Chapter 2

Fourier Theory and Communication Signals

Contents
 2.1 Introduction
 2.2 The Fourier Transform
 2.3 Properties of The Fourier Transform
 2.4 The Inverse Relationship between Time and Frequency
 2.5 Dirac Delta Function
 2.6 Fourier Transform of Periodic Signals
 2.7 Transmission of Signals Through Linear Systems
 2.8 Filters
 2.9 Low-Pass and Band-Pass Signals
 2.10 Band-Pass Systems
 2.11 Phase and Group Delay
 2.12 Sources of Information
 2.13 Numerical Computation of the Fourier Transform

2
 Chapter 2.1
Introduction
 Chapter 2.1 Introduction
 We identify deterministic signals as a class of signals whose
waveforms are defined exactly as functions of time.

 In this chapter we study the mathematical description of

such signals using the Fourier transform that provides the
link between the time-domain and frequency-domain
descriptions of signal.

 Another related issue that we study in this chapter is the

representation of linear time-invariant systems. Filters of
different kinds and certain communication channels are
important examples of this class of systems.

4
 Chapter 2.2
The Fourier Transform
Chapter 2.2 The Fourier Transform
 Fourier transform is defined as

G  f    g  t  exp   j 2 ft  dt


 g(t) denote a nonperiodic deterministic signal.

 j . 1
 variable f denotes frequency and t denotes time.

 Inverse Fourier transform is defined as


g  t    G  f  exp  j 2 ft  df


6
 Chapter 2.2 The Fourier Transform
 We have used a lowercase letter to denote the time function and
a uppercase letter to denote the corresponding frequency
function. The functions g(t) and G( f ) are said to constitute a
Fourier-transform pair.
 For the Fourier transform of a signal g(t) to exist, it is sufficient,
but not necessary, that g(t) satisfies three sufficient conditions
known collectively as Dirichlet’s conditions:
 The function g(t) is single-valued, with a finite number of
maxima and minima in any finite time interval.
 The function g(t) has finite number of discontinuities in any
finite time interval.
 The function g(t) is absolutely integrable, i.e.

 g  t  dt  


7
Chapter 2.2 The Fourier Transform
 We may safely ignore the question of the existence of the Fourier transform
of a time function when it is an accurately specified description of a
physically realizable signal.
 Physical realizability is a sufficient condition for the existence of a Fourier
transform.
1 T
g  t  dt
T  2T T
2
P  lim
 All energy signals are Fourier transformable.
Power Signal:0  P  

 Energy signals: E=  g  t  dt  ;  P  0 
2

  E  
 Plancherel’s theorem: if a time function g(t) is such that the value of the

energy    dt   is defined and finite, then the Fourier transform G( f )
2
g t

of the function g(t) exists and
  2

lim   g  t    G  f  exp  j 2 ft  df dt   0.
A

A
  A


8
 Chapter 2.2 The Fourier Transform
 Notations
 time t measured in second (s)
 frequency f measured in Hertz (Hz)
 angular frequency   2 f (radians per second, rad/s).
 A convenient shorthand notation for the transform relations:
 Fourier transformation
G  f   F  g  t 
 Inverse Fourier transformation
g  t   F 1 G  f  
where F   and F 1   play the roles of linear operators.
 Fourier-transform pair g  t  G f 

9
Chapter 2.2 The Fourier Transform
 Continuous Spectrum
 By using the Fourier transform operation, a pulse signal g(t) of
finite energy is expressed as a continuous sum of exponential
functions with frequencies in the interval -∞ ~ ∞. The amplitude
of a component of frequency f is proportional to G( f ), where
G( f ) is the Fourier transform of g(t).
 At any frequency f, the exponential function exp(j2 πft) is
weighted by the factor G( f )df , which is the contribution of G( f )
in an infinitesimal interval df centered at the frequency f.
 We may express the function g(t) in terms of the continuous sum
of such infinitesimal components:

g  t    G  f  exp  j 2 ft  df


10
 Chapter 2.2 The Fourier Transform
 In general, the Fourier transform G( f ) is a complex function of
frequency f : G  f   G  f  exp  j  f  
G  f  is called the continuous amplitude spectrum of g  t 
  f  is called the continuous phase spectrum of g  t 
 If g(t) is a real-valued function of t, then
 G(-f )=G*( f )
 |G(-f )|=|G*( f )| =|G( f )|: an even function of f
 Θ(-f )=-Θ( f ): an odd function of f
 The spectrum of a real-valued signal exhibits conjugate symmetry.

