the energy
by 50%.
Kplaster=1, KEPS=0.05, Kthermostone=0.3, Kgypsum=0.8

54
Q13) A house has a composite wall structure, as shown in the figure. Neglect the effect of
radiation and convection heat transfer. What would be the internal surface temperature
(Ti) after adding 5 cm of polyurethane insulation, where the energy has been saved by
60%. (Kplaster=1, Kbrick=0.5, Kgypsum=0.8, KPU=0.03)

Q14) Thermal images have been captured inside a house in the summer, as shown below.
Describe them.

55
56
 Chapter Two
Acoustic Insulation

57
58
 Chapter Two
Acoustic Insulation

2.1 Definition of Acoustic Insulation

Acoustic insulators are those materials that prevent, reduce or absorb the sound. They are
commonly referred as soundproofing materials Sound is transmitted in form of pressure
waves through the air where we can distinguish various voices as well as the noise. Sound
travels also through solid objects. The continuous sounds surrounding mankind may lead
to nervous tension and affect the behavior and action of people. Therefore, environmental
engineering identified appropriate sound levels for living and working. Since, it is easy of
sound transmission through concrete parts, thus, it should always control the design of the
building and select the most appropriate soundproofing materials. The insulation of
building prevents the transmission of sound outside or inside and from room to another.

2.2 Architectural Procedures to Control the Acoustics

A proper architectural design helps in minimizing many costly techniques of noise control
in buildings. Noise can be control by:
1. Planning methods of determining optimum home position relative to sources of
external sounds such as streets, markets and factories as well as the correct orientation of
windows, doors, etc.
2. Design methods for internal spaces of the building. The arrangement of rooms must be
made in such a way that sensitive rooms are away from the noise and the less sensitive
rooms are toward or closer to the noise source.
3. Methods of choosing perfect soundproofing material.

2.3 Objective of Acoustic Insulation

There are two main types of sound insulation in buildings: airborne insulation that
produced into the air, and impact insulation that used to decrease the upper floors sounds.
So the objectives of sound insulation are:
1. Prevent transmission of sound from outside or between the partitions through walls and
ceiling.
2. Prevent the transmission of vibrations by machinery parts.
3. Save building materials or facilities.
4. Privacy

59
2.4 Procedures of Acoustic Insulation
Sound is transmitted through walls and floors by waves thus setting the structure into
vibration. This vibration could be avoided by:
1. Walls: using wall tiles and insulating materials such as cork, glass wool and
polyurethane foam.
2. Roof: using insulators such as plastic sheets, secondary or ceiling panels, perlite and
vermiculite.
3. Dampers: some rubbers, fiberglass or certain panels could be placed under vibrating
machines or inside the room. The pieces of furniture help to absorb amount of sounds.
4. Avoid acoustic bridge: it is a term describes the region that allows the transmission of
sound a result of the damage in insulator or in case of absence it basically. One of these
areas is the joint link between the walls and the ceiling or between the walls and floor
slabs.

2.5 Classification of Materials with Respect to Sound

The incident sound upon a surface could be distributed into three main parts. The first
part is reflected from the surface, the second part is absorbed by the surface while the last
part is transmitted across the surface to inside. It could say that materials are divided with
respect to the sound into:
1. Reflective materials: these have rigid surfaces thus reflect the majority of sound
without transmission or absorption, such as ceramic tiles and glass.
2. Absorbing materials: these are quite porous such as loose materials. They interact with
sound passing through them, converting the vibrations into heat. They reduce sound
energy in an enclosed cavity as sound repeatedly reflects between the enclosing surfaces
and passes through the sound-absorbing material many times. Each pass-through causes a
small decrease in energy, with the cumulative effect being significant.

Figure (2.1) Distribution of sound

60
2.6 Features of Sound Absorbing Materials
Most of these materials are porous materials whether they are foamed or fibrous.
Absorbing material is composed of channels, cracks or cavities which allow
the sound entering the material and reflect within it. Sound energy is dissipated due to
thermal loss caused by the friction of air molecules with the pore walls, and due to
viscous loss caused by the viscosity of air. Usually these materials have the following
structures:

a) Fully reticulated foam

b) Partially reticulated foam
c) Fully fibrous
d) Partially fibrous

Figure (2.2) Structures of porous materials

61
Porous materials have different behaviors with sound depending on the frequency.
- At high frequencies (>2000 Hz), porous materials have high acoustic impedance
and most of incident energy is absorbed by the pores.
- At low frequencies (100-2000 Hz), porous materials behave like stiffness layers.
This leads to large reflection and little absorption.

In general, increasing the thickness provides better absorption of the wave and reflect
less energy. The thickness of the materials has direct relationship at low frequency
range, but it is insignificant for high frequency. Although thicker material does not
prevail at higher frequency due to the coincidence dip phenomenon, it was still
noticeable that at 2000Hz, the 50 mm material had almost 20% better absorption than
the 10 mm material.

Acoustic insulator is evaluated by its α-value, acoustic absorption coefficient, which

is usually between 0.5-1.0 for porous materials. This value depends mainly on some
important parameters of porous materials such as:

- Porosity: The ratio of pores volume to total volume. Typical porosity is between
0.85-0.95 for effective materials. The presence of pores or voids plays a crucial
role in the medium for sound wave dissipation.
- Flow resistivity: The ratio of pressure gradient across certain thickness of the
material to flow velocity. Flow resistivity represents the resistance to airflow
within the material. The higher the airflow resistivity, the less air permeability
there is. Typical resistivity is between 2,000-50,000 Ns/m4 for porous materials.
- Bulk density: The mass of insulation material (fibrous layers) to the total volume.
Density influences the acoustic impedance as the impedance determines the
reflection of materials. It was found that a high density material increases the
sound absorption due to the increasing of mass.

62
2.7 Commercial Insulators
Acoustic insulators provide acoustic treatment that reduce noise and improve the acoustic
comfort for large volume spaces and buildings. These spaces create echoes, extra noise,
and sound reflections. Most of these soundproofing materials come as panel or packages.
They are widely used to optimize sound quality in: classrooms, music rooms, factories,
airports, train stations, gymnasiums, restaurants, auditoriums, theaters, conference rooms,
boardrooms, offices and open spaces. The acoustic panels, soundproofing panels, and
sound baffles are either: wall mounted, ceiling mounted, curtains or hangings. The
following materials are commonly available as soundproofing:
1. Acoustic tiles: these tiles have the capability of sound absorption, durability and ease of
cleaning. Often, they are made of composite materials (fibers or particles mixed with
granular resin) such as fiberglass, that results from the mixing of glass wool with epoxy.
These tiles are used for the absorption of sounds of machines.
2. Glass wool or rock wool: they are characterized by their ability to absorb sound as well
as thermal insulation. They can be mounted on the walls and ceiling. These could be used
in commercial and industrial buildings.
3. Polyurethane foam: this is available in form of spray, layers and tiles.
4. Cellulose panels: which are compressed and have perforated faces.
5. Gypsum boards: it can be added to the surface.
6. Rubber: it is available in many forms like: natural rubber, industrial chloroprene
(neoprene or polyisoprene) and mass loaded vinyl (MLV). These are available as layers
and rolls. They usually use to absorb sound and vibrations.
7. Natural cork or synthetic cork (EPS): they are available as slabs.
8. Plastic packaging sheets: these layers are fit for ceilings in factories where large
dimensions. These are resistant to dust as well as the moisture.
9. Perlite: a white color substance taken from the volcanic rocks and it is a good insulator
for sound and heat. It gives the surface a reliable fire-resistant. It is used to insulate
ceiling and walls.
10. Viscoelastic damping compound (VDC): a viscous resin fast to dry, used in flooring
damping, absorption of the noise as well as to absorb the vibrations of machinery parts
and ducts.
11. Fabrics, leather, carpet and sponge materials.
12. Metallic panel: it is similar in work to the silencer where it dissipates the undesired
sounds and then absorbs it by internal acoustic insulation materials such as fiberglass.

63
Polyurethane (32 kg/m3) Rock wool (60 kg/m3)

Acoustic tiles (1250 kg/m3) Metallic panel

Fiberglass (48 kg/m3) Mass loaded vinyl (16 kg/m3)

Figure (2.3) Sound insulators

64
2.8 Applications of Soundproofing
Sound can transmits through walls, floors, ceilings, windows, doors, openings, and more.
Soundproofing aims to reduce transmitted sound and absorb the noises in many
applications, especially:
• Residential buildings
• Working offices
• Theatres and studios
• Airports
• Gymnasiums
• Industrial places

Soundproofing for residential building and working office requires insulation for the
walls to reduce the noises. If the walls are constructed from concrete or heavy materials,
then soundproofing would be unnecessary. Note, that thermal insulation that installed in
advance can play as absorptive sound materials so no need for acoustic insulation. For
multi-floors building, the floor should be insulated by rubbery materials to reduce impact
transmission. For theaters, airports and sport halls, the following procedure is required:
- Cover the walls by acoustic panels.

- Use rubber pads for the floor.

- Use ceiling baffles to dissipate the sounds.

- Seal the openings by suitable weather strips.

Below are general tips to reduce transmission of exterior noise into a building;
- Replacing of prime windows and doors.
- Installing acoustical storm windows.
- Adding wall and attic insulation.
- Baffling the ceiling.
- Modifying ventilation access.

65
Figure (2.4) Applications of soundproofing

66
2.9 Acoustical Engineering
Sound is a kind of mechanical energy. Sound travels from one place to another in the
form of pressure waves occurring vibrations in the air and building materials. Because of
the longitudinal motion of the air particles, there are regions in the air where the air
particles are compressed together and other regions where the air particles are spread
apart. These regions are known as compressions and rarefactions, respectively. The
compressions are regions of high air pressure while the rarefactions are regions of low air
pressure, as shown in figure below. The sound does not move in a vacuum but only in a
medium. The science of acoustics describes the source of the sound, its transmission and
sensing of it.

Figure (2.5) Regions of compressions and rarefactions by sound

There are some basic definitions in the acoustics science, including:

Type of sound: it is the property that distinguishes between different types of sounds. For
example: the voice of a man, an animal, a machine, etc.

Quality of sound: it is the property that characterized the pitch change to the same
source. It depends on the frequency of sound waves which characterized the loudness of
sounds, such as the difference between the sound of men and women and the difference
between mature and young voices, as well as sound in joy and sorrow.

Pitch: is the subjective response to frequency. Low frequencies are identified as "low-
pitched", while high frequencies are identified as "high-pitched". As few sounds of
ordinary experience are of a single frequency (for example, the quality of the sound of a
musical instrument is determined by the presence of many frequencies other than the

67
fundamental frequency), it is of interest to consider what determines the pitch of a
complex note.

Sound velocity: also called the speed of sound which is the distance travelled per unit
time for a sound wave as it propagates through an elastic medium. Sound waves travel
slowly through gases, faster through liquids, and fastest through solids. At 20 °C,
the speed of sound in air is 343 m/s. The relationship between the speed of sound, its
frequency, and wavelength is given by:
V=fλ

In fluid dynamics, the speed of sound in a fluid medium (gas or liquid) is used as a
relative measure for the speed of an object moving through the medium. The ratio of the
speed of an object (u) to the speed of sound (a) in the fluid is called “Mach number”.
Objects moving at speeds greater than 1 Mach are said to have supersonic speeds.

M=u/a

Where γ is the heat index of air (1.4), R is the air constant (287.1 J/kg.K) and T is the
medium temperature in (K).

Sound frequency: it is the number of times that air particles fluctuate per second as a
result of sound energy passed. It is expressed in the unit of Hertz (Hz). Most of the
sounds that we hear are a mixture of frequencies. Sound waves are classified into:
1. Infrasonic: waves that have less than 20 Hz frequency.
2. Sonic: waves that have frequencies between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz.
3. Ultrasonic: waves that have frequencies above 20,000 Hz.

Sound power: it is the energy carried by the acoustic wave in a period of time. And it is
measured in watts.

Sound intensity: it is the property that differentiates between sounds in terms of being
high or low. Mathematically, it is the amount of acoustic energy on a unit area. Human
ear can feel a sound has 10-12 W/m2 intensity as minimum. The highest intensity of sound
within earshot is 1 W/m2. So, Iref = 10-12 W/m2

Sound Intensity Level (SIL): The sound intensity value is too small and it is difficult to
compare with, so it is looking for a value more acceptable like (Decibel) which is
symbolized by (dB). The lowest sound level value is zero dB. The sound level could be
accounted from the relation:
SIL = 10 log (I/Iref)

68
Based on that, the sound is classified in terms of the level of intensity to:
• 0 - 40 dB : Quiet
• 40 - 80 dB : Noisy
• 80 - 120 dB : Very noisy
• > 120 db : Intolerable

Sound pressure: it is the change of atmospheric pressure in a region as a result of the

passage of sound. The less sound pressure feeling by human ear is about 2x10-5 Pa and
this is called the hearing threshold. At a pressure of about 20 Pa the ear starts feeling of
pain.

Sound Pressure Level (SPL): it is a value similar to the sound intensity level, and also
measured in decibels. It is calculated from the relation:
SPL = 20 log (P/Pref)

Table (3.1) Properties of some sound sources

69
2.10 Sound Transmission
It means the ability of sound to move across the building from one part to another. There
are several ways of sound moving which are:
- Airborne transmission: it referred to the sound transmitted through windows and
openings. These can be processed by good sealing.
- Impact transmission: it means the voices of people movement as well as of the machines
on the upper floor. These can be treated by absorbing layers and dampers such as carpet
and rubber.
- Flanking transmission: it means the sound transmission through the parts of the building
(concrete, metal, wood or glass). These are processed using insulating materials. Any part
of the building has a number represents the amount of resistance to the permeability of
sound called transmission loss.

Transmission loss: is a measure of the sound difference in decibels through the barrier.
For example, if we have a sound of 100 decibels on a side of the wall. Then we measured
this sound on the other side and we found it is 55 dB. Then we say that the wall has 45 dB
transmission loss. The higher value indicates good resistance and good acoustic
insulation. This value varies depending on the frequency of the sound source.

Figure (2.6) Transmission loss

Sound Transmission Class (STC): is the amount of transmission loss through a barrier
or a wall at a sound frequency of 500 Hz. Sound transmission class is a key factor in the
design and represents an indication of the building element performance to resistance the
sound transmission through it.

70
 Table (2.2) STC values of some building elements

Partition type STC

Single glass window 27
Double glass window 30
Single layer of 1 cm drywall on each side, wood studs, no insula0on (typical interior
33
wall)
Single layer of 1 cm drywall on each side, wood studs, fiberglass insula0on 39
10 cm hollow CMU (Concrete Masonry Unit) 44
20 cm thermostone wall with plastering for both sides 44
Double layer of 1 cm drywall on each side, wood studs, ba5 insulation in wall 45
Single layer of 1 cm drywall, glued to 15 cm lightweight concrete block wall, painted
46
both sides
15 cm Hollow CMU (Concrete Masonry Unit) 46
20 cm hollow CMU (Concrete Masonry Unit) 48
25 cm hollow CMU (Concrete Masonry Unit) 50
20 cm hollow CMU (Concrete Masonry Unit) with 5 cm Z-Bars and 1 cm drywall on
52
each side
20 cm concrete floor with plastering for both sides 53
Single layer of 1 cm drywall, glued to 20 cm dense concrete block wall, painted both
54
sides
20 cm hollow CMU with 5 cm wood Furring, 5 cm fiberglass insula0on and 1 cm
54
drywall on each side
24 cm brick wall with plastering for both sides 54
Double layer of 1 cm drywall on each side, on staggered wood stud wall, ba5
55
insulation in wall
Double layer of 1 cm drywall on each side, on wood stud wall, ba5 insula0on 59
Double layer of 1 cm drywall on each side, on wood/metal stud walls (1 cm space),
63
double batt insulation
20 cm Hollow CMU with 8 cm Steel Studs, fiberglass Insula0on and 1 cm drywall on
64
each side
20 cm concrete block wall with 1 cm drywall on steel stud walls, each side, insula0on
72
in cavities

71
2.11 Sound Absorption
Any substance has the ability to absorb sound in addition to its ability to reflect the sound.
The energy absorbed is converted into heat. Sound absorption factor is a value describes
the ability of sound absorption. The absorbance in porous materials is more than in dense
solids.

Coefficient of sound absorption: is the ratio between the energy absorbed by the surface
to the total energy incident up on the surface. The parameter is denoted by the symbol (α).

Table (2.3) Coefficients of sound absorption at differente frequences

Note: It can be seen from the table above that the absorption coefficient of the material
varies with the source frequency. In some cases, taking the average of these values is
preferred and this is what so-called Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC) which is
commonly used to describe the value of the absorbance of the insulating material.

Table (2.4) Noise reduction coefficient of some insulating materials

Material NRC
Acoustic tiles 0.8-0.9
Polyurethane 0.8-0.9
Mass vinyl 0.75
Glass wool 0.7
Asbestos 0.6
Mineral wool 0.65
EPS, XPS 0.3-0.4
Rubber 0.2

72
Absorption capacity: it represents the amount of acoustic units that can be absorbed by
the barrier or the wall. Sound absorption unit is called (Sabin). The absorption capacity
depends on the space area and absorption coefficient according to the relationship:
C=αxA

2.12 Noise Reduction (Attenuation)

The total amount of reduction in the acoustic energy as a result of reflection and
absorption when moving from a room to another or abroad is called the noise reduction.
This amount is expressed in the relationship:

NR = TL + 10 Log (C/A)

Where:

TL is the loss transmission of the walls

C is the absorption capacity of the room

A is the area of the separation wall

Note: in the design usually suppose a sound frequency value of 500 Hz which is still
within the range of the voices of people and cars, as shown in the figure below.

Figure (2.7) Relation between sound level and frequency

• So it could say that: TL = STC

73
 • In case of high ranges of frequencies, then it is acceptable to use the correction
chart as shown in the figure below.

Figure (2.8) Correction of STC values for many sound frequencies

2.13 Engineering Calculations

The problems chosen for the design are assigned for one type of sound transmission
which is the pure transmission from one room to another. It is required at the first to know
the dimensions of the room and the specification of the materials used. The acoustical
calculation provides a quick overview of the acoustics in a room, whether how much of
sound is absorbed by structure elements and the rest absorbed by the separated wall or
transmitted to other room. The acoustical calculation gives a precise overview of
absorption capacity, transmitted sound as well as other relevant information about
acoustics. Further corrections are required practically to ensure reliable results. In this
section the area of: walls, ceiling and floor are calculated and multiplied by their
absorption coefficient. Doors and windows may be ignored to simply the problem. The
calculation is repeated after the insulation, where the insulator material is usually added to
the separated wall. Here are some examples to show the effect of acoustic insulators.

74
Example (1): A conference hall of 10 m x 6 m x 3.5 m, has 3 walls of gypsum (α=0.05),
a big facade of glass (α=0.03), ceiling of plastic tiles (α=0.1) and floor of carpet (α=0.3).
An office is located next door to the hall, as shown in the figure.

Find:

a) Total absorption for the conference hall. (Absorption of furniture=20 Sabins)

b) Noise reduction for the office room. (STC of the separated wall is 48)
c) Total absorption for the conference hall if the separated wall is covered by acoustic
tiles (NRC=0.9)
d) Noise reduction for the office room after insulation. (STC of the separated wall
becomes 54)

Solution
a)
- Walls (gypsum) A = 10*3.5+6*3.5*2 = 77 m2
C = α x A = 0.05*77 = 4 Sabins
- Wall (glass) A = 10*3.5 = 35 m2
C = α x A = 0.03*35 = 1 Sabin
- Ceiling (plastic tiles) A = 10*6 = 60 m2
C = α x A = 0.1*60 = 6 Sabins
- Floor (carpet) A = 10*6 = 60 m2
C = α x A = 0.3*60 = 18 Sabins
Ctotal = Cwalls + Cceiling + Cfloor + Cfurniture =4+1+6+18+20 = 49 Sabins

75
b) NR = TL + 10 Log (C/A) = 48 + 10 Log (49/21) = 52 dB
c) Acoustic tiles A = 6*3.5 = 21 m2
C = NRC x A = 0.9*21 = 19 Sabins
Ctotal = 49+19 = 68 Sabins
d) NR = TL + 10 Log (C/A) = 54 + 10 Log (68/21) = 60 dB
Therefore, it is an excellent insulation.

Example (2): A living room of 6 m x 5 m x 3 m has the following features:

Element Material α Bed Room

Walls Plywood 0.2
Ceiling Gypsum 0.05
Floor Carpet 0.3 Living Room

If the sound source in living room is 70 dB, what is the sound level at the upper room:
1- Before insulation.
2- After insulating the ceiling by 5 cm glasswool (NRC=0.7).
Take into account that STC of the roof without insulation is (48) and with insulation is
(54). There is an additional absorption due to the furniture (15 Sabins).

Solution

1-Befor insulation
- Walls (plywood) A = 6*3*2+5*3*2 = 66 m2
C = α x A = 0.2*66 = 14 Sabins
- Ceiling (gypsum) A = 6*5 = 30 m2
C = α x A = 0.05*30 = 2 Sabins
- Floor (carpet) A = 6*5 = 30 m2
C = α x A = 0.3*30 = 9 Sabins
Ctotal = Cwalls + Cceiling + Cfloor + Cfurniture =14+2+9+15 = 40 Sabins
NR = TL + 10 Log (C/A) = 48 + 10 Log (40/30) = 50 dB
Sound level = Sound source – NR = 70 – 50 = 20 dB

2-After insulation
- Glasswool A = 6*5 = 30 m2
C = NRC x A = 0.7*30 = 21 Sabins
Ctotal = 40+21 = 61 Sabins
NR = TL + 10 Log (C/A) = 54 + 10 Log (61/30) = 57 dB
Sound level = Sound source – NR = 70 – 57 = 13 dB

76
2.14 Effectiveness of Absorption in Porous Materials
Energy dissipation occurs due to acoustic pressure fluctuations at the surface which pump
air into and out of the material. Friction between the air flow and the tortuous passages of
the material dissipate energy by friction to be heat. Materials in this category include
glasswool, foam and fabric. The variation of absorption coefficient with frequency for a
porous material is shown in figure below. The effectiveness depends on the thickness,
relative to the sound wavelength. In order to be effective (nearly anechoic) at a given
frequency, the material thickness must equal to at least ¼ of the wavelength.

Figure (2.9) Variation of absorption coefficient with frequency for a porous material

Example (3): Determine the thickness of a porous material suitable for 500 Hz sound.

Solution:
λ = V/f = 343/500 = 0.686 m
Thickness = ¼ of the wavelength = ¼ (0.686) = 0.171 m = 171 mm
From the figure, the material with 171 mm will absorb as maximum as 92% of the sound.

77
2.15 Reverberation Time
The reverberation time (RT) is the duration that sound requires dropping to a certain low
level (usually 60 dB below its original level) such that suitable acuity of the hearing to the
observer. The reverberant sound in an auditorium dies away with time as the sound
energy is absorbed by multiple interactions with the surfaces. The time for reverberation
depends upon the intensity of the sound was to begin with, the dimensions of the hall and
the reflective surfaces. The reverberation time can be modeled to permit an approximate
calculation. The choice of the relative intensity to use is of course arbitrary, but the 60 dB
range is about the range of dynamic levels for orchestral music. The
optimum reverberation time for a medium-sized, general purpose auditorium that is used
for both speech and music is 2 seconds. A classroom should be much shorter, about 1
second or less. For a recording studio it must be a minimum time (less than 0.5 second)
for clarity of recording.

Figure (2.10) Estimated reverberation time for many applications

Designers usually attempt to satisfy a reverberation time between (1.5-2.5) seconds for
music and orchestra halls, as shown in the table below.

78
 Table (2.5) RT-values of some famous halls in the world

Auditorium RT in seconds at 500 Hz

Royal Festival Hall, London 1.5
Severance Hall, Cleveland 1.7
Opera House, San Francisco 1.7
Carnegie Hall, New York 1.8
Symphony Hall, Boston 1.8
Musikvereinsaal, Vienna 2.0
Concertgebouw, Amsterdam 2.1
Royal Albert Hall, London 2.5

However, approximate reverberation time under 60 dB reduction can be calculated from

the Sabine formula:
RT = 0.16 V / C

Where:
C = Total absorption capacity
V = volume of the space

Example (4): What is the reverberation time for a space of 6x6x5 m3 where the ceiling
and walls have 0.1 absorption coefficient, while the ground is carpet (α=0.3). Then make
an evaluation according to the result, whether it is suitable as a classroom or a music hall.

Solution:
Cwalls = 0.1 x (6x5x4) = 12 S
Cceiling = 0.1 x (6x6) = 3.6 S
Cfloor = 0.3 x (6x6) = 10.8 S
C = Cwalls + Cceiling + Cfloor = 26.4 S
V = 6x6x5 = 180 m3
RT = 0.16 V / C = 0.16 x 180 / 26.4 = 1.09 s
According to the result, the design is suitable as a classroom not a hall.

79
2.16 Controlling the Impact Sound through Floors

An impact source, such as those created by footsteps or the moving of an object, sets up
vibrations directly on the floor, and spread it out over to the lower parts through
construction materials. Hence, floors should be insulated to reduce both impact and
airborne sounds. There are two principal ways of providing an acceptable finished floor
surface or topping by using:

1. Resilient layers (flexible): this way is used with concrete floors by layering a vinyl
or carpet. Recently, the attenuation of impact sound could be measured depending
on the level of impact insulation class (IIC). The higher the IIC, the better the
attenuation of impact. A 50 dB usually considered the minimum rating for occupant
satisfaction in residential buildings. Table below gives approximate IIC ratings for a
150-mm-thick concrete slab with various kinds of toppings.

Table (2.6) Approximate IIC ratings for a 150-mm-thick concrete slab

2. Floating floors: this way is usually used with ceramic tiles floor which consist of a
slab of rigid material supported on a mat or pad. The main idea behind the damping
of floating floor is the mass-spring system. The frequency of the system dominates
the vibrations due the impact, thus less frequency is seeking to get better impact
insulation. The frequency in (Hz) of such system is given by:

80
 160

Where:

s is the dynamic stiffness in (MN/m3)

m is the surface mass in (kg/m2)

The resonance frequency is acoustically the most important factor of floating floors. In
order to have good impact sound insulation, the resonance frequency should be as low as
possible. The goal is achieving f < 100 Hz. The resonance frequency of the floating floor
can be lowered by decreasing the dynamic stiffness of the material or increasing the mass
of the layer. Tests show that the stiffness of insulation material preferred to be less than
40 MN/m3 when it is used under a floating concrete floor in apartment building, as shown
in the figure below.

Figure (2.11) Selecting the stiffness of floating material

81
However, the dynamic stiffness of insulation materials (PU foam, EPS, rock wool, etc.) is
in the range of 5-45 MN/m3. Average values of stiffness for some insulation materials are
shown the table below.

Table (2.7) Dynamic stiffness for some insulation materials

Dynamic stiffness (MN/m3)

Material
For 5 cm thickness
Polyurethane 5
EPS 12
Glass wool, rock wool 15
PEVA 32
Epoxy (Elastic) 40
Rubber, MLV 45

Example (5): which one of the following materials is suitable to control the impact sound
for apartment building.

Dynamic stiffness (MN/m3)

Material Surface mass (kg/m2)
For 5 cm thickness
EPS 12 40
Rockwool 15 10
Rubber 40 60

Solution:

Use f 160

EPS f= 88 Hz
Rockwool f= 196 Hz
Rubber f= 130 Hz
EPS is suitable because it satisfies a frequency less than 100 Hz.

82
2.17 Controlling the Transmission across the Windows
Windows generally provide less sound insulation than the surrounding walls. Carefully
placing and sizing windows may reduce outdoor noise. Multi-glazing, perimeter sealing
and weather stripping are improving the sound transmission loss. The most common
types of standard operable windows now being installed in residential construction are
casements, horizontal sliders, vertical sliders and awnings. In an open position, casements
and awnings can deflect external noise into the living space. They should be planned to
open away from the dominant noise direction so there is some noise reduction from
deflection. Acoustical data about windows typically assumed that the composition of the
glazing was the primary influence on sound transmission properties. STC ratings for
typical windows vary from 25 to 40 depending on type, glazing, frame and airspace as
shown in table below.

Table (2.8) STC for typical windows

Composition Note STC

Glass 3 mm Regular type 25

Glass 3 mm;
Standard thermo-pane used in aluminum
airspace 19 mm; 28
casement windows
glass 3 mm
Glass 5 mm; Glazing composition designed for a sealed
airspace 38 mm; window or for the most economical 32
glass 5 mm sliding window
Glass 6 mm;
Maximizes acoustical performance of
airspace 9 mm; 40
aluminum, wood, PVC windows
glass 8 mm

2.18 Noise Pollution in Industrial

The steady increase in the noise level result in a permanent damage in the auditory
system, as well as some attendant symptoms like: reducing the heart rate, changing in
blood pressure and difficulty of breathing. As the psychological impact on the individual
worker, protrudes through the change the style of his sleep, thus accompanying fatigue in
the body which will affect the production efficiency of the working. If the worker is
exposed to a continuous noise (80 dB) during the period of his work, then that will lead to
loss 15 dB approximately in his hearing threshold during several years (i.e., he loses the
level of whisper). The sound level is measured using a device called sound level meter, as
shown in the figure below.

83
 Figure (2.12) Sound level meter

The prevention of noise pollution satisfying the industrial safety conditions required in
the lab, factory and warehouse. So, it must follow these steps:
1. Use suitable damper for high-vibration machines.
2. Use soundproofing for the purpose of absorption and dispersion of sounds.
3. Use of ear protectors as a prerequisite for workers.

Hearing protection or other means must reduce the noise levels to 85 dB on an eight-hour
time-weighted basis. However, OSHA has established permissible noise exposure limits
to help avoid the standard threshold shifts in working, as shown in the table.

Table (2.9) Noise exposure limits

84
Vibration pad (Neoprene or vinyl) Viscoelastic compound

Noise control baffles (fiberglass) Curtain

Figure (2.13) Noise dampers and baffles

85
Example (6): Noise control baffles of PVC are used to reduce the overall noise level in a
factory of (12m L x 6m W x 3.5m H) where they are suspended above the noise source.
Walls are made from concrete; ceiling is wooden, while the floor is covered by a carpet.
Find number of baffles that required to reduce the noise by 10 dB. Use the nomogram
chart below.

86
Solution:

1. Determine the total surface area:

12 x 3.5 x 2 = 84 (walls)
6 x 3.5 x 2 = 42 (walls)
12 x 6 x 1 = 72 (ceiling)
12 x 6 x 1 = 72 (floor)
Total Area = 270 m2

2. Point the area on the chart.

3. Select (medium) to describe the surfaces because there are 2 absorptive surfaces (wood
& carpet). And point that on the chart.

Note: Hard surface are: concrete, brick, marble and gypsum. Absorptive surface are:
wood and carpet.

Term Description
Hard 6 hard surfaces
Med. Hard 5 hard surfaces and 1 absorptive
Medium 4 hard surfaces and 2 absorptive
Med. Soft 3 hard surfaces and 3 absorptive
Soft 2 hard surfaces only or even one

4. Connect (area=270) and (medium) on the chart. Extend the line to connect the
reference line and then reflect it to reach noise reduction line at (10 dB).

5. Now, you can determine number of baffles required which is approximately (250).

87
2.19 Combining Noise Sources

Often in the factory, there are combinations of noises and sounds from many sources are
observed and they contribute to the total sound pressure as following:

Where (p) is the sound pressure.

Example (7): The noise level measured at a particular location in a factory for three
machines operating nearby are measured. The three sound pressure levels were (a) 90 dB,
(b) 88 dB and (c) 85 dB. Determine the effective SPL in the design.