G  f    g  t  e j 2 ft dt G   f   G *  f   G  f  exp   j  f  

G   f   G   f  exp  j   f  
  
 * 
G * f   g t  e  j 2 ft
dt g t  e j 2 ft
dt  G   f 
   G  f  exp   j  f  

11
 Chapter 2.2 The Fourier Transform
 [Example 2.1] Rectangular Pulse
 Define a rectangular function of unit amplitude and unit
duration:  1 1
 1,   t 
rect  t    2 2
0, 1
Real-Valued t 
 2
and Symmetric
t
t
g  t   A rect   A rect   AT sinc  fT  (2.10)
T  T 
G  f    A exp   j 2 ft  dt
T /2

T /2

A  cos(2 ft )  j sin(2 ft )  dt
T /2

T /2
T
T /2 sin  2 ft  2
 2 A cos(2 ft )dt  2 A
Real-Valued 0 2 f 0
and Symmetric
 sin  fT   sin  
 AT    ATsinc  fT  sinc    
  fT  
Chapter 2.2 The Fourier Transform
 sinc function

sin  
sinc    


 As the pulse duration T is decreased, the first zero-crossing of

the amplitude spectrum |G( f )| moves up in frequency.
 The relationship between the time-domain and frequency-
domain is an inverse one.
 A pulse, narrow in time, has a significant frequency description
over a wide range of frequencies, and vice versa.
13
Chapter 2.2 The Fourier Transform
 [Example 2.2] Exponential Pulse
 A truncated form of a decaying exponential pulse is
shown in the following figure

(a)Decaying exponential pulse. (b)Rising exponential pulse.

14
Chapter 2.2 The Fourier Transform
 [Example 2.2] Exponential Pulse(cont.)
 It is convenient to mathematically define the decaying
exponential pulse using the unit step function.
 An unit step function is defined as:
1, t  0
 1
u t    , t  0
2
0 t  0

 Decaying exponential pulse of figure (a) can be

expressed as
g (t )  exp(at )u(t )

15
Chapter 2.2 The Fourier Transform
the Fourier transform of this pulse is

G  f    exp  at  exp   j 2 ft  dt
0

 exp  t  a  j 2 f  
 exp  t  a  j 2 f   dt  
0
 a  j 2 f  0

1

a  j 2 f
the Fourier-transform pair for the decaying exponential
pulse of figure (a) is therefore
1
exp  at  u  t 
a  j 2 f

16
 Chapter 2.2 The Fourier Transform
 [Example 2.2] Exponential Pulse(cont.)
 Rising exponential pulse of Fig. (b)

g  t   exp  at  u  t 
1
exp  at  u  t 
a  j 2 f
G  f    exp  at  exp   j 2 ft  dt
0



1
  exp t  a  j 2 f   dt 
0
 
 a  j 2 f
 The decaying and rising exponential pulses are both asymmetric
functions of time t .
 Their Fourier transforms are therefore complex valued.
 Truncated decaying and rising exponential pulses have the same
amplitude spectrum, but the phase spectrum of the one is the
negative of that of the other.
17
Fourier-transform Pairs

18
 Chapter 2.3
Properties of The Fourier Transform
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 Summary of properties of the Fourier transform

Property Mathematical Description

1. Linearity ag1  t   bg 2  t  aG1  f   bG2  f  ,

a and b are constants.
2. Time scaling 1  f 
g  at  G  where a is constant
a a
3. Duality If g  t  G  f  then G  t  g  f 
4. Time shifting g  t  t0  G  f  exp   j 2 ft0 
5. Frequency shifting
exp  j 2 fct  g  t  G  f  fc 