Solution:

SPL = 20 log (P/Pref) , Pref = 2x10-5 Pa

a) 90 = 20 log (P1/2x10-5) → P1 = 0.632 Pa

b) 90 = 20 log (P2/2x10-5) → P2 = 0.502 Pa

c) 90 = 20 log (P3/2x10-5) → P3 = 0.356 Pa

Pt = 0.882 Pa

SPLt = 20 log (0.882 /2x10-5) = 92.2 dB

88
2.20 Measuring the Acoustic Performance of the Materials
a. Absorption coefficient
The absorption coefficient of the material can be determined using a “standing wave
tube” (also called “impedance tube”). It uses a small sample (typically 4” diameter) and
has limited validity and usefulness due to the small sample size and the difference
between a true normal incidence condition, and the actual incidence conditions (nearly
random) seen in most real installations. But it is still useful for comparison purposes. The
diameter of the tube must be smaller than ½ wavelength to insure plane wave sound
propagation. A 4” tube is good up to about 3300 Hz. For higher frequencies, a smaller
diameter tube is used.

Figure (2.14) Impedance tube for measuring the absorption coefficient

b. Noise reduction coefficient

The manufacturers are required to declare the noise reduction coefficient of their
products. The way to determine the coefficient is to test the material for various
frequencies and calculate the average value. It is required testing rooms that have a
dividing wall with a cutout (for example 30 cm by 40 cm) to insert the insulation layer.
On one side there is a sound source, and on the other side there is a sound level meter.
Now turn on the sound source at a certain frequency (for example 1000 Hz) without
insulation and measure the sound reading on the other side (for example 86.4 dB). Now
put the insulation material (for example 2 cm polyurethane) and take another reading ( for
example 63.3 dB). Hence, the sound drop (d) is 23.1 dB. To determine the coefficient of
sound reduction (C), for the recent sound drop, use the following formula:
"
1 10 !

#$.&
"
1 10 #' = 0.93

89
Therefore, the coefficient for this material combination at 1 kHz is (0.93). This test
should be repeated for different frequencies (125 Hz, 250 Hz, 500 Hz, 1 kHz, 2 kHz, and
4 kHz). Once the tests are done at the different frequencies, a table like the following can
by illustrated. The average value at different frequencies is (0.92) which is the NRC.

Frequency 125 Hz 250 Hz 500 Hz 1 kHz 2 kHz 4 kHz

Drop (dB) 19.4 21.6 22.0 23.1 22.9 22.1
Coefficient 0.89 0.92 0.92 0.93 0.93 0.92

c. Sound transmission class

A usual method that is used in the laboratory for the determination of the transmission
loss needs two rooms (source and receiving) with an opening in between. Each room may
have about 9 ft. high, 12 ft. wide, and 16 ft. long. The opening between the two rooms is
7 ft. high by 5 ft. wide. The tested wall or panel should be fitted upon the opening. The
measurements are taken at different frequencies, for example: 125, 250, 500, 1000, 2000,
and 4000 Hz. Sound transmission class (STC) can be calculated by taking the obtained
values over the range of 125 Hz to 4000 Hz and plotted on a graph. If the fitted graph is
closest to have 56 dB at 500 Hz, then the wall is said to have an STC rating of 56.

Figure (2.15) Finding the STC of a wall

90
2.21 Reducing of Earthquake Effects on Buildings
Earthquake directly affects ground shaking and turns to vibration across the building and
may cause damage to the structure. Special techniques are required to design buildings to
remain undamaged in a severe earthquake. This may render the building non-functional
after the earthquake, which may be problematic in some structures, like hospitals, which
need to remain functional after the earthquake. Two basic technologies are used to protect
buildings from damaging earthquake effects, which are:

i. Base Isolation:
The idea behind base isolation is to isolate the building from the ground in such a way
that earthquake waves are not transmitted up through the building, or at least greatly
reduced. The main feature of the base isolation technology is that it introduces flexibility
in the structure.
• The common type of base isolation is the fixed pad, as shown in figure below. In
this case, the isolators are designed with the foundation to absorb energy and thus
add damping to the system. As a result, a robust masonry or reinforced concrete
building becomes flexible. Several commercial brands of fixed pad isolators are
available in the market, and many of them look like large rubber pads. These
isolators are suitable for low buildings or medium-rise buildings rested on hard
soil underneath; high-rise buildings or buildings rested on soft soil are not
recommended.

Figure (2.16) Fixed pad base isolation

• Another concept of base isolation is building resting on frictionless rollers, as

shown in figure below. When the ground shakes, the rollers freely roll, but the
building above does not move. Thus, no force is transferred to the building due to
shaking of the ground; simply, the building does not affected by the earthquake.

91
 Figure (2.17) Rolling base isolation

• Pendulum bearings are seismic base isolation systems based on the principle of a
pendulum. They allow the structure to become horizontally displaced during an
earthquake, with seismic energy being dissipated by the friction between various
moving components. See figure below.

Figure (2.18) Pendulum bearing

92
ii. Seismic Dampers:
These are special devices introduced in the building to absorb the energy provided by the
ground (much like the way shock absorbers in motor vehicles absorb the impacts due to
undulations of the road). When seismic vibrations are transmitted through them, dampers
absorb part of energy by the hydraulic fluid and only little impact is transmitted to the
building. Common types of seismic dampers are: viscous dampers (energy is absorbed by
silicone-based fluid passing between piston-cylinder arrangement), friction dampers
(energy is absorbed by surfaces with friction between them rubbing against each other),
and yielding dampers (energy is absorbed by metallic components that yield). See the
figure below for different modes of dampers.

Figure (2.19) Seismic dampers

93
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 Exercises No. (2)
Q1) Complete the following sentences:

1. ------------ is a measure of the sound difference through the barrier.

2. Fiberglass could be used for sound insulation; it is composed from glasswool mixed
with ------------.

3. ------------ is a viscous resin fast to dry, used in damping, noise absorption as well as to
absorb the vibrations of machinery and ducts.
4. In the acoustic design, it is supposed a sound frequency value of ----------- which is still
within the range of the voices of people and cars.

Q2) Select the correct answer:

1. Sound transmits through the parts of the building by impact and -------------.
Choices: A. Radiation B. Airborne C. Conduction D. Flanking
2. Sound insulator usually covers ---------- surface of the wall.
Choices: A. Inner B. Outer C. Both D. None
3. A material used in acoustic insulation made of recycling tires is -----------.
Choices: A. MLV B. EPS C. VDC D. PCM
4. Polyurethane has better acoustic insulation than that of EPS due to its high -----------.
Choices: A. NRC B. Hz C. SL D. STL
5. Brick wall has better acoustic insulation than that of drywall due to its high -----------.
Choices: A. AAC B. NRC C. STC D. Strength
6. Acoustic absorption coefficient of a certain material could be measured using ---------.
Choices: A. Impedance tube B. SL meter C. Thermometer D. Intensity meter
7. Sound intensity could be measured using a device called -----------.
Choices: A. Impedance tube B. SL meter C. Thermometer D. Intensity meter
8. Minimum acoustic power that affects the hearing is -----------.
Choices: A. 10 W/m2 B. 1 W/m2 C. 10-2 W/m2 D. 10-12 W/m2
9. The sound absorption capacity is measured by a unit called -----------.
Choices: A. dB B. W/m2 C. Sabin D. K
10. Acoustic insulator converts part of the absorbed sound to ------------.
Choices: A. Electricity B. Light C. Magnetic D. Heat

95
Q3) Classify the sound-proofing materials and give examples of each type.

Q4) What steps should be followed to prevent the noise pollution in industrial?

Q5) What can you understand from the figure?

Q6) A studio hall of 8 m x 6 m x 4 m, has 3 walls of wood (α=0.1), a big facade of glass
(α=0.03), ceiling of polyurethane panels (NRC=0.9) and floor of carpet (α=0.3). An office
is located next door to the hall. Absorption of furniture=5 Sabins.

Find:

a) Noise reduction for the office room if STC of the separated wall is 46.

d) Noise reduction for the office room after insulation if the separated wall is covered by
acoustic tiles (NRC=0.7) and STC of the separated wall becomes 52.

Q7) Room (1) of 5 m length, 4 m width and 3 m height has the following features:

Element Material α
Walls Brick 0.03
Ceiling Concrete 0.02
Floor Wood 0.1

96
There is an additional absorption due to the furniture which is 15 Sabins. What is the
sound level at room (2) for the following cases:
A- Before insulation.
B- After insulating the separating wall by 2 cm polyurethane (NRC=0.9).
Take into account that STC of the wall without insulation is (50) and with insulation is
(56).

Q8) Noise control baffles of polyurethane are used to reduce the overall noise level in a
generator warehouse of (40' L x 20' W x 12' H), and they are suspended around the noise
source. Walls and floor are concrete, while ceiling is wood. Determine number of baffles
required to reduce the noise by 10 dB.

97
Q9) Room (1) of 5 m length, 4 m width and 3 m height has the following features:

Element Material α
Walls Wood 0.1
Ceiling Plastic 0.05
Floor Ceramic 0.01

10 persons (C=0.5 S for each person)

Furniture (C=12 S)
Dissipation to outdoor (C=3 S)

Determine the sound level at room (2) for the

following cases:
A- Before insulation. (STC of the separated wall
is 50 dB)
B- After insulating the separating wall by 1 cm
EPS of NRC=0.5 (STC of the separated wall is
53 dB).

Q10) A machine room of 6 m x 5 m x 3 m has the following features:

Element Material α

Walls Gypsum 0.05

Ceiling Wood 0.1

Floor S. Rubber 0.6

What would be the sound level at the upper

control room:

1- Before insulation (STC of the ceiling is 39).

2- After insulating the ceiling by 5 cm EPS

(NRC=0.5) and STC of the ceiling will be (47).

Take into account that dissipation due to

airborne transmission and furniture is 15 Sabins.

98
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 Chapter Three
Waterproofing Insulation

101
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 Chapter Three
Waterproofing Insulation

3.1 Waterproofing
All buildings need insulation from moisture, rain, groundwater and surface water because
the dampness causes in damage of the construction materials and releases undesired
smells with the breeding of insects and mice and bring diseases. The walls that exposed to
the rain without sufficient amount of sunlight are more susceptible to dampness.

3.2 Effect of Dampness

The effect of dampness is clearly noticed in the following results:
- Damage of building materials and elements of the house.
- Efflorescence of the walls, floor and ceiling.
- Damaging the paint.
- The failure in the timber used and wooden décor.
- Corrosion of metallic parts.
- Proliferation of fungi and unhealthy situation for users in the building.
- The moisture content in an insulation material leads to increase its thermal conductivity.
This reduces the performance of thermal insulation up to 50%.

Figure (3.1) Effect of dampness

103
3.3 Causes of Dampness
It is important for basements and foundations to be waterproof especially in areas where
the groundwater is high because the water in the soil is likely to exert hydrostatic pressure
on the basement floor and walls. Generally dampness is accused by:
1. Rain water: The rain water has the ability to penetrate the roof of the building,
especially for poor surfaces and absence of gutters. Rain could penetrate the windows in
absence of overhangs.
2. Surface water: This means river, sea or pond. The water mixes with the soil close to
the building and forming a clay then moisture seeps to the foundations or inside through
the capillary action. The capillary action is the ability of water to transport through the
small pores of the material with the help of the forces of adhesion and cohesion. The
capillary action occurs in porous materials like sponge, brick, concrete and many
construction materials.
3. Underground water: The accumulated water under the earth's surface could be
transmitted through the pores of the soil by the capillary action and ascend to the
foundations or inside hence damage the structural materials used in the building. It could
even overflowing into the building.
4. Condensation: It is noticed in winter days a layer of dew formed on the window or
even wall, and this phenomenon is called "condensation". The accumulated moisture on
windows, walls, ceiling and floor seeps into the parts of the house after a period of time
and leads to the fragility of construction materials and the appearance of rust, mildew and
odors.
5. Poor sewage drainage: When wastewater gathers under the building and it was hard
to flow downstream because of some restrictions then dampness could be occurred in the
nearby elements of the building.
6. Modern construction: The walls newly constructed remain in the wet state for a
certain period.

Capillary action: is the ability of water to transport through the small pores of the
material due to the forces of adhesion and cohesion. The capillary action occurs in porous
materials like sponge, brick, concrete and many construction materials.

104
 3.4 Types of Waterproofing Insulators
The purpose of waterproofing materials is to prevent the water as well as the moisture and
keep it away from building elements. In order to choose the appropriate isolator of
humidity it must take into account the nature of the ground (concrete, stone, clay, metal)
as well as the climate (dry, wet). The method is characterized by the development of the
insulation layer or membrane resists water pressure and using materials to prevent
leakage of water or moisture into building elements. The main types of waterproofing
materials are:

• Bitumen: It is a black material made from the rest of the distillation of crude oil. Bitumen
is very common in waterproofing isolation because of its cheapness compared to the other
insulating materials in addition to its flexibility and resistance to the proliferation of fungi
and insects. Bitumen is available in drums where it should be heated to about 80 degrees
to melt. The most famous types are:
- Liquid of bitumen which is used to fill the cracks in the concrete or roof tiles.
Sometime, adhesive is added to the resin components and it is called "mastic". Bitumen
could be used as paint (1-2 mm) for the foundations and walls that are in a direct contact
with the soil.
- Solid of bitumen (asphalt) which is used for paving of the street after mixing with sand
and stones.
- Flancoat: a waterproofing material of bitumen used for coating surfaces of concrete in
contact with the soil to prevent the dampness. It is effective and easy to use and does not
need any mixing with any compound. It does not need to melt, where a brush or a roll is
used to paint the surfaces. Often, it is available in black, but there are many other colors.
- Bitumen rolls: These layers have the excellent isolating and waterproofing capability.
They are made of bitumen and sometimes covered by a reflective metallic sheet to reflect
the heat. The bitumen layer commonly used to insulate the ceiling or walls and it is
available in (3, 4 and 5 mm) thickness.

• Acrylic: It is a water resistant material and frequently used for waterproofing of the
building roof and the floor of swimming pool. This material is composed of polyester
fibers submerged in a liquid resin of polyacrylonitrile, where the required surface should
be painted (many layers) and exposed to air to dry quickly and becomes a flexible
insulating layer. This substance has a high susceptibility adhesion to various building
materials. It is long-life and environment-friendly material.

• Waterproofing liquid: This liquid is made from the mixing of paraffin's wax with
volatile oil. The waterproofing liquid is used to spray or paint the required surfaces.

• Epoxy: A polymeric material sticky and has rapid solidification used to process the holes
and cracks.

105
• Cement: In case of free of impurities, cement could be a good resistant insulator. Cement
is available as:
- Portland cement: the increasing of the amount of cement in cement-sand mixture
increases the resistance.
- White cement: it is used to fill the separations in marble tiles for bathrooms and
balconies.

• Fiberglass: It is a hard kind that results from mixing the glasswool with the epoxy. It is
characterized by high resistance to the water therefore used in tank construction.
Glasswool could be also mixed for the purposes of strengthening bitumen waterproofing
layer.

• Sheets or layers: Surfaces could by isolated using many layers like:

- Polyethylene membrane: Polyethylene is a flexible material that resists moisture and is
often found in a very thin layer.
- Rubber sheets
- Extruded polystyrene (XPS) layers.
- Layers of Mass Loaded Vinyl (MLV).
- Nylon: It can be used between different parts of the building or between the layers of
insulators, as well as to cover the foundations.
- Metallic sheets: slabs, roofs and walls could be covered by a tiny layer of metallic sheet
such as copper and aluminum plates. These metals are commonly used to make water
storages.

• Shingle: These tiles have good isolation and used to cover the inclined surfaces and
remove the accumulated water. A shingle is made of durable material like brick, stone or
composite material and has a beautiful appearance.

• Asbestos: It is ceiling panels characterized by light weight and resistance to water, heat,
fire, acids and fungi. The asbestos panel is often used in roofing but it is prohibited
recently due to its harmful effect to the body health and environment.