6. Area under g(t) g  t  dt  G  0 
 
20
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

Property Mathematical Description

7. Area under G  f  
g  0    G  f  df

d
8.Differentiation in
g t  j 2 fG  f 
the time domain dt
1 G  0
g   d G f   f
9. Integration in the t

time domain   j 2 f 2
10. Conjugate If g  t  G  f  then g   t  G   f 
functions

g1  t  g 2  t   G1   G  f    d 
11. Multiplication in
the time domain 

12. Convolution in
 g1  g 2  t    d G1  f  G2  f 
the time domain 
 2 
13. Rayleigh’s
 g  t  dt   G  f  df
2
energy theorem  
21
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 Property 1：Linearity (Superposition)

Let g1 (t ) G1 ( f ) and g 2 (t ) G2 ( f ) . Then for all
constants c1 and c2, we have
c1 g1  t   c2 g 2  t  c1G1  f   c2G2  f 

 Proof: the proof of this property follows simply from

the linearity of the integrals defining G( f ) and g(t).

22
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 [Example 2.3] Combinations of Exponential Pulses

Consider a double exponential pulse
exp  at  , t 0

g  t   1, t 0
exp  at  , t0

= exp  a t 
Symmetric in time domain.
Spectrum is real and symmetric.

This pulse may be viewed as the sum of a truncated decaying

exponential pulse and a truncated rising exponential pulse.
1 1 2a
G f     2
a  j 2 f a  j 2 f a   2 f 2

exp  a t 
2a
a   2 f 
2 2

23
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 [Example 2.3] Combinations of Exponential Pulses(cont.)

exp  at  , t 0

g  t   0, t 0
 exp  at  , t0


1, t 0

sgn  t   0, t 0
1, t0


g  t   exp  a t  sgn  t 

24
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 [Example 2.3] Combinations of Exponential Pulses(cont.)

F exp   a t  sgn  t   
1 1
  
a  j 2 f a  j 2 f
 j 4 f
 2
a   2 f 
2

 j 4 f
exp  a t  sgn  t 
a   2 f 
2 2

The Fourier transform is odd and purely imaginary.

 In general, a real odd-symmetric time function has an odd and
purely imaginary function as its Fourier transform.
25
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 Property 2：Time Scaling Compression of a function in

the time domain is equivalent
1  f 
Let g (t ) G( f ). Then g  at  G  to the expansion of its Fourier
a a transform in the frequency
domain, or vice versa.

 Proof： F  g  at     
   g  at  exp   j 2 ft  dt   at  t 
 a
1   f   1  f 
For a  0 : F  g  at     g   exp   j 2    d  G  
a   a  a a
1    f  
For a  0 : F  g  at     g   exp   j 2    d
a   a 
1    f   1  f 
   g   exp   j 2    d   G  
a   a  a a
Q.E.D.
26
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 Property 3：Duality
 If g  t  G  f  , then G  t  g  f 


 Proof G  f    g (t )e  j 2 ft dt


g (t )   G ( f )e j 2 ft df


t f f  t g ( f )   G (t )e j 2 ft dt


g ( f )   G (t )e  j 2 ft dt  F {G (t )}


t
 [Example 2.4] A rect   AT sinc  fT  (2.10)
T 
A  f  A  f 
A sinc  2Wt  rect    rect  
2W  2W  2W  2W 
27
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 Property 4：Time Shifting

 If g  t  G  f  , then g  t  t0  G  f  exp   j 2 ft0 

 Proof ： Let    t  t0 

F  g  t  t0     g  t  t0  exp   j 2 ft  dt


 exp   j 2 ft0   g   exp   j 2 f   d


 exp   j 2 ft0  G  f 
 The amplitude of G( f ) is unaffected by the time shift, but
its phase is changed by the linear factor -2πft0.

28
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 Property 5：Frequency Shifting (Modulation Theorem)

 If g  t  G  f  , then exp  j 2 fct  g  t  G  f  fc 

where f c is a real constant
 Proof： 
F exp  j 2 f ct  g  t    g  t  exp   j 2 t  f  f c  dt


 G  f  fc 
 Multiplication of a function by the factor exp(-2πfct) is
equivalent to shifting its Fourier transform in the
positive direction by the amount fc.