• Rocks: Such as marble and granite. They are characterized by hard surfaces so a high
resistance to the water. Marble is commonly used as floor tiles in kitchens and bathrooms.
These rocks could be used to make the statues.

106
Asphalt Bitumen paint Shingles

Acrylic

Bitumen rolls Polyethylene membrane

Figure (3.2) Waterproofing materials

107
3.5 Practical Waterproofing Treatments
The following procedures are assigned for some building elements like:

A. Waterproofing of foundation
1. Paint foundation surface using bitumen paints (or any suitable waterproofing) to
prevent water transport and to provide adhesion between the concrete and insulation
layer.
2. Put a layer of tarpaulin to protect the foundation from direct contact with water.
3. Put a layer of thermal insulator.
4. Fill the neighboring land to the foundation by stones to resist the permeability of the
water as much as possible (see the figure below).

B. Waterproofing of walls
1. Paint wall surface using bitumen paints to prevent water transport and to provide
adhesion between the wall and insulation layer.
2. Put a layer of tarpaulin, to protect the walls from direct contact with water, starting
from the underground to prevent dampness path to the top.
3. Put a layer of thermal insulator.
4. Finishing works by a layer of mortar or marble.

C. Waterproofing of roof
1. After the casting of concrete, surface should be cleaned and the cracks should be
treated carefully using grout or epoxy.
2. Provide appropriate inclination towards the gutters and treating the cumulative area by
a layer of cement.
3. Paint concrete surfaces using bitumen paints to provide adhesion between the concrete
and the insulation layer.
4. Put a layer of waterproofing material.
5. Put a layer of thermal insulating material.
6. Put a layer of soil and then covering with impervious tiles or insulating membrane such
as acrylic.

Note This procedure can be applied to other waterproofing applications such as

swimming pools with similar procedures.

108
Figur (3.3) Waterproofing of foundation

Figure (3.4) Waterproofing of roof

109
3.6 Waterproofing for Huge Structures
In some huge applications (dams, tanks, tunnels and bridges), where water may be in a
contact with structure body, it is required to use cementitious waterproofing which is a
highly flexible cement-polymer based waterproofing, designed to protect the concrete that
exposed to high concentrations of water and chemicals like (sulfuric compounds). The
key benefit of this waterproofing is:
• The product comes in a package
• The product is two-component combination, usually (cement-acrylic)
• The product is easily applied by brushing or spraying to the contact surfaces
• 2 mm coating provides good anti-carbonation cover
• Waterproof resistance is up to 15 bar of positive pressure and 3 bar of negative
pressure
• The elongation > 100%
• High resistance to carbon dioxide and chloride ion diffusion
• Requires to cure for 24 hours
• Potable water certified
• Environmentally friendly product. No solvents and no VOC’s

Figure (3.5) Waterproofing for a huge tank

110
3.7 Engineering Calculations of Water Transfer
One of the primary roles of all waterproofing systems is the control of the movement of
water whether this is by keeping water in, out, off, or even letting it through. The
controlling of water required to know some properties and understand the difference
between permeability and porosity. Porosity is the amount of holes and permeability is
how well the holes are connected. Generally there are three ways may water transfer
through the building element, which are:

1. Water transfer under hydrostatic pressure: in this category, the water is transfer
under certain pressure. The term permeability is appeared as dominated parameter. It is an
indication of liquid ability to pass through a material under the pressure effect. In another
way, it is a measure of the allowability of a porous material to pass the liquids. It is the
inversion of the resistance, and its unit is Darcy (D). The Darcy can be converted in term
s of area to:

1 Darcy ≈ 10−12 m2

However, a medium with a permeability of 1 D permits a flow of 1 cm³/s of a fluid

with viscosity 1 cP under a pressure gradient of 1 atm/cm acting across an area of 1 cm².
Typical values of permeability range as high as 100,000 mD for gravel, 1 mD for sand,
0.1 mD for concrete, 0.005 mD for marble and as less as 0.001 mD for granite.

Figure (3.6) Difference between the permeability of concrete and marble

111
The following table shows the values of permeability for some materials.

Table (3.1) Values of water permeability for some materials

Well Well Sorted
Unconsolidated Very Fine Sand, Silt,
Sorted Sand or Sand &
Sand & Gravel Loess, Loam
Gravel Gravel

Unconsolidated
Peat Layered Clay Unweathered Clay
Clay & Organic

Fresh
Consolidated Highly Fractured Fresh
Oil Reservoir Rocks Limestone, Fresh Granite
Rocks Rocks Sandstone
Concrete

κ (milliDarcy) 108 107 106 105 10000 1000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001

Strength Pervious Semi-Pervious Impervious

In order to determine the discharge of the liwuid across the material under the pressure
effect, the velocity of the liquid in a permeable material is given by:

Where:
υ = flow velocity through the medium (m/s)
k = coefficient of permeability of the medium (m2)
μ = dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pa·s)
∆P =Applied pressure difference (Pa)
∆x = thickness of the bed of the porous medium (m)

The the discharge in (m3/s) is given by:

Q= υ.A

112
Example (1): A swimming pool of 60 m2 has a concrete floor of 10 cm thickness and
exposed to 20 kPa pressure difference of water. Determine the discharge of water across
the concrete. (μ of water = 0.001 Pa.s) (k of concrete = 0.01 miliDarcy). What will be the
difference if granite is used (k of granite = 0.001 miliDarcy).

Solution
• In case of concrete

= (0.01 x 10-3 x 10-12/0.001) (20000/0.1) = 0.2 x 10-8 m/s

Q = υ x A = 0.2 x 10-8 x 60 = 12 x 10-8 m3/s

• In case of granite
υ = (0.001 x 10-3 x 10-12/0.001) (20000/0.1) = 0.02 x 10-8 m/s
Q = υ x A = 0.02 x 10-8 x 60 = 1.2 x 10-8 m3/s

2. Water transfer by sorption: this is the tendency of water to rise into porous materials
by capillary action. Thus, no water pressure is required. The quantity of water absorbed
into the material by capillary action is given by:

( ) * √,

Where
V = accumulated volume by absorption (m3)
A = wetted area (m2)
S = Sorptivity of the material ( /√ ./)
t= time (min)

Table (3.2) Values of water sorptivity for some materials

Material S (00/√012)
Stone 0.15
Concrete 0.2
Block 0.5
Brick 1.1
Cement 1.5
Gypsum 3.5
Soil 40

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 Figure (3.7) sorption in concrete (s=1.6 mm/√min)

Example (2): Brick wall (S=1.1 /√ ./) of 5 m width, 3 m high and 25 cm thickness
is attached to underground water. What would be the dampness level for a period of one
month, if the water touches 10 cm of the foundation height. What is the difference if
impervious brick (S=0.1 /√ ./) has been used.

Solution:
3 4 5 √6 = (5 x0.1) x 1.1 x 10-3 x √30 8 24 8 60 = 0.114 m3
Water rise = V / A = 0.114 / (5x0.25) = 0.091 m
It means that the water will rise approximately 9 cm after a month.

3. Vapor flow: it refers to the humidity of the ambient air. Air always contains an amount
of water as vapor, and the relative humidity is a term used to describe this amount. At 0%
RH there is no water in the air and at 100% RH the air if full of water where condensation
will occur. However, as air heats up, it can hold more water; therefore a relative humidity
measurement is accompanied by a temperature. The term "vapor pressure" is the pressure
exerted by the molecules of water vapor in the air. A considerable amount of vapor can be
transported through construction materials (like concrete), and the direction of flow is
from high vapor pressure to low vapor pressure due to the process of diffusion. Diffusion
is simply described as flow of species (liquid, gas or dissolved ions) from a location of
high concentration to low concentration (or more precisely from high chemical potential
to low chemical potential). It is important to note that water vapor does not necessarily
move from high relative humidity to low relative humidity as illustrated in the figure
bellow where water flows from the higher vapor pressure side to the lower side. The
actual flow of moisture in an exterior concrete building wall is much more complex
owing to the effect of heating and cooling.

114
Understanding the vapor flow is essential when applying waterproofing treatment to
unbalanced vapor pressure gradient. Therefore "vapor barrier" is commonly used to
protect building elements. A vapor barrier (or condensation barrier) is any material
(typically a plastic sheet) used for damp proofing to resist the diffusion of moisture
through wall, ceiling and floor assemblies of buildings, and to prevent interstitial
condensation. Technically, many of these materials are only vapor retarders as they have
varying degrees of permeability. Vapor barrier is usually applying to the internal face of a
building wall in a cold climate or to the external face of a building wall in a hot climate.
As a general rule of thumb the barrier should be placed on the upstream face, otherwise
the vapor pressure or (water) will act to damage and blister the membrane and building
element as well.

Figure (3.8) Direction of vapor flow in cold weather

The moisture transfer can be expressed by:

There are different driving potentials in this equation, including humidity, vapor pressure,
and suction pressure; as well as some effective parameters like: density, velocity,
permeability and conductivity. It is difficult to solve this question by using more than one
driving potential.

115
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 Exercises No. (3)
Q1) Complete the following sentences:

1. ---------- is used to pave the street after mixing with sand and stones.

2. Acrylic is a good waterproofing material which composed of polyester fibers

submerged in a liquid resin of -----------.

3. ----------- is an indication of liquid allowability to pass through a porous material in

(Darcy) unit.

4. ---------- is a plastic sheet used to resist the diffusion of moisture through the walls.

Q2) Select the correct answer:

1. The most common waterproofing materials is:

Choices: A. EPS B. Fiberglass C. Bitumen D. Cement
2. Fiberglass is composed from glasswool and
Choices: A. Polyester B. Epoxy C. Latex D. Nylon
3. The tendency of water to rise into materials by capillary action is:
Choices: A. Permeability B. Sorptivity C. Absorptivity D. Permittivity

Q3) What are the effect of dampness?

Q4) What are the commercial types of waterproofing insulators?

Q5) Explain the practical waterproofing process required for the foundation.

Q6) Explain the practical waterproofing process required for the roof.

Q7) What is the capillary action? How could calculate the quantity of water absorbed by
capillary action.

117
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 Chapter Four
Electrical Insulation

119
120
 Chapter Four
Electrical Insulation

4.1 Introduction to Electrical Insulation

Insulators are used in many applications; to wrap electrical cables or in electrical
equipment to separate electrical conductors. The term insulator is also used more
specifically to refer to supports that used to attach electric power transmission lines
to towers and poles. They support the weight of the suspended wires without allowing the
current to flow through the tower to ground. An electrical insulator is a material whose
internal electric charges do not flow freely, and therefore make it nearly impossible to
conduct an electric current under the influence of an electric field. This contrasts with
other materials which conduct electric current more easily. A perfect insulator does not
exist, because even insulators contain small numbers of mobile charges (charge carriers)
which can carry current.

Figure (4.1) Applications of electrical insulators

121
4.2 Classification of Materials
It is known that any substance contains a number of molecules and atoms. These atoms
have some electrons in the outer orbit called "free electrons". Due to the ease expelled of
the free electrons from the external orbit and make it move easily to another atom, and so
on creating a flow of electrons called "electrical current". Materials are classified
according to its ability to conduct electricity to:

1. Conductors
A conductor is a material that allows the flow of electrical current in one or more
directions. The mobile charged particles are usually the electrons. Conduction materials
include metals (copper, aluminum, iron, etc), electrolytes, superconductors,
semiconductors, plasmas and some nonmetallic conductors such as graphite
and conductive polymers. Copper has a high conductivity and it used for many
applications, such as building wire, motor windings and busbars. Because of its ease of
connection by soldering or clamping, copper is still the most common choice for most
light-gauge wires. Aluminum has higher conductivity than copper, but it has some
problems. Where, it can form a resistive oxide that makes wires unable to terminate heat.
Aluminum can creep, slowly deforming under load, eventually causing device
connections to loosen, and also has a different coefficient of thermal expansion. However,
aluminum wires could be used for low voltage distribution, such as buried cables and
service drops, require use of compatible connectors and installation methods to prevent
heating at joints. Aluminum is also the most common metal used in high-voltage
transmission lines, in combination with steel as structural reinforcement. Silver is more
conductive than copper, but due to cost it is not practical. However, it is used in
specialized equipment, such as satellites.

2. Semiconductors
Semiconductors are crystalline or amorphous solids with higher resistance than typical
conductors but still much lower than insulators. Their resistance decreases as their
temperature increases, which is behavior opposite to that of a metal. So, their conducting
properties may be adopted in useful ways (such as in diodes and transistors) by doping of
impurities into the crystal structure to reduce its resistance. Doping is important to
increase the number of charge carriers within the crystal. When a doped semiconductor
contains mostly free holes, then it is called "p-type", and when it contains mostly free
electrons, then it is known as "n-type". Many pure elements and some compounds display
semiconductor properties like silicon, germanium, compounds of gallium, and mixtures
of (arsenic, selenium and tellurium). It is important here referring to the term "energy
gap" which is the energy required by an electron to move from valence band to
conduction band. This is equivalent to the energy required to free an outer
shell electron from its orbit to become a mobile charge carrier, able to move freely within
the solid material. The energy gap is a major factor determining the electrical
conductivity of a solid. Substances with large band gaps are generally insulators, those
with smaller band gaps are semiconductors, while conductors either have very small band
gaps or none, because the valence and conduction bands overlap.

122
 Figure (4.2) Semiconductor energy structure

Table (4.1) Energy gap for common semiconductors and insulators

Material Symbol Energy gap (eV) at 25 °C

plastics - 6-10
Silicon dioxide SiO2 9
Ceramics:
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3)
Mullite (3Al2O3 · 2SiO2)
- 4-8
Forsterite (2MgO · SiO2)
Beryllium oxide (BeO)
Aluminum nitride (AlN)
Diamond C 5.5
Silicon nitride Si3N4 5
Gallium nitride GaN 3.4
Gallium phosphide GaP 2.26
Copper oxide Cu2O 2.1
Gallium arsenide GaAs 1.43
Silicon Si 1.11
Germanium Ge 0.67
Lead sulfide PbS 0.37

123
3. Insulators
Those materials do not allow the flow of electric current, such as: wood, plastic, quartz
and ceramic. The main reason of the ability of these materials to restrict the electrical
flow is that the atomic structure contains a very small number of free electrons midwife to
move.

Conductor Insulator
Figure (4.3) Comparison between electrical conductor and insulator

It may understand the following from the figure:

• Material that contains a plenty of free electrons becomes a "conductor".
• Material that contains few of free electrons becomes an "insulator".

The electric field still active even in an insulating material, where an imbalance occurs
and the positive charges attract to the electric field while the negative charges displace
away. This separation between electrical charges generates the so-called "dipole" and the
corresponding process called "polarization". The insulator that can be polarized by an
applied electric field is called "dielectric material".

The term dielectric is the combination of two words; ‘dia’ and ‘electric’, which means
opposite to electrical conduction. The electrical conductivity of a perfect dielectric is
zero. A dielectric material does not conduct elasticity but it stores and dissipate the
electrical energy similar to an ideal capacitor. Dielectrics are categorized based on the
type of molecule present in the material. There are two types of dielectrics: polar
dielectrics and non-polar dielectrics. In polar dielectrics, the center of mass of positive
particles does not coincide with the center of mass of negative particles. Here the dipole
moment exists. The molecules are asymmetrical in shape. When the electric field is
applied the molecules align themselves with the electric field. When the electric field is
removed random dipole moment is observed and the net dipole moment in the molecules
becomes zero. Examples are H2O and CO2. In the non-polar dielectrics, the center of
mass of positive particles and negative particles coincide. There is no dipole moment in
these molecules. These molecules are symmetrical in shape. Examples of non-polar
dielectrics are H2, N2 and O2.

124
4.3 Properties of Dielectric Materials
Some of the main properties of a dielectric material are: resistance, permittivity,
polarization, susceptibility, dispersion, relaxation and tenability.

1. Resistance: is the ability of the material to repel the electrical current. The resistance
of a given conductor depends on the material it is made of and on its dimensions. For a
given material, the resistance is given by:

<
; )

ρ = the resistivity of the material (ohm.m)

L = length of the wire (m)
A = cross-sectional area of the wire (m2)

Figure (4.4) A piece of resistive material

Resistivity is the property that distinguishes the insulators, where insulators have higher
resistivity than semiconductors or conductors. Some materials such
as glass, paper and Teflon, which have high resistivity, are very good electrical insulators.
A much larger class of materials, even though they may have lower bulk resistivity, are
still good enough to prevent significant current from flowing at normally used voltages,
and thus are employed as insulation for electrical wiring and cables. Examples include
rubber, polymers and most plastics.

125
 Table (4.2) Resistivity for common materials

Material ρ (Ω·m) at 25 °C Material ρ (Ω·m) at 25 °C

Carbon (graphene) 1.00×10−8 GaAs 1.0×10−3 to 1.0×103

Silver 1.5×10−8 Germanium 4.6×10−1

Copper 1.7×10−8 Water 2.0×10−1 to 2.0×103

Aluminum 2.8×10−8 Silicon 6.4×102

Tungsten 5.6×10−8 Wood (damp) 1.0×103 to 1.0×104

Zinc 5.9×10−8 Plastics 1.0×108 to 1.0×1016

Nickel 6.9×10−8 Rubber 1.0×1010 to 1.0×1013

Iron 1.0×10−7 Ceramics 1.0×1012 to 1.0×1014

Tin 1.1×10−7 Glass 1.0×1011 to 1.0×1015

Lead 2.2×10−7 Air 1.3×1016 to 3.0×1016

Titanium 4.2×10−7 Quartz 7.5×1017

Polyethylene
Mercury 9.8×10−7 1.0×1021
terephthalate (PET)
Carbon
5.0×10−4 to 8.0×10−4 Teflon 1.0×1023 to 1.0×1025
(amorphous)

126
2. Permittivity: is a measure of how an electric field affects a dielectric medium. In other
words, the permittivity of a medium describes how much electric field is generated per
unit charge in that medium. More electric flux exists in a medium with a low permittivity
because of polarization effects. The best insulator is that which has a large permittivity.
Since the increasing of the permittivity leads to increase the capacitance of the material,
hence it could say that the permittivity increases the ability of the insulation to absorb
more amounts of electrical charges and avoid the transfer of energy. Permittivity relates
to the ability of material to resist an electric field. In SI units, permittivity (ε) is measured
in farads per meter (F/m).

Permittivity is directly related to electric susceptibility, which is a measure of how easily

a dielectric polarizes in response to an electric field, as following:

χ = electrical susceptibility
ε0 = vacuum permittivity (8.85×10−12 F/m)

In engineering applications, permittivity is often expressed in relative, rather than in

absolute terms. The relative permittivity of the material is also called the "dielectric
constant", thus:

εr = ε / εo
εr = relative permittivity of the material
ε = absolute permittivity of the material

127
Table (4.3) Relative permittivity (dielectric constant) for common materials
Material =>
Vacuum 1.0
Air 1.0006
Conductive polymers 2-12
Wood 2-6
PTFE/Teflon 2.1
Polypropylene 2.2-2.36
Polyethylene 2.25
Polystyrene 2.4-2.7
Carbon disulfide 2.6
Polyimide 3.4
PVC 3.8
Paper 3.85
Silicon dioxide 3.9
FR-4 4.0
Concrete 4.5
Pyrex 4.7
Glass 3.7-10
Salt 3-15
Rubber 7
Diamond 5.5-10
PVDF 9-13
Graphite 10-15
Silicon 11.7
o
Water (200 C) 34.5
o
Water (20 C) 80.1
o
Water (0 C) 88
Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT) 500 - 6000
Calcium Copper Titanate (CCT) 1000 - 100000

128
3. Polarization: is the ability of insulating material to undergo the separation between
electrical charges and forming the dipole. Polarization is the amount of dipole moment
per unit volume. Polarization in dielectric materials are affected mainly by two
parameters: temperature and frequency. It is noticed that polarization in some materials
like ceramics are higher than that of others like polymers, due to the ability of a material
to have many ways of polarization. The following polarization types are available:
1. Electronic: due to the displacement between electrical charges (+ve and -ve), like in PE
and PTFE.
2. Ionic: due to the displacement between ions (cations and anions), like in PVC and
rubber.
3. Molecular: due to the shifting between polar molecules, like in Methyl Chloride and
Fiberglass.
4. Space (Interfacial): due to the shifting between some elements in the materials
when there is an accumulation of charge at the interface, like in Al2O3 and TiO2.

Thus the total polarization is the summation of all these types.

Total polarization = Electronic Pol. + Ionic Pol. + Molecular Pol. + Space Pol.

All insulators become electrically conductive when a sufficiently large voltage is applied
that leads to extracts the electrons away from the atoms. This is known as "breakdown
voltage". The expression of voltage drop per unit length is known as "dielectric strength",
which is the maximum voltage that an insulating material can withstand under ideal
conditions without breaking down. This is measured in (V/m).

Table (4.4) Dielectric strength for common materials

Material Dielectric Strength (MV/m)
Air 3.0
Alumina 13.4
Glass 9.8 - 13.8
Silicone oil, mineral oil 10 - 15
Polystyrene 19.7
Polyethylene 19 - 160
Neoprene rubber 15.7 - 26.7
Distilled water 65 - 70
Fused silica 25–40
Waxed paper 40 - 60
PTFE ,Teflon 20 - 173
Mica 118
Diamond 2000
Vacuum 10

129
4.4 Purposes of Dielectric Materials
There are many types of dielectric materials used in different electrical systems for
various purposes. Some materials used for electrical insulation in wirings, tools and
devices like: plastics, rubber, wood, ceramics, glass, cellulose paper, and oils. Some
others used for electrical charging in capacitors or piezoelectricity applications like:
crystals, ceramics and polymers.

4.5 Applications of Dielectric Materials in Insulation

Some applications of dielectrics rely on their electrically insulating properties rather than
ability to store charge, so high electrical resistivity and low dielectric loss are the most
desirable properties here. The most obvious of these uses is insulation for wires, cables
etc., but there are also applications in sensor devices. For example, it is possible to make a
type of strain gauge by evaporating a small amount of metal onto the surface of a thin
sheet of dielectric material.

4.5.1 Wiring
Conductor wire, usually made of copper or aluminum, should be insulated electrically and
physically, within the cable. Insulators could be found in many forms: solid, semi-solid
and foam. Plastics, rubbers and epoxy are commonly used to cover the electrical wires.

Figure (4.5) Insulation of wire

130
Electrical wires usually have many layers such as: primary insulation, filler and jacket.

a. Primary insulator: is a flexible material used to insulate the conductors and

prevent any contact. Alternative polymers could be used like thermoplastic and
thermoset materials. Thermoplastic materials used for electrical insulation are:
PVC, HDPE, PP, PEEK, PTFE, PET, PES, PEI, ECTFE, PBT and FE. While
thermoset materials are: Neoprene, rubber, SBR and EPDM.
b. Filler: is a material used to fill the gap between insulated wires and the jacket.
Usually they are filled with: foam like (PU), textile or just air. For heavy cables,
the filler could be covered by a metallic sheathing (shield) for strengthening.
c. Jacket: is the external shell of the cable usually made from solid materials like:
Neoprene, rubber, PVC and HDPE. Jacket used to:
- protect the internal components of the cable physically.
- protect from environmental impacts and from flame.
- improve the cable appearance.

Figure (4.6) Some materials used for wiring insulation

131
Selecting the insulation: the insulation material should consider the following
specifications in design:

- Electrical: working voltage, dielectric strength, dielectric constant and velocity

propagation.
- Physical: density, tensile strength, flexibility, temperature rating and flammability.

However, for cable with voltage ratings of:

- Low voltage (up to 1000 V), PVC and any plastic insulators are sufficient.
- High voltage (up to 11 KV), XLPE and rubber insulators are sufficient.
- Super voltage (up to 33 KV), oil-paper and EPDM insulator are sufficient.
- Ultra high voltage cable (more than 33 KV), silicon and ceramic insulators are
sufficient.

Cables have to withstand temperature extremes in different applications such as:

electronic devices, food and ice-cream machines, heaters, ovens and industrial process
equipment. These applications can subject the cable to continuous-use temperatures as
low as −30°C and as high as 200°C. Each type of insulation is assigned for a certain
operating temperature or the maximum temperature reached by the wire. The following
table gives the limit or maximum operating temperature for each type of insulation.

Table (4.5) Maximum operating temperature for several insulators

Material Maximum operating temperature (oC)

PVC, PP 80
HDPE, LDPE, PA 90
Butyl Rubber, neoprene 100
EPDM 150
Silicone-based rubber 180
PTFE 200
Fiberglass 400
Ceramics >1000

132
Insulation thickness for underground cables: the conductor
should be provided by a suitable thickness of insulation material
to prevent current leakage. Consider a single-core cable of
conductor radius (r1), total radius with insulation (r2), cable
length (L) and insulation resistivity (ρ). Note that the path of
electrical leakage is radial from the center to the surface
Therefore, the resistance of a portion of insulating material is:
K
Length
R @ ρ
KL Area
K
dr
R @ ρ
KL 2π r L
O Q
R ln "
2π L QL

Where, the insulation resistance should be between 100-500 MΩ for high working
currents.

Example (1): A single-core cable has a conductor diameter of 1 cm and 2 km length.

Find the thickness of insulation required. Use a rubber with resistivity of 5x1012 Ω.m and
insulation resistance of 234 M Ω.
Solution:
O Q
R ln "
2π L QL

5x10L Q
234x10 S
ln "
2π x 2000 QL

r2/r1 = 1.8

r2 = 1.8 x r1 = 1.8 x (1/2) = 0.9 cm

Thickness of insulation = r2 – r1 = 0.9 – 0.5 = 0.4 cm

Insulation thickness for simple wires: usually a standard wire gauge table is used for
localized wires conjugated with a simple formula according to certain code. However,
this formula offers minimum insulation thickness for wires. For household applications,
the insulation needs to be much thicker to protect against any leakage or breakage due to
sharp objects, bending and abrasion. So, the wires in the home should have an insulation
thickness many times greater than the minimum calculated value.

133
 Table (4.6) Standard wire gauges

Example (2): A copper wire assigned to withstand maximum of (220 V & 12 A) single
phase application. Determine critical radius of the conductor as well as the thickness of
the insulation. Use the table below and the formula:

Where E is the dielectric strength and F is the safety factor (10)

Solution:
From the table, at 12 A: Awire = 4.17 mm2 = π r2
r = 1.15 mm radius of conductor
For such simple application wire, PVC insulation is suitable; with a dielectric strength of
about 14 MV/m.
t = r [exp(V F / r E) - 1]
t = 1.15 [exp(220x10 / 0.643x10-3 x 14x106)-1] = 0.32 mm thickness of
insulation

134
4.5.2 Overhead Transmission Lines
The transmission towers must be equipped with appropriate electrical insulators; at the
points of installing the transmission lines, to prevent the leakage of electric power from
the high voltage lines to the ground. The requirements for electrical insulation:
- Mechanical strength to withstand the expected stresses.
- Insulation quality under the worst environmental conditions.
- Completely free of impurities and pores.
- Resistant to internal puncture and flashover.

Figure (4.7) Overhead transmission lines

The insulation has two basic functions:

1- Electrical function: it provides full electrical insulation between electrical
conductors and towers.
2 - Mechanical function: hanging the electrical lines, bearing mechanical forces
and in all expected weather conditions.

Overhead lines usually deal with many types of insulators, such as:
a. Porcelain insulators: these insulators have high electrical insulation. Porcelain is
produced by firing, at high temperature, some mixtures such as: kaolin, feldspar and
quartz. The material withstands high temperature and high strength, where the dielectric
strength of this material reaches 60 kV/cm and the tensile force is 500 kg/cm2. The
porcelain insulator could be found in forms of pin and long rod.

135
b. Glass insulators: glass insulators are made of silicon and have high dielectric strength
up to 140 kV/cm. Glass is characterized as transparent, which has many advantages like
the possibility to notice any impurities or cracks and do not heat too much when exposes
to sunlight. While, the disadvantage is that glass suffers of condensation thus limitation of
using in wet areas. Glass insulation is found in form of pin only.
c. Plastic and rubber insulators: these insulators are made of composite plastics and
rubbers. They have limited dielectric strength but characterized by light weight as (1/30)
compared to the porcelain type. The other advantages are: the reduction of pollution, and
easily installation on the towers. On the other hand, their prices are still high. These
insulators are found in form of long rod only.

Figure (4.8) Materials of insulators used for overhead lines

There are several types of insulation discs could be used for overhead lines.
1. Pin type: this type is supported on a forged steel pin which is secured to the cross
arm of the supporting structure. Pin type could be used with maximum voltage of 33 kV.
2. Suspension type: a suspension insulator consists of a number of separate insulator
disc units connected with each other by metal lines to form a flexible string or chain. This
type could be used with voltage higher than 33 kV, and can withstand 1800 kg tension
force.

136
3. Strain (tension) type: strain or tension insulators are design for handling
mechanical stresses at angle positions where there is a change in the direction of the line
or at termination of the lines.
4. Long rod type: it is made of porcelain or rubber and used when the voltage is
very high. The length of the chain may be more than one meter.

Figure (4.9) Types of discs

137
Shapes of discs according to the usage are:
1. Standard insulation: It is used in low-pollution areas. The lower surface of the insulator
is designed with a few turnings.
2. Anti-Pollution: It is suitable for high pollution areas, which contributes to reduce
pollution by increasing creepage distance without increasing the length of the chain.
3. Anti-fog: Used in areas where there is active fog where there are many turnings to
increase the condensation.
4. Desert: It is used in desert areas where the surface of the insulator is open and flat to
prevent accumulation of dust on it.

Figure (4.10) Shapes of discs

138
 The selection of insulation discs depends on the working voltage and distance operated.
Electricity is transferred through power lines from the generating station to the
distribution station. For the purpose of reducing power loss, the voltage is raised to the
highest value using the transformer. The standard voltages for long-distance transmission
lines are from 11 kV to 400 kV. Therefore the number of insulating discs (insulation
series) must meet the balance between electrical insulation and mechanical failure
opportunities as well as the cost of insulation. Each material has a table showing the
optimal number for certain conditions.

Table (4.7) Working voltage of overhead transmission lines for different distances

• The minimum number of discs per suspension string for 400KV, 220 KV, 132 KV, 66
KV and 33 KV shall be 24, 15, 10, 5 and 3 respectively.
• For typical systems, this would be:
11 Kv: 1 disc
Up to 33 KV: 2-3 discs
Up to 69 KV: 4-6 discs
Up to 115 KV: 7-9 discs
Up to 138 KV: 10-12 discs
Up to 230 KV: 13-18 discs
Up to 345 KV: 19-23 discs
Up to 500 KV: 24-28 discs

139
Example (3):
Calculate the number of insulated discs per suspension string required to overcome
working voltage of overhead lines between Baghdad and Kirkuk (280 km) in a wet
region, where (SF = 2.5). Use the table.

Solution:
From distance table, working voltage = 220 KV

Safety voltage = 220 x 2.5 = 550 KV

So, from the table, No. of discs = 16

140
Distribution of electrical voltage on the insulation discs: Let us assume that there is a
series of five-disc insulators, as shown in the figure below, where each insulator is
considered as a capacitor of capacity (C) and a further capacitor is considered between the
hanging metal and the tower of capacity (C1), as shown below:

Figure (4.11) Distribution of electrical voltage on the discs

From Kirchhoff's circuit law;

V2 = V1 (1 + m) ------------- ( 1 )

V3 = V1 (1 +3m + m2) ------------- ( 2 )

V4 = V1 (1 +6m + 5m2 + m3) ------------- ( 3 )

V5 = V1(1 +10m +15m2 +7m3 +m4) ------------- ( 4 )

It is clear that the disk connected to the electrical line has a higher voltage than the
voltage on the next dish. This behavior is similar for upper discs until reducing the
voltage on the tower arm disc to zero.