29
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 [Example 2.5] Radio Frequency (RF) Pulse

Consider the pulse signal g  t  shown in figure (a) which
consists of a sinusoidal wave of amplitude A and frequency f c ,
extending in duration from t = -T/2 to t = T/2. This signal is
sometimes referred to as an RF pulse when the frequency f c
falls in the radio-frequency band. The signal g  t  of figure (a)
may be expressed mathematically as follows

t
g  t   A rect   cos  2 f ct 
T 

30
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 [Example 2.5] Radio Frequency (RF) Pulse (cont.)

we note that
1
cos  2 f ct   exp  j 2 f ct   exp   j 2 f ct 
2
applying the frequency-shifting property to the Fourier-transform
pair, we get the desired result

G f  
AT
2
 
sinc T  f  f c   sinc T  f  f c 

in the special case of fcT>>1, we may use the approximate result

 AT
 2 sinc T  f  f c   , f 0

G f  0, f 0
 AT
 sinc T  f  f c   , f 0
 2
31
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 [Example 2.5] Radio Frequency (RF) Pulse (cont.)

The amplitude spectrum of the RF pulse is shown in figure
(b). This diagram, in relation to figure in page 12, clearly
illustrates the frequency-shifting property of the Fourier
transform.

32
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 Property 6：Area Under g(t)


If g  t  G  f  , then  g  t  dt  G  0  Physical meaning for G(0)?
That is, the area under a function g(t) is equal to the value of its
Fourier-transform G( f ) at f =0. This result can be obtained by
putting f =0 in the formula of Fourier transform.

G  f    g  t  exp   j 2 ft  dt

 Property 7：Area Under G( f )

If g  t  G  f  , then g  0    G  f  df
That is, the value of a function g(t) at t =0 is equal to the area
under its Fourier-transform G( f ). This result can be obtained by
putting t =0 in the formula of inverse Fourier transform.

g  t    G  f  exp  j 2 ft  df


33
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 Property 8：Differentiation in the Time Domain

Let g  t  G  f  , and assume that the first derivative of g(t) is
Fourier transformable. Then
d
g t  j 2 f G  f  (2.31)
dt
That is, differentiation of a time function g(t) has the effect of
multiplying its Fourier transform G( f ) by the factor j2πf. If we
assume that the Fourier transform of the higher-order derivative
exists, then dn
g t   j 2 f  G f 
n
n
dt
 Proof：This result is obtained by taking the first derivative of
both sides of the integral defining the inverse Fourier transform.


g  t    G  f  exp  j 2 ft  df


34
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 [Example 2.6] Gaussian Pulse

 We will derive the particular form of a pulse signal that has the
same mathematical form as its own Fourier transform.
 By differentiating the formula for the Fourier transform G( f )
with respect to f, we have d

G  f    g  t  exp   j 2 ft  dt  j 2 tg  t  G f 
 df
d
j times  j 2 tg  t  G f 
d
 Add (2.31) g t  j 2 f G  f  plus
dt df
dg  t   dG  f  
 2 tg  t  j  2 fG  f 
dt  df 
dg  t  dG  f 
 If  2 tg  t , then  2 fG  f 
dt df

35
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 [Example 2.6] Gaussian Pulse (cont.)

 Since the pulse signal g(t) and its Fourier transform G( f ) satisfy
the same differential equation, they are the same function, i.e.
G( f )= g( f ), where g( f ) is obtained from g(t) by substituting f
for t.
dg  t 
 Since  2 tg  t  , we can obtain g  t   exp  
 t 2

dt
 This pulse is called a Gaussian Pulse.

exp   t 2  dt  1 exp   t 2  exp   f 2 




36
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 Property 9：Integration in the Time Domain

 Let g  t  G  f  . Then provided that G(0)=0, we have

1
g   d G f 
t
  j 2 f
(2.39)

 Proof: d  t 
g t    
dt  
g  d

 Applying the time-differentiation property of the Fourier
transform d
x t  j 2 f X  f 
dt

 t

  
F  g  t   G  f   j 2 f F  g  d 
 
37
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform
 [Example 2.7] Triangular Pulse
 Consider the doublet pulse g1(t) shown in Fig. (a). By integrating
this pulse with respect to time, we obtain the triangular pulse
g2(t).