V = V1 + V2 +V3 + V4 + V5 ------------- ( 5 )

V = V1 (5 +20m + 21m2 +8m3 +m4) ------------- ( 6 )

Note that (V) is the potential difference of the phase, while the potential difference of the
line is (Vline = 1.732 V).

141
Example (4): A 3-phase power transmission line installed on a tower using a series of
five discs. Find the voltage on each disc if (m = 0.1).

Solution:

142
4.5.3 Transformers

Insulating oils are used in transformers and some electrical equipment. These oils have
two primary functions: electrical insulation and cooling. In order to be effective, Oil must
have low viscosity and high resistance against oxidation and impurities. Transformer oil
is usually a bright yellow liquid with a density of about 0.88 mm / cm3 at 15° C and its
cooling value is 11 times greater than that of air, and its volume expansion coefficient is
0.00075 cm3 / cm3.

Figure (4.12) Electrical transformer

Characteristics of insulating oil:

1. Dielectric Strength: The oil used for 11 kV should have dielectric strength of 30 kV /
2.5 mm at least and for 66 kV should be at least 50 kV / 2.5 mm.
2. Viscosity: The lower the oil viscosity the better heat transfer from the heart of the
transformer to the outside, but should not be too much liquidity because the oil vapor is
flammable if exposed to any flame. The maximum evaporation rate is 1.6% for eight
hours of work.
3. Flash point: The temperature at which the oil vapor ignites when exposed to flame.
The British specifications set the minimum temperature of 145 °C.

143
 4. Density: The density should not exceed 0.895 g/cm3 at 20 °C.
5. Oxidization: The oxidation of oil causes a deposition that inhibits the cooling process.
The oil is tested at 120 °C and for 75 hours with copper as a catalyst. The acceptable
percentage of deposition is (0.4mg.KOH/g) which is approximately 1% deposition. The
neutral volume can be measured by dissolving the oil with a mixture of methanol and
toluene. The acceptable neutral volume is 0.03 mg/kOH/g. The oil should be free of
sulfur.
6. Water content: water affects oil solubility and leads to pollutants and oxidation. Water
content shall not exceed 40 ppm.

4.5.4 Powder Coating

Powder coating technology is recognized as a superior method of applying a protective
finish on numerous shapes and sizes, as opposed to wet applications. One approach that is
effectively used as a high dielectric insulator on copper or aluminum conductors is epoxy
powder coating. It is used to ensure consistent insulation barrier due to its durability. The
surface should be clean and dry prior to the powder application.

Figure (4.13) Electrical board coated by epoxy

144
4.5.5 Insulating Varnishes

Organic varnishes and solvent-less resins are widely used for motor winding because they
offer:

- Dielectric insulation.

- Bonding to the winding wire.

- Protection against moisture and corrosion.

Figure (4.14) Electrical motors insulated by varnish

4.6 Applications of Dielectric Materials for Energy Storage

A major use of dielectrics is in fabricating capacitors. These have many uses including
storage of energy in the electric field between the plates, piezoelectricity, filtering out
noise from signals as part of a resonant circuit, and supplying a burst of power to another
component.

4.6.1 Capacitors
A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store electrical energy
in the form of an electrostatic field. It consisting from two electrical conductors (plates)
separated by a dielectric material that can store energy by polarization. The conductors
are metal foils or conductive electrolyte. A dielectric could be glass, ceramic, plastic film,
air, vacuum, paper, mica or oxide layer.

145
 Figure (4.15) Electrical capacitors

There two common types of capacitors are:

a. Parallel Plates

The formula of capacitance (C) for parallel plates capacitor of a gap distance (h) can be
derived as following;

C=Q/V

Where:

Q = Electric charge (coulomb)

V=Dh/ε (voltage for parallel plates)

So,

C=Qε/Dh

But,

D=Q/A (density of field in coulomb/m2)

Thus,

C=Aε/h

146
Example (5): It is required to manufacture a capacitor of 17x10-9 coulomb/m2 field
density under 2.4 V between plates of 1 cm x 2 cm area and spaced 3 mm apart. Select a
proper dielectric material for this capacitor.

Solution:

V=Dh/ε

or

ε=Dh/V

= 17x10-9 x 3 x10-3 / 2.4

= 21.25 x10-12 F/m

εr = ε / εo

= 21.25 x10-12 / 8.85×10-12 = 2.4

From permittivity table, the dielectric

material is polystyrene.

b. Cylindrical

The formula of capacitance (C) for cylindrical capacitor of a length (L) can be derived as
following;

C=Q/V

Where:
Z V K
3 Q" U[ WXY K
(voltage for cylindrical)

\
3 ln `/ "
2]^_
Thus,

2]^_
ln `/ "

147
4.6.2 Piezoelectric Materials

Piezoelectricity is the appearance of electrical voltage across the sides of a material (such
as crystal, ceramic and polymer) when it subjected to a mechanical stress, due to the
change of polarization. The potential difference (V) generated in a piezoelectric material
by the applied force (F) could be expressed by:
V = (F/A) h G

Where,

A = Subject area (m2)

h = Thickness (m)

G = Axial piezoelectric voltage coefficient (Vm/N)

Ferroelectric materials: some piezoelectric materials show a spontaneous polarization

without mechanical stress due to a non-vanishing electric dipole moment associated with
their unit cell. If the dipole moment can be reversed by the application of an electric field,
the material is said to be ferroelectric, such as PZT, BaTiO3 and PbTiO3. All ferroelectric
materials are piezoelectric, however, not all piezoelectric materials are ferroelectric.
Ferroelectric materials have many properties and they are widely used in many
applications. These include:
• ferroelectric hysteresis (used in nonvolatile memories)
• high permittivity (used in capacitors)
• high piezoelectric effects (used in sensors, actuators and resonant devices)
• high pyroelectric coefficients (used in infra-red detectors)
• strong electro-optic effects (used in optical switches)
• anomalous temperature coefficients of resistivity (used in electric-motor overload-
protection circuits).

Pyroelectric materials: those materials that generate a temporary voltage when they are
heated or cooled, such as: most of piezoelectric materials and all of ferroelectric
materials. However, not all pyroelectric materials are ferroelectric. Where, at a
temperature T > Tc (Curie point), the crystal does not exhibit ferroelectricity, while for T
< Tc it is ferroelectric.

148
Example (6): A piezoelectric ceramic material is used in sport shoes to produce
electricity. The material has 35 mm diameter and 0.6 mm thickness. The weight of the
human body is assumed as 70 kg. By neglecting the planar polarization, calculate the
generated voltage and energy. Note: εr = 2250, G = 22.5x10-3 V.m/N.

Solution:

A = π / 4 * (0.035)2 = 9.62x10-4 m2

F = 70 * 9.81 = 686.7 N

V = (F / A) h G = (686.7 / 9.62x10-4) * (0.6x10-3) * (22.5x10-3) = 9.64 v

ε = εr x εo = 2250 * 8.85x10-12 = 2x10-8 F/m

C = ε A / h = (2x10-8) * (9.62x10-4) /0.6x10-3 = 3.2x10-8 F

E = 0.5 C V2 = 0.5 * (3.2x10-8) * (9.64)2 = 148.7x10-8 J

149
150
 Exercises No. (4)

Q1) Complete the following sentences:

1. The separation between electrical charges in electrical insulator generates the so-called
-----------.

2. An effective electrical insulator that is used as a powder coating on metallic surfaces is

-----------.

3. A capacitor usually consists of two electrical plates separated by ------------ to store

energy.

4. The dielectric material that commonly used for primary wiring insulation is ----------.

5. The dielectric material that commonly used for sockets and switches is ----------.

6. The dielectric material that commonly used in the transformers is ---------.

7. OPL discs have two functions: electrically as insulators and -------- as supporters.

8. For the first or the last OPL tower, ---------- type arrangement should be used for
insulating discs.

9. The materials that commonly used for piezoelectricity are ----------.

Q2) Select the correct answer:

1. Which type of insulator is used on 132 kV transmission lines?
A. Pin type
B. Shackle type
C. Discs type
D. Strain type
2. Porcelain is produced by firing at high temperature of which of these mixtures?
A. Kaolin
B. Feldspar
C. Quartz
D. All of these
3. What is the dielectric strength of porcelain?
A. 55 kV/cm
B. 60 kV/cm
C. 75 kV/cm
D. 80 kV/cm
4. Where is the strain type of insulators used?
A. Low voltage overhead lines
B. Dead ends
C. Change in direction of the transmission lines
D. Both (B) and (C)

151
 5. Strain type insulator is similar to which type of these insulators?
A. Pin type
B. Shackle type
C. Suspension type
D. Long rod type
6. Which type of insulators is mainly used for low voltage overhead lines?
A. Pin type
B. Strain type
C. Suspension type
D. Long rod type
7. What is the maximum voltage which the pin type insulator can be used with?
A. 22 kV
B. 33 kV
C. 66 kV
D. 132 kV
Q3) What are the properties of dielectric materials.
Q4) What is the difference between dielectric constant and dielectric strength?
Q5) What is electrical susceptibility? Prove that x=0 for vacuum.
Q6) What are the layers usually used to insulate wires?
Q7) What are the main insulator types used for overhead transmission lines?
Q8) Compare between insulators for different OPL voltages.
Q9) What are piezoelectric materials, ferroelectric materials and pyroelectric materials?
Q10) Which one of these materials is the best dielectric, and why?

Material Energy Gap (ev)

SiO2 9.2
Al2O3 6.5
GaN 3.4

Q11) It is required to manufacture a capacitor of 14x10-9 coulomb/m2 field density under

3 V between plates of 1 cm x 2 cm area and spaced 4 mm apart. Select (from the table)
the proper dielectric material used for this capacitor. Then find the capacitance.

Material εr
Vacuum 1.0
coal 1.5-2.0
PTFE/Teflon 2.1
Polypropylene 2.2-2.4
Polystyrene 2.4-2.6
Carbon disulfide 2.7

152
Q12) Calculate the number of insulated porcelain discs required to withstand the
overhead lines between Baghdad and Kut (170 km). Use SF = 2.6

Q13) Calculate the number of insulated discs required to overcome working voltage of 66
KV in a dry region and determine the suitable insulation material if the safety factor is 2.9
and the length of each disc is 18 cm. Note: The total height of the discs should not exceed
100 cm.

153
Q14) A square parallel plate capacitor with plate area of 100 cm2 has plate separation of
3mm. The airspace between the plates is partially filled by two 1 mm thick dielectric
slabs, as shown in the figure. One slab has a constant of 2.5 and the other slab has a
constant of 4. Compute the capacitance of the system.

Note: for parallel slabs;

L
^ & &
b bL
a& a#

Q15) A single-core cable has a conductor diameter of 2.5 cm. Find the thickness of
insulation required for kilometer length. Use a rubber with resistivity of 4.5x1012 Ω.m and
insulation resistance of 495 M Ω.

154
 Chapter Five
Radiation Insulation

155
156
 Chapter Five
Radiation Insulation

5.1 Introduction to Radiation

It is known that various electromagnetic waves and particles emitted from radioactive
sources have direct and indirect effects on living organisms, where many symptoms could
be happened when expose to radiation more than allowed. Workers in nuclear facilities
and X-ray labs exposed to the risk of external, which affects the face, hands or internal
exposure due to the entry of radioactive particles into the body through breathing and
food. To avoid the radiation risk in this area it is necessary to know the nature of radiation
and methods of isolating and comply with the instructions for the prevention of it as
mentioned in this chapter.

5.2 Definition of Radiation

Radiation is an energy released as electromagnetic waves and has many forms, such as:
light, ultraviolet and infrared or small particles from radioactive materials like alpha, beta
and gamma. The source of this radiation is universe, sun, nuclear reactors, industrial and
laboratory applications. Some substances found in the earth are also characterized by
radiation. There is a little radioactivity within the body. Electromagnetic waves consist of
photons; shortest waves are gamma rays while the longest are radio waves.

5.3 Classification of Radiation

Radiation could be classified according to its danger as following:

1. Non-Ionizing Radiation: Examples of this radiation light, infrared, ultraviolet and

radio waves. This type of radiation is safe usually.

2. Ionizing Radiation: Such as cosmic rays, gamma rays, alpha particles and beta
particles. It is dangerous because of its ability of ionizing.

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 Figure (5.1) Electromagnetic waves

5.4 Non-Ionizing Radiation

The sources of these rays are sun or industrial applications. These rays are not inherently
dangerous, but when prolonged exposure to it has caused cases of discomfort or
headaches queasiness or dryness of hair and sometimes minor skin burns. Clothes,
sunglasses and shading protect us from these rays. The forms of non-ionizing radiation
are:

1. Light (visible spectrum): it is a very useful radiation. It provides the light and control
many biological functions such as: strengthen of bone tissue, maintain the blood pressure,
diabetes level, cholesterol level and psychological comfortable. It has a big role in the
growth of plants by photosynthesis.

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2. Infrared: it is very useful where provides the warmth and used for many applications
like: night vision, short-range wireless communications and remote sensing.

3. Ultraviolet: it is a useful radiation except one band of it. These rays help to provide the
body with vitamin (D). There are many application of UV like: water and medical
sterilization, reducing the yellowing with newborns. The long exposure to UV harms the
skin and the eye. It is worth to refer that that these rays are the cause of damaging plastics
and insulating polymeric materials because of their ability to destroy the chemical bonds.

4. Radio waves: such as the broadcasting of radio, television, telecommunications and

microwave wavelengths. Despite the benefits of these rays in the transfer of information,
they have some harmful effects on humans, especially on the nervous side and the senses.

5.5 Ionizing Radiation

It includes rays or particles come from the sun, the universe or radioactive elements (such
as radium, uranium, plutonium, thorium, iodine, potassium, zircon, phosphor and radon).
The radiation that is emitted from these sources could ionize the medium, which means
detaching the electrons from atoms. The forms of ionizing radiation are:

1. Alpha particles: alpha particle is emitted from the nucleus during the decay. It consists
of two protons and two neutrons (i.e. similar to the nucleus of the helium atom) so alpha
has positive electrical charge. These particles lose energy quickly as soon as leaving the
radioactive element. Hence, the penetration of alpha particles to the skin is weak, and it
could be blocked by a thick paper. The risk of alpha particles appeared when enter to the
internal parts of the body by breathing, eating or wounding.

2. Beta particles: These particles are emitted from the nucleus during the decay. It is
noticing, during the breakdown of neutrons, that beta particles may be produced either as
electrons (negative charge) or as positrons (positive charge), or in sometimes whole
neutrons are emitted to the outside. Beta has more penetration force than alpha, and some
beta particles can penetrate the skin and damage it. It also causes harmful effects if
entered to the body. Beta radiation could be blocked by a piece of wood or a layer of
aluminum (10-20 mm).

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3. Gamma rays: This type of radiation represents the energy generated by the
disintegration that is occurred within the nucleus. The emission of alpha and beta particles
pushes the nucleus to the stability phase, hence emits energy (photons) out in the form of
gamma rays. There is a kind of gamma rays called annihilation radiation which is
produced from the combination of electrons and positrons. this radiation is one of the
most dangerous types of radiation and has very high penetrating force, where it can easily
penetrates the human body and absorbed by the tissues. It could be blocked by a barrier of
concrete or a layer of lead (4-12 mm).

Figure (5.3) Shielding for some types of radiation

4. X-rays: These rays are similar to gamma rays in terms of features but differ in the
source, where X-rays emitted from the outside of nucleus (transportation of electrons
between the energy levels), while gamma rays are emitted from the inside of nucleus.
Penetration force and permeability of these rays are less than that of gamma rays, where it
could be blocked by a thin layer of lead (1-3 mm).

5. Cosmic rays: These are high-energy particles coming from the space. Mostly, this
radiation is dissipated through the upper layers of the atmosphere, but a few percent in.
This dangerous radiation could be blocked by a layer of composite materials or chemical
compounds.

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5.6 Radioactivity
Most of the chemical elements have the same number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus. In
some elements the number of neutrons is greater than the number of protons, so that be unstable
and called radioactive isotopes. These isotopes emit small particles from the nuclei such as
alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays. Over time, these elements are transformed
into other elements less weight and have various chemical and physical characteristics.
The emitted particles and rays are considered as ionizing radiation. The characteristics of
radioactive isotopes depend on the type of radiation emitted, energy of radiation and its
half-life.

Figure (5.2) Disintegration of the radioactive isotope

Half-Life: It is the time needed to disintegrate half of atoms of a radioactive element,

hence reducing the activity by half. For example, the half-life of (iodine -131) is 8 days
while the half-life of (radium -226) is 1600 years.

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5.7 Risks of Ionizing Radiation
The ionizing radiation could ionize the medium, which means detaching the electrons
from atoms. The Ionizing of the constituent elements of the biological material of the
recipient's body causes the increase or decrease in the size of the cell or fragmentation,
hence the formation of toxic compounds that may move to other parts of the body,
leading to serious damage. These effects are appeared either early or later in the form of
symptoms or disease like cancerous diseases in addition to the hereditary effects of
genetic influences. Workers in radiation facilities may get internal or external exposure.
Internal exposure to ionizing radiation occurs when inhaling or swallowing radionuclides
or entry into the bloodstream. External exposure occurs when radioactive materials
attached to the skin. The type of damage is inflicted by the amount of radiation dose to
the body according to the level of exposing. Usually the risks of radiation are: skin
redness, burns, hair loss, syndrome of radiation, bleeding, infertility and cancer in some
cases.

Figure (5.4) Warning sign for ionizing radiation

5.8 Radiation Measuring

Radiation intensity is measured in a unit called Sievert, denoted as (Sv) and consists of
100 Rem. Human may expose to a dose of radiation that is measured using an instrument
called radiation meter, as shown in the figure, which often works within the limits (0.1 -
200 μSv/h).

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 Figure (5.5) Radiation meter

5.9 Means to Minimize the Risk of Radiation

Person who is working in the field of radiation may expose to a dose of radiation
depending on the nature of the work. The commitment to the following aspects is very
important to reduce the risk of radiation.
1. Time of exposing: radiation is less dangerous in the case of reducing the exposure
time (time spent by the person beside the radiation source). The maximum
exposure limit allowed to the human is (0.05 Sv/yr) according to the
recommendations of international councils such as (ICRP) and (USNRC). In order
to calculate the amount that is permitted to those working in the field of radiation,
the exposure limit is divided by the total working time. Hence, for 8 hours and
360 days, the allowed limit is 17 μSv/h.
2. Exposure distance: the increasing of distance far from the radiation source will
reduce the intensity of the radiation (inverse relationship) according to the inverse-
square law as following:

I1 L12 = I2 L22

Where:
I = Intensity of radiation
L= distance away from the source

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 3. Shielding: radiation could be reduced using barriers consisting of metals or
materials have the ability to either absorb the radiation and convert it to heat or
reflect it. For each type of radiation there is appropriate barrier setting according
to the intensity and the energy of radiation.

Figure (5.6) Exposure limits

5.10 Linear Attenuation Coefficient

Also called beam attenuation coefficient, is a characteristic indicates how easily a
material can be penetrated by a beam (radiation) of electromagnetic waves or particles. A
large attenuation coefficient means that the beam is quickly attenuated (weakened) as it
passes through the medium, and a small attenuation coefficient means that the medium is
relatively transparent to the beam. Simply, the linear attenuation coefficient is the
susceptibility of a material to reduce the radiation. It has the symbol (μ) and has the unit
(cm-1). The following table shows the value of the linear attenuation coefficient for some
materials.

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 Table (5.1) Attenuation coefficient in (cm-1) for a range of gamma-rays

Energy (keV)
Material
100 200 500
Carbon 0.335 0.274 0.196
Aluminum 0.435 0.324 0.227
Iron 2.72 1.09 0.655
Copper 3.8 1.309 0.73
Lead 59.7 10.15 1.64

It is noticed that, the value of linear attenuation coefficient decreases with the increasing
of radiation energy (eV) passing through the material, as shown in the figure below.

• More values for different elements are available on the site:

http://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData/XrayMassCoef/tab3.html

Figure (5.7) Values of linear attenuation coefficient of some materials

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Half value layer: is the thickness of the material that satisfies half reduction of radiation
(ie, attenuated by 50%). It is measured in centimeters and symbolized as (HVL). The
following table shows some HVL for some elements.

Table (5.2) HVL in (cm) for a range of gamma-rays

Energy (keV)
Material
100 200 500
Carbon 2.07 2.53 3.54
Aluminum 1.59 2.14 3.05
Iron 0.26 0.64 1.06
Copper 0.18 0.53 0.95
Lead 0.012 0.068 0.42

5.11 Calculation of Radiation Attenuation

Beer-Lambert Law could be used to calculate the amount of attenuated radiation (gamma
rays and rays) exit from the barrier, as following:

c cd e fg

Where;

I = radiation intensity behind the barrier

Io = radiation intensity in front of the barrier
μ = linear attenuation coefficient
x = thickness of the barrier

Example (1): The intensity of 500 keV gamma-rays has measured at a zone and it was 25
μSv/h. What would be the intensity after using a shield of 8 mm lead. (μ=1.64 cm-1)

Solution:

c cd e fg
= 25 exp (-1.64*0.8) = 6.73 μSv/h
Since the intensity is less than 17 μSv/h, therefore it sounds good.

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Example (2): Three materials: aluminum (8 cm), iron (4 cm) and lead (0.4 cm) have
exposed to 18 μSv/h at 200 keV. Determine the best shield.
Solution:

Material μ (cm-1) Thickness (cm) I (μSv/h)

Aluminum 0.324 8 1.35
Iron 1.09 4 0.23
Lead 10.15 0.4 0.31

In this case, iron has the minimum attenuation, so it is the best shield.

Example (3): What thickness of copper is required to reduce the radiation intensity by
10%. Assume 200 keV.
Solution:
From HVL table for copper at 200 keV:
HVL = 0.53 cm
HVL means reduction by 50% so,

% X
50 0.53
10 ?

X = 10 * 0.53 / 50 = 0.106 cm

Example (4): In the x-ray lab, a source of 60 keV radiates 1000 μSv (0.5 m beside the
focal spot). What is the radiation intensity behind monitoring glass shielded by 1 mm
tungsten (μ=58.5 cm-1) at 2 m far from the source.

Solution:
I1 L12 = I2 L22

1000 (0.5)2 = I2 (2)2

I2 = 62.5 μSv radiation at 2 m

= 62.5 exp (-58.5*0.1) = 0.18 μSv behind the shield

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5.12 Applications of Radiation Insulation

1. Nuclear power plant

The main part of the nuclear plant is the reactor which contains the units of nuclear fuel
(uranium, thorium, plutonium or iodine). Since there are series of nuclear fissions, hence
the reactor is surrounded by a thick wall of concrete and steel to retain high vapor
pressure and to prevent radiation leakage (particles) to the outside. It should also cover
the surfaces in direct contact with the nuclear explosions by a layer made of highly
absorbent material to neutrons, such as cadmium alloy. The energy emitted (photon) is
absorbed by the water which encloses the reactor. This energy leads to boil the water
which is taken to the turbine to generate electricity.

Figure (5.8) The fusion in nuclear power plants

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2. Radioactive waste
It means the remnants of nuclear plants or it is related to chemical anti-armor weapons.
The problem of radioactive waste emerged several decades ago, it was found that these
materials remain effective and radiate particles that could be absorbed by nearby plants
and insects and then transmit to humans and infect the internal parts. However, there are
several ways to keep the danger of these substances, including:
a. Storing in plastic barrels into the ground and in the desert areas.
b. Storing in concrete tanks surrounded by salt or gypsum.

Figure (5.9) The storing of radioactive waste

3. X-ray lab
In hospitals, it should pay some attention to the X-ray lab. It should offer a private room
for X-ray capturing without any internal windows. Wall should be built from brick or
concrete, but if there is an internal separator, door or control window, then it should be
isolated by a layer of lead (2 mm). X-ray tube should be placed at least half meter far
from the body.

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4. Airplane
Recently, the external parts of the aircraft are replaced by composite materials in order to
reduce weight and cost. This procedure increases the risk of radiation because the
attenuation coefficient of polymeric material is very weak. To process this problem, a
deposition of a thin layer of lead is required, or intercalation small grains of absorbent
materials (such as bromine) within the composite material.

Figure (5.10) Materials used in airplane

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5. Spacecraft
Spacecraft is exposed to high-energy gamma rays, cosmic rays and particles. So, it should
use accurate shielding materials. External shells are covered by alloys of high z-materials
such as: lead, tungsten, gold, vanadium and titanium. For the inner layers, usually use
materials with high hydrogen such as lithium-hydride. In addition to the prevention of
radiation, shields must enclose some magnetic parts made of ferromagnetic materials such
as (iron, nickel and cobalt). The providing of magnetic field protects the craft against
solar hurricanes and cosmic rays.

5.13 Advanced Techniques in Shielding

The use of composite materials technology in radiation barriers is common because of the
economic and qualitative benefits. The following table shows some composite materials
used in radiation shields and their applications.

Table (5.3) Composite materials used in radiation shielding

Density
Material Description of composite Application
(g/cm3)
Pb6 Anhydride (polymer+Pb+W+Ti) 5.6 Nuclear
Jxa Polyamide (polyamer+Pb+W+Gd) 3.4 Nuclear
GFRP Glass fibers 2 Airplane
Graphite-epoxy intercalated by
P100+Br 1.7 Airplane
bromine
hydrogenous using liquid-crystal Airplane,
Kevlar or Vectra 1.6
polymer (LCO) spacecraft
Airplane,
Nomex or Aramid Aramid polymers 1.5
spacecraft
Polyamide without any dense
Interlayer 1.4 Radioactive waste
absorber elements
Dibutyl Sebacate Organic ester 0.9 X-ray lab

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5.14 Protective Garments
Radiation shielding garments are generally used to protect workers and occupants in
nuclear, industrial and medical application from direct and indirect radiation during
diagnostic imaging in hospitals, clinics and dental offices. Radiation shielding garments
include x-ray aprons, vests, kilts, skirts and thyroid shields. Radiation shielding material
options including standard lead, lead composite and non-lead shielding materials, as
following:

1. Standard lead: This kind of garment manufactured with 100% lead. Lead is a
chemical element in the carbon group with the symbol Pb and atomic number 82.
Lead is a soft, malleable and corrosion-resistant material. The high density of lead
(11.34 grams/cm³) makes it a useful shield against X-ray and gamma-ray
radiation. Lead, in its pure form, is brittle and cannot be worn as apparel. To
transform pure lead into a wearable garment it is mixed with additives (like vinyl)
to make it flexible. The lead then layered to the desired thickness to achieve the
required lead equivalency and incorporated into the radiation shielding garment.
2. Lead-based composite: It is a mixture of lead and other light weight radiation
attenuating metals or materials, reducing the weight by up to 25% compared to
standard lead garment. The lead composite blend includes a mixture of lead, tin,
rubber, PVC and other proprietary attenuating metals.
3. Non-lead shielding material: or lead-free garment is made from other types of
attenuating metals including tungsten, antimony, bismuth and tin or other
elements. Non-lead garments are recyclable and safe for non-hazardous disposal.

When choosing x-ray aprons, some important factors should be considered like:

• Attenuation: this deals with the intensity of incident radiation or dose exposure
allowed.
• Equivalency: There are typically three standard levels of lead equivalency
protection for radiation shielding garments including 0.25 mm, 0.35 mm and 0.5
mm.
• Peak kilovolts: The definition of peak kilovolt is the maximum electrical potential
across an x-ray tube during an exposure; it is expressed in kilovolts like (80 kVp,
100 kVp and 120 kVp).

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Figure (5.11) X-ray apron

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174
 Exercises No. (5)

Q1) Complete the following sentences:

1. In order to process the risk of radiation in airplanes, it is necessary intercalation small

grains of absorbent materials such as ------- within the composite material.

2. --------- rays are emitted from the inside of nucleus due to the decay of particles.

3. --------- rays are emitted from the outside of nucleus due to the transportation of
electrons between the energy levels.

4. Spacecraft is exposed to high-energy rays and particles. So, external shells are covered
by alloys of high z-materials such as --------------.

Q2) Choose the correct definition.

1. Particle that emitted from the inside of nucleus due to the decay of neutrons.

A. Alpha B. Beta C. X D. Gamma

2. Particle that emitted from the inside of nucleus and has 2 neutrons and 2 protons.

A. Alpha B. Beta C. X D. Gamma

3. The best ionizing radiation insulator among all.

A. Steel B. Tungsten C. Aluminum D. Wood

4. An indication of the susceptibility of a material to reduce the radiation.

A. Half-life B. Radioactivity C. Resistance D. Attenuation coefficient

5. The thickness of a material required to reduce the radiation by 50 %.

A. Half-life B. lead equivalent thickness C. HVL D. Attenuation coefficient

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Q3) Gamma rays cannot penetrate the atmosphere even though they have high energy
while light can do that, why?

Q4) Prove the relationship: HVL = 0.693 / μ

Q5) In the x-ray lab, a source of 100 keV radiates 800 μSv (0.5 m beside the focal spot).
What is the radiation intensity behind monitoring glass shielded by 0.5 mm tungsten at 2
m far from the source?

Material Linear attenuation coefficient (1/cm)

100 keV 200 keV 500 keV
Fe 2.72 1.09 0.655
Cu 3.8 1.309 0.73
Pb 59.7 10.15 1.64
W 62.8 12.2 1.84

Q6) In the x-ray lab, a source of 100 keV radiates 900 μSv (0.4 m beside the focal spot).
What is the radiation intensity behind a monitoring glass shielded by 0.8 mm lead
(µ=59.3 cm-1), as shown in the figure below.

176
Q7) A source of cosmic rays radiates 50 μSv outside airplane windows, as shown in the
figure below. What is the radiation intensity inside the airplane cabin if the glass is
shielded by 0.1 mm lead (µ=10.15 cm-1).

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178
 Chapter Six
Fireproofing Insulation

179
180
 Chapter Six

Fireproofing Insulation

6.1 Introduction to Fireproofing

Most fatal fires occur when people are asleep in their homes, or aboard their offices.
Residential fires may occur due to cooking, smoking, electrical shocks, or gas leakage. It
could kill many people every day as smoke can lull a person into a deep slumber. Fire
protection has since evolved into a branch discipline of engineering where it can be
described as the application of science and engineering principles to protect people and
their environments from the destructive effects of fire and smoke. As it relates to the
petrochemical industry today, simply stated, fireproofing serves to maintain the structure
of the building stable and for other applications as well like steel members and
vessel/pipe supports for a defined period of time when the elements are exposed to a fire.
In practice, owners, in association with fire protection specialists, typically identify risks
and design safeguards that aid in preventing, controlling and mitigating the effects of a
fire.

When thinking about fire protection, it is generally looking for two models: Active Fire
Protection (fire suppression systems and fire alarms) and Passive Fire Protection (fire
barriers and space separation). Active fire protection is characterized by items or systems
that require a certain amount of motion and response in order to work. These means and
methods include fire suppression and fire detection. Fire suppression can be either
manually operated systems like fire extinguishers, fire sprinklers or piping systems. Fire
detectors can be systems such as fire detectors and smoke alarms. On the other hand,
passive fire protection includes preventing the fire and minimizing the effect of burning,
or slowing the spread of fire by breaking up the fire into component sub-sets thus
controlling the fire spread. These procedures limit building damage and provide more
time for personnel evacuation. The focus of this chapter will be on the passive systems
using suitable fireproofing materials, how they work and the evaluation of structural
components, once these materials have been applied and the components put into service
for extended periods of time.

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Practical fireproofing building can prevent extreme tragedies by using materials that are
relatively fire-resistant. Fire-resistant materials should not be confused with fire-retardant
materials. Whilst a fire resistant material is one that is designed to resist burning and
withstand heat, fire retardant materials are designed to burn slowly. The key is to
construct a building in which a fire would take effect slowly, allowing the occupants
plenty of time to escape.