 The doublet pulse of figure (a) is real and odd-symmetric and its
Fourier transform is therefore odd and purely imaginary.
 The triangular pulse of figure (b) is real and symmetric and its
Fourier transform is therefore symmetric and purely real.

38
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 [Example 2.7] Triangular Pulse (cont.)

 g1(t) consists of two rectangular pulse:
 amplitude A, defined for the interval T  t  0
 Fourier transform: ATsinc( fT )exp( j fT )
 amplitude –A, defined for the interval 0  t  T
 Fourier transform:  ATsinc( fT )exp( j fT )
 Invoking the linearity property of the Fourier transform of g1  t 

G1  f   AT sinc  fT  exp  j fT   exp   j fT  

 2 jAT sinc  fT  sin  fT  G1  0   0
1 sin  fT 
G2  f   G1  f   AT sinc  fT 
j 2 f f
 AT 2sinc 2  fT 
39
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 Property 10：Conjugate Functions

 If g  t  G  f  , then for a complex-valued time function g(t) we
have
g  t  G   f 

 Proof： g  t    G  f  exp  j 2 ft  df

 taking the complex conjugates of both sides yields

g  t    G   f  exp   j 2 ft  df



 Replacing f with –f gives

 
g  t     G   f  exp  j 2 ft  df   G    f  exp  j 2 ft  df
 
 

 Corollary: g   t  G  f 

40
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 [Example 2.8] Real and Imaginary Parts of a Time Function


g  t   Re  g  t   j Im  g  t 
g   t   Re  g  t   j Im  g  t 

1 1
Re  g  t    g  t   g  t 

Im  g  t     g  t   g   t  
2 2j
1
Re  g  t   G  f   G    f  
2
1
Im  g  t   G  f   G    f  
2j
(Im[g(t)]=0)
 If g(t) is a real-valued time function, we have G( f )= G*(- f ).
In other words, G( f ) exhibits conjugate symmetry.
41
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 Property 11：Multiplication in the Time Domain

 Let g1  t  G1  f  and g2  t  G2  f  .Then

g1  t  g 2  t   G1    G2  f    d 


 Proof：Let’s denoteg1  t  g2  t  G12  f 


G12  f    g1  t  g 2  t  exp   j 2 ft  dt


 2    

g
 For g2(t), we have: 2  t   G f '
exp j 2 f '
t df '

g1  t  G2  f '  exp   j 2  f  f '  t df 'dt

 
G12  f    
 

 Define:  f  f'
G12  f    G2  f     g1  t  exp   j 2t  dt  d 
 

 
  
42
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 The inner integral is recognized as G1(λ)


G12  f    G1    G2  f    d  Q.E.D.

 This integral is known as the convolution integral expressed in
the frequency domain, and the function G12( f ) is referred to as
the convolution of G1( f ) and G2( f ).
 The multiplication of two signals in the time domain is
transformed into the convolution of their individual Fourier
transforms in the frequency domain. This property is known as
the multiplication theorem.
 Notation:
G12  f   G1  f   G2  f 
g1  t  g2  t  G1  f   G2  f 
G1  f   G2  f   G2  f   G1  f 
43
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 Property 12：Convolution in the Time Domain

 Let g1  t  G1  f  and g2  t  G2  f , then

 g1  g 2  t    d G1  f  G2  f 


 Proof： 
g12 (t )   G1 ( f )G2 ( f )e j 2 ft df


=  G1 ( f )  g 2 (u )e  j 2 uf du e j 2 ft df
 

   
Let   t  u

=  g 2  t     G1 ( f )e j 2 f  df d 

 

 
  

=  g1    g 2  t   d 
 Q.E.D.
44
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 We may thus state that the convolution of two signals in the

time domain is transformed into the multiplication of their
individual Fourier transforms in the frequency domain.
 This property is known as the convolution theorem.

 Property 11 and property 12 are the dual of each other.

 Shorthand notation for convolution:

g1  t   g2  t  G1  f  G2  f 

45
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 Property 13：Rayleigh’s Energy Theorem

(Parseval's or Plancharel’s theorem)
 Let g(t) be defined over the entire interval -∞<t<∞ and assume its
Fourier transform G( f ) exists. If the energy of the signal satisfies
 2
E   g  t  dt  
－
then  
 g  t  dt   G  f  df
2 2

 
 |G( f )|2 is defined as the energy spectral density (valid for energy
signal).
 For power signal, we define power spectral density S( f ):

 2
1
P＝ S  f  df  lim g  t  dt  deterministic signal 
T

 T  2T 
T

46
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 Proof:
 2 
E g  t  dt   g *  t   g  t dt
－ －

  g *  t   G  f  e j 2 ft df  dt

 

   

  G  f   g *  t  e j 2 ft dt  df

 

   
*
  G  f   g t  e dt  df
 
 j 2 ft
   

  G  f  G *  f  df


  G  f  df
2



47
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 [Example 2.9] Sinc Pulse (continued)

 Consider the sinc pulse A sinc(2Wt). The energy of this
pulse equals 
EA 2
 sinc 2  2Wt  dt

 The integral in the right-hand side of this equation is
rather difficult to evaluate.
 From example 2.4, the Fourier transform of the sinc
pulse A sinc(2Wt) is equal to (A/2W)rect( f /2W).
Applying Rayleigh’s energy theorem
2
 A   2 f 
E    rect  df
 2W   2W 
2
 A  W A2
 
 2W 
W df  2W
48
Chapter 2.3 Properties of the Fourier Transform

 Summary of Properties for Fourier Transform

g(t) Real Real Valued Real Valued and

Valued and Symmetric Odd Symmetric
G( f ) Conjugate Real Valued and Odd and Purely
Spectrum Symmetry Symmetric Imaginary

 Compression of a function in the time domain is equivalent to

the expansion of its Fourier transform in the frequency domain,
or vice versa.

49
 Chapter 2.4
The Inverse Relationship between Time and Frequency
Chapter 2.4 The Inverse Relationship between Time and
Frequency

 The time-domain and frequency-domain description of a

signal are inversely related:
 If the time-domain description of a signal is changed, then the
frequency-domain description of the signal is changed in an
inverse manner, and vice versa.
 If a signal is strictly limited in frequency, then the time-
domain description of the signal will trail on indefinitely.
 A signal is strictly limited in frequency or strictly band limited if its
Fourier transform is exactly zero outside a finite band of frequencies.
 If a signal is strictly limited in time, then the spectrum of the
signal is infinite in extent.
 A signal is strictly limited in time if the signal is exactly zero outside a
finite time interval.

51
Chapter 2.4 The Inverse Relationship between Time and
Frequency

 Bandwidth
 The bandwidth of a signal provides a measure of the extent of
significant spectral content of the signal for positive frequencies.
 When the signal is strictly band limited, the bandwidth is well defined.
 When the signal is not strictly band-limited, there is no universally
accepted definition of bandwidth.

 A signal is said to be low-pass if its significant spectral content

is centered around the origin.

 A signal is said to be band-pass if its significant spectral content

is centered around ±fc, where fc is a nonzero frequency.

52
Chapter 2.4 The Inverse Relationship between Time and
Frequency
 Bandwidth (cont.)
 When the spectrum of a signal is symmetric with a main lobe
bounded by well-defined nulls(i.e. frequencies at which the
spectrum is zero), we may use the main lobe as the basis for
defining the bandwidth of the signal.

 When the signal is low-pass, the bandwidth is defined as one

half the total width of the main spectral lobe, since only one half
of this lobe lies inside the positive frequency region.

 When the signal is band-pass with main spectral lobes centered

around ±fc, where fc is large, the bandwidth is defined as the
width of the main lobe for positive frequency. This definition of
bandwidth is called the null-to-null bandwidth.

53
Chapter 2.4 The Inverse Relationship between Time and
Frequency

 Bandwidth (cont.)

54
Chapter 2.4 The Inverse Relationship between Time and
Frequency

 3-dB Bandwidth
 When the signal is low-pass, the 3-dB bandwidth is defined as
the separation between zero frequency, where the amplitude
spectrum attains its peak value, and the positive frequency at
which the amplitude spectrum drops to 1/ 2 of its peak value.
 When the signal is band-pass, centered at ±fc, the 3-dB
bandwidth is defined as the separation (along the positive
frequency axis) between the two frequencies at which the
amplitude spectrum of the signal drops to 1/ 2 of the peak
value at fc.
 Advantage : it can be read directly from a plot of the amplitude
spectrum.
 Disadvantage: it may be misleading if the amplitude spectrum
has slowly decreasing tails.
55
Chapter 2.4 The Inverse Relationship between Time and
Frequency

 3-dB Bandwidth

56
Chapter 2.4 The Inverse Relationship between Time and
Frequency

 Root Mean Square (rms) Bandwidth

 Root Mean Square (rms) bandwidth, defined as the square root
of the second moment of a properly normalized form of the
squared amplitude spectrum of the signal about a suitably
chosen point.
 The rms bandwidth of a low-pass signal is formally defined as:
1
  f 2 G  f  2 df 

2


Wrms   
   
 
2
G f df

 An attractive feature of the rms bandwidth is that it lends itself
more readily to mathematical evaluation than the other two
definitions of bandwidth, but it is not as easily measurable in the
laboratory.
57
Chapter 2.4 The Inverse Relationship between Time and
Frequency

 Time-Bandwidth product
 For any family of pulse signals (e.g. the exponential pulse) that
differ in time scale, the product of the signal’s duration and its
bandwidth is always a constant, as shown by
(duration)  (bandwidth)  constant
 The product is called the time-bandwidth product or bandwidth-
duration product.

 If the duration of a pulse signal is decreased by reducing the

time scale by a factor a, the frequency scale of the signal’s
spectrum, and therefore the bandwidth of the signal, is increased
by the same factor a.

58
Chapter 2.4 The Inverse Relationship between Time and
Frequency

 Time-Bandwidth product (cont.)

 Consider the rms bandwidth. The corresponding definition for the
rms duration is
1
 t 2 g  t 2 dt 


2

Trms 
  
 
  g  t  dt 
2

  

 The time-bandwidth product has the following form:

1
TrmsWrms 
4
 Gaussian pulse satisfies this condition with the equality sign.

59
 Chapter 2.5
Dirac Delta Function
 Chapter 2.5 Dirac Delta Function
 The Dirac delta function, denoted by δ(t), is defined as having
zero amplitude everywhere except at t = 0, where it is infinitely
large in such a way that it contains unit area under its curve; i.e.

  t   0, t  0    t dt  1


 The delta function δ(t) is an even function of time t.

 Shifting property of the delta function:

 g  t   t  t0  dt  g  t0 


 Replication property of the delta function: the convolution of any

function with the delta function leaves that function unchanged.

g  t     t    g     t    d  g  t 

61
 Chapter 2.5 Dirac Delta Function
 Fourier transform of the delta function is given by

F   t       t  exp   j 2 ft  dt  1  t  1


 This relation states that the spectrum of the delta function δ(t)
extends uniformly over the entire frequency interval.
 We may view the delta function as the limiting form of a pulse of
unit area as the duration of the pulse approaches zero.
t
A rect   AT sinc  fT 
T 

62
 Chapter 2.5 Dirac Delta Function
 Applications of the Delta Function
 DC Signal If g  t  G  f  then G  t  g  f  1   f 
 By applying the duality property to the Fourier-transform pair of   t  1
and noting that the delta function is an even function, we obtain
1 f
 DC signal is transformed in the frequency domain into a delta function.

 Another definition for the delta function:

 
 exp   j 2 ft  dt    f  

Delta functin is real.
 cos  2 ft  dt    f 
 
63
 Chapter 2.5 Dirac Delta Function
 Applications of the Delta Function
 Complex Exponential Function

1 f 
Applying the frequency-shifting property:
exp  j 2 fct    f  fc 
exp  j 2 fct  g  t  G  f  fc 

 Sinusoidal Functions
 By using Euler’s formula:
1
cos  2 f ct   exp  j 2 f ct   exp   j 2 f ct 
2
1
cos  2 f ct 
1
  f  f c     f  f c  sin  2 f c t    f  f c     f  f c  
2 2j

64
 Chapter 2.5 Dirac Delta Function
 Applications of the Delta Function
 Signum Function：sgn(t)
 Definition:
1, t 0

sgn  t   0, t 0
1, t0

 The signum function does not satisfy the Dirichlet conditions and does not
have a Fourier transform.
 The signum function can be viewed as the limiting form of the
antisymmetric double-exponential pulse as the parameter a approaches 0.

exp  at  , t 0

g  t   0, t 0
 exp  at  , t0

65
 Chapter 2.5 Dirac Delta Function
 Applications of the Delta Function
 Signum Function (cont.)
 j 4 f
 From Example 2.3 for double exponential pulse G  f  
a 2   2 f 
2

4 j f
F  sgn  t    lim
1 1
 sgn  t 
a 2   2 f  j f j f
a 0 2

66
 Chapter 2.5 Dirac Delta Function
 Applications of the Delta Function
 Unit Step Function 1, t 0
 1 1
u t    , t 0 u  t   sgn  t   1
2 2
0, t0
 By using the linearity property of the Fourier transform and 1 f

1 1
u t   f
j 2 f 2

67
 Chapter 2.5 Dirac Delta Function
 Applications of the Delta Function
 Integration in the Time Domain (Revisited)
 Let
y  t    g   d
t



 The integrated signal y(t) can be viewed as the convolution of the

original signal g(t) and the unit step function u(t) , as shown by

y  t    g   u  t    d  g  t   u  t 


 The time-shifted unit step function u  t    is defined by

1,  t
 1
u t     ,  t
2
0,  t

68
Chapter 2.5 Dirac Delta Function
 Applications of The Delta Function (cont.)
 Integration in the Time Domain (Revisited) (cont.)
 The Fourier transform of y(t) can be easily obtained:

 1 1 
Y  f   G f     f 
 j 2 f 2 

 Since G  f   f   G  0  f 

1 1
Yf  G  f   G  0  f 
j 2 f 2
1 1
g   d G  f   G  0  f 
t
 j 2 f 2
 Eq. (2.39) is a special case of the above equation with G(0)=0.
69
 Chapter 2.6
Fourier Transform of Periodic Signals
Chapter 2.6 Fourier Transform of Periodic Signals

 A periodic signal can be represented in terms of a Fourier transform

provided that this transform is permitted to include delta functions.

 Consider a periodic signal gT0(t) of period T0:


gT0  t   c
n 
n exp  j 2 nf 0t 

where cn is the complex Fourier coefficient defined by

1
gT0  t  exp   j 2 nf 0t  dt
T0 2
cn 
T0 T0 2

and f0 is the fundamental frequency f0=1/T0.

71
Chapter 2.6 Fourier Transform of Periodic Signals
 Let g(t) be a pulse like function, which equals gT0(t) over one
period and is zero elsewhere; that is,
 T0 T0
 gT0  t  ,   t 
g t    2 2
 0, elsewhere
 gT0(t) may now be expressed in terms of the function g(t)

gT0  t    g  t  mT 
m
0

 g(t) is Fourier transformable and can be viewed as a generating

function, which generates the periodic signal gT0(t).
1 
gT0  t  exp   j 2 nf 0t  dt  f 0  g  t  exp   j 2 nf 0t  dt  f 0G  nf 0 
T0 2
cn 
T0 
T0 2 

where G(nf0) is the Fourier transform of g(t) at the frequency nf0.

72
Chapter 2.6 Fourier Transform of Periodic Signals
 The formula for the reconstruction of the periodic signal gT0(t) can
be rewritten as: cn  f0G  nf 0 
 
gT0  t   c
n 
n exp  j 2 nf 0t   f 0  G  nf  exp  j 2 nf t 
n 
0 0

 
gT0  t    g  t  mT   f  G  nf  exp  j 2 nf t 
m 
0 0
n 
0 0

The above equation is one form of Poisson’s sum formula.

exp  j 2 fct    f  fc 
 

 g  t  mT 
m
0 f 0  G  nf 0    f  nf 0 
n
(2.88)

 The Fourier transform of a periodic signal consists of delta

functions occurring at integer multiples of the fundamental
frequency f0=1/T0, including the origin, and that each delta function
is weighted by a factor equal to the corresponding value of G(nf0).
73
Chapter 2.6 Fourier Transform of Periodic Signals

 The function g(t), constituting one period of the periodic

signal gT0(t), has