Figure (6.1) Examples of fireproofing materials

6.2 Types of Fireproofing Materials

Fireproofing material could be classified according to its strength, functionality, and

availability to:

1. Fire-resistant materials (used in building parts)

• Glass wool and rock wool

• Gypsum boards
• Asbestos
• Perlite boards
• Proplex Sheets
• Calcium silicate
• Brick

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• Concrete
• Intumescent paint
• Glass
• MgO Panels

2. Fire-retardant materials (used in textiles manufacturing)

• PBI
• Aramids
• Coated nylon
• Carbon foam
• Polyhydroquinone - dimidazopyridine
• Melamine
• Modacrylic
• Wool
• Leather

6.3 Application of Fireproofing

Fireproofing is a passive fire protection measure, and can be used for many applications,
like structures, pipelines and tanks. Applying a certification listed fireproofing system to
certain structures allows them to have a fire-resistance rating. An item classed as fireproof
is resistant in specified circumstances, and may burn or be rendered inoperable by fire
exceeding the intensity or duration that it is designed to withstand. However, fireproofing
materials could be applied generally in: construction, metallic structure, electrical
contacts, traffic tunnels, air-conditioning ducts, pipes and pressure vessels.

1. Construction: such as; walls, timber battens, wooden door and windows.
Concrete and gypsum are good examples of fireproofing material in construction
and they are designed specifically to be fire resistant. Recently, many incorporated
chemical additives may be used such as fiberglass that makes the board more
dimensionally stable when it is exposed to high heat.
2. Metallic structure: Fire resistance can be sprayed on the steel to provide heat
resistance. Sprays are divided into "wet Spray" or "dry spray" materials,
describing how the material is mixed and applied. This is clearly evident in new
airports, shopping malls, hotels, sports stadiums, etc. Intumescent coatings or

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 paints are used to coat steel structure where it reacts under the influence of fire
and swell to many times their original thickness, producing an insulating layer that
protects from the effects of the fire. Intumescent material is generally
accomplished with three components: mineral acid catalyst, typically ammonium
polyphosphate (APP), carbon, typically pentaerythritol or dipentaerythritol, and
blowing agent, typically melamine.

Figure (6.2) Fireproofing structural steelwork

3. Electrical contacts: such as; switches, cable trays and control joints. Fire Protect
Putty Pads have been developed to maintain the fire resistance and acoustic
integrity of plasterboard partitions, where plastic electric socket boxes have been
fitted. They also make a significant contribution to the reduction of air leakage
and reduce infiltration load, thus energy costs and carbon emissions. These pads
are usually made of silicon based polymers.
4. Traffic tunnels: Traffic tunnels may be traversed by vehicles carrying flammable
goods, such as petrol, liquefied petroleum gas and other hydrocarbons, which are
known to cause a very rapid temperature rise and high ultimate temperatures in
case of a fire. Where hydrocarbon transports are permitted in tunnel construction
and operations, accidental fires may occur, resulting in the need for fireproofing of
traffic tunnels with concrete linings. Traffic tunnels are not ordinarily equipped

184
 with fire suppression means, such as fire sprinkler systems, thus it is very
important to control hydrocarbon fires by active fireproofing materials like fire-
resistant cement and ceramic tiles.
5. Air-conditioning ducts and service penetrations: For this application,
companies have developed ultimate fireproofing materials based on innovative
mineral wool or rock wool, which offer:
- Optimum fire resistance times for ductwork (up to 2 hours).
- Lightweight (up to 3 times lighter than conventional solutions).
- Ease of installation.
6. Pipes and pressure vessels: Fireproofing is employed in refineries and
petrochemical plants to minimize the escalation of a fire that would occur with the
failure of structural supports and the overheating of pressure vessels and pipes.
This section is for the materials and construction of fire resistant casings to pipes.
The thickness of fire proofing cover shall not be less than the requirement for two
hours fire rating. The following type of casing is approved: Gunite, prefabricated
cementitious board and intumescent coatings. Gunite is a mixture (usually
cement-sand) applied for a pressure vessel, producing a dense hard layer of
concrete covering it. Gunite is the most widely used method for fireproofing of
pipes. The reinforcing fabric shall be 50 mm thickness and 1-2 mm steel
galvanized, with a clearance of not less than 20 mm from the face of the member.

6.4 Contemporary Ways of Fireproofing

Recently, many fireproofing mixtures and solutions have been used and they are available
and affordable commercially. Fireproofing spray is primarily used to protect rigid
structural elements including columns, beams, metal beams, and some steel joists from
the effects of heat generated during a fire. The technical name for applied fireproofing
spray is Sprayed Fire-Resistive Material (SFRM). It is used as part of a building’s passive
fireproofing strategy. Spray applied fireproofing has thermal and acoustical properties
and controls condensation.
Passive fire protection products, such as fireproofing, is used to delay (or even prevent)
the failure of steel and concrete structures that are exposed to the high temperatures found
during a fire. They do this by thermally insulating the structural members to keep them
below the temperatures that cause failure. Fire spray may also provide acoustical
treatment and thermal insulation for large areas where the structural members and metal
185
columns are left exposed. Spray fireproofing is not suitable for surfaces exposed to
moisture or high humidity levels. The moisture and humidity will deteriorate the
products. In addition, the moisture may cause mold growth.
SFRM is composed of cement or gypsum and often contains other materials like mineral
wool, quartz, perlite, or vermiculite. The gypsum or cement makes up the majority of the
solution and is selected because it hardens as it dries. The other materials are used to help
lighten the solution or to add air as in insulator. Chemical hardeners are sometimes used
to either speed up hardening or to make the final fireproofing harder than normal. Applied
fireproofing is available as a wet or dry spray formula. The fireproofing is generally
delivered as a dry powder in bag, which is then mixed with water in the field. Proper lung
and eye protection is required during mixing and application.
The following figure shows a typical spray fireproofing applied on steel columns and
beams.

Figure (6.3) Application of fireproofing spray

186
 Exercises No. (6)

Q1) Select the correct answer:

1. Fireproofing materials could be:

Choices: A. Retardant B. Resistant C. Both D. None

2. One of the common fire-resistant materials is:

Choices: A. PVC B. Glass C. Wood D. EPS

3. One of the common fire-retardant materials is

Choices: A. PVC B. Oil C. Wood D. Aramid

4. The fireproofing material that is commonly used around electrical sockets is:

Choices: A. EPS B. PVC C. Ceramic D. Sand based polymer

5. One of the best fireproofing materials is:

Choices: A. Cement B. Perlite C. Sand D. Gypsum

Q2) Classify the types of fireproofing materials.

Q3) What are the main applications that require fireproofing?

Q4) Discuss the nature of intumescent materials used for metallic structure.

Q5) What is SFRM? Explain briefly.

187
188
 Answers
Chapter One
Q1)
1. Thermal conductivity
2. Extruded polystyrene (XPS)
3. Internal
4. External
5. Phase change material (PCM)
6. Thermal bridge
7. Reflective
Q2)
1. Keep the indoor temperature stable
2. Reduce the energy required for heating or cooling the house
3. Keep the building materials from thermal stress
4. Reduce energy bills
5. Reduce the burning of fuel in power plants
6. Reduce the emission of greenhouse gases
Q3) Thermal conductivity, reflectivity, absorptivity, heat capacity, density, thermal
expansion, thermal bridge coefficient, strength, moisture content, safety
Q4) For ordinary glass, heat is transferred to the inside easily so the glass still cold and it
appears in blue. Smart glass restricts the heat flow so turn hot and appears in red and
yellow.
Q5) Heat could be transferred in three modes: conduction, convection and radiation. Air
has a good resistance to conduction but it can easily transfer convection and radiation,
thus it is undesired in comparison to solids.
Q6)
PCM: a material that consequently oscillate between solid and liquid states. It absorbs
heat in daytime and releases it overnight such as paraffin and salt hydrates.
Thermal mass: a material with high heat capacity, thus high energy storage such as
concrete, rocks and water.
Thermal bridge: is an area in the building envelope in which the highest heat transfer
compared with neighboring areas, this causing the failure of building materials, the spread
of moisture and mold growth.
Thermal resistance: is the ability of the material to obstruct the heat flow. It is calculated
by dividing the thickness per the thermal conductivity of the material.
Overall heat transfer coefficient: is the factor that is used to determine the optimum
thickness of the insulation material in buildings. It is also called U-Value. It is the inverse
of total thermal resistance.
Thermal load: is the summation of all sources of heat on a building, such as heat loss
through the structure (walls, roof and floor), solar radiation through windows, indoor-
outdoor air temperature difference (ventilation and infiltration), internal heat (lighting,
respiration and equipment).

189
Q7) Glasswool (B), EPS (D), PU (A), PC (C)
Q8) 2.67 TR, 1.62 TR
Q9) 3.66 TR, 1.92 TR
Q10) 1.68 TR, 1.56 TR
Q11) 1.83 TR, 1.52 TR
Q12) 4 cm
Q13)28 C
Q14) Images have been captured in the summer, where figure (a) is before insulation
where heat is transferred to the inside easily, while figure (b) is after insulation where the
heat is eliminated outside.

Chapter Two
Q1)
1. Sound transmission loss (STL)
2. Epoxy
3. VDC
4. 500 Hz
Q2)
1. Flanking
2. Inner
3. MLV
4. NRC
5. STC
6. Impedance tube
7. SL meter
8. 10-12 W/m2
9. Sabin
10. Heat
Q3)
1. Reflective materials: these have rigid surfaces thus reflect the majority of sound
without transmission or absorption, such as ceramic tiles and glass.
2. Absorbing materials: these are quite porous such as loose materials. They interact with
sound passing through them, converting the vibrations into heat.
Q4)
1. Use suitable damper for high-vibration machines.
2. Use soundproofing for the purpose of absorption and dispersion of sounds.
3. Use of ear protectors as a prerequisite for workers.
Q5) STL = 45 dB
Q6) 50.8 dB, 57.7 dB
Q7) 27 dB, 19 dB
Q8) 250

190
Q9) 31 dB, 27 dB
Q10) 44 dB, 35 dB
Q11) 28 dB, 15 mm
Q12) 2.3 s

Chapter Three
Q1)
1. Asphalt
2. Poly acrylonitrile
3. Permeability
4. Condensation barrier
Q2)
1. Bitumen
2. Epoxy
3. Sorptivity
Q3)
1. Damage of building materials.
2. Efflorescence of the walls, floor and ceiling.
3. Damaging of the paint.
4. The failure in the timber used and wooden décor.
5. Corrosion of metallic parts.
6. Proliferation of fungi and unhealthy situation for users in the building.
7. This reducing the performance of thermal insulation.

Q4) Bitumen, acrylic, epoxy, grout, fiberglass, ceramics

Q5)
1. Paint foundation surface using bitumen paints (or any suitable waterproofing) to
prevent water transport and to provide adhesion between the concrete and insulation
layer.
2. Put a layer of tarpaulin to protect the foundation from direct contact with water.
3. Put a layer of thermal insulator.
4. Fill the neighboring land to the foundation by stones to resist the permeability of the
water as much as possible (see the figure below).
Q6)
1. After the casting of concrete, surface should be cleaned and the cracks should be
treated carefully using grout or epoxy.
2. Provide appropriate inclination towards the gutters and treating the cumulative area by
a layer of cement.
3. Paint concrete surfaces using bitumen paints to provide adhesion between the concrete
and the insulation layer.

191
4. Put a layer of waterproofing material.
5. Put a layer of thermal insulating material.
6. Put a layer of soil and then covering with impervious tiles or insulating membrane such
as acrylic.
Q7) Capillary action: is the ability of water to transport through the small pores of the
material due to the forces of adhesion and cohesion. The capillary action occurs in porous
materials like sponge, brick, concrete and many construction materials. The quantity of
water absorbed into the material by capillary action is given by:
( ) * √,

Chapter Four
Q1)
1. Dipole
2. Epoxy
3. Dielectric material
4. PVC
5. ABS
6. Oil
7. Mechanical
8. Strain
9. Ceramics
Q2)
1. Discs type
2. All of these
3. 60 kV/cm
4. Both (B) and (C).
5. Suspension type
6. Pin type
7. 33 kV
Q3)
1. Resistance: Ability of the material to repel the electrical current.
2. Permittivity: Ability of the material to store electrical energy for an electric field.
3. Polarization: Ability of the material to undergo the separation between electrical
charges.
Q4)
Dielectric Constant: The relative permittivity of a material with respect to
vacuum.
Dielectric Strength: The maximum electric voltage that an insulating material can
withstand without breaking down. It is measured in (V/m).
Q5) Electric susceptibility (x): is a measure of how easily a dielectric polarizes in
response to an electric field, as following:
ε =(1+x) εo

192
But, ε = εo εr
εo εr =(1+x) εo
εr =1+x
But, for vacuum εr = 1,
Hence, x =0

Q6)
1. Primary insulator: is a flexible material used to insulate the conductors and
prevent any contact.
2. Filler: is a material used to fill the gap between insulated wires and the jacket.
3. Jacket: is the external shell of the cable usually made from solid.
Q7) Pin type, suspension type, strain type and long rod type.

Q8)
Low voltage Medium voltage High voltage
Pin-type Suspension-type Suspension-type
1 disc 2-6 discs More than 8 discs
Plastic, rubber or ceramic Ceramic, porcelain or glass Ceramic, porcelain or glass
Used for supply lines Used for distribution lines Used for main transmission lines
Q9)
1. Piezoelectric materials: those have electrical voltage across the sides of a
material when it subjected to a mechanical stress, such as crystals, ceramics
and polymers.
2. Ferroelectric materials: some piezoelectric materials show a spontaneous
polarization without mechanical stress, such as PZT, BaTiO3 and PbTiO3.
3. Pyroelectric materials: those materials that generate a temporary voltage when
they are heated or cooled, such as: most of piezoelectrics and ferroelectrics.
Q10) SiO2 because of its high energy gap.
Q11) From table, the material is (PTFE/Teflon). C = 0.935 pF
Q12) No. of discs = 10
Q13) Glass with 5 discs.
Q14) C = 54 pF
Q15) 1.25 cm

Chapter Five
Q1)
1. Lead
2. Gamma
3. X
4. Titanium

193
Q2)
1. Beta
2. Alpha
3. Tungsten
4. Attenuation coefficient
5. HVL
Q3) When Gamma rays pass through the atmosphere; they ionize matter when they
collide with it. So, they dissipate their own energy in those collisions. On the other hand,
light is not absorbed by the molecules and atoms in the atmosphere, so it reaches the
ground level easily.
Q4)
I = Io Exp (- μ x)
0.5 x Io = Io Exp (- μ HVL)
Ln (0.5) = - μ HVL
HVL = 0.693 / μ
Q5) 2.16 μsv
Q6) 0.28 μSv
Q7) 40.6 μsv

Chapter Six
Q1)
1. Both
2. Glass
3. Aramid
4. Sand based polymer
5. Perlite
Q2)
1. Fire-resistant materials (used in building parts)
2. Fire-retardant materials (used in textiles manufacturing)
Q3) Fireproofing materials could be applied in: construction, metallic structure, electrical
contacts, traffic tunnels, air-conditioning ducts, pipes and pressure vessels.
Q4) Intumescent paints are used to coat steel structure where it reacts under the influence
of fire and swell to many times their original thickness, producing an insulating layer that
protects from the effects of the fire. Intumescent material is generally accomplished with
three components: mineral acid catalyst, typically ammonium polyphosphate (APP),
carbon, typically pentaerythritol or dipentaerythritol, and blowing agent, typically
melamine.
Q5) Sprayed fire-resistive material (SFRM) is a primarily fireproofing spray used to
protect rigid structural elements including columns, beams, metal beams, and some steel
joists from the effects of heat generated during the fire. SFRM is composed of cement or
gypsum and often contains other materials like mineral wool, quartz, perlite, or
vermiculite.

194
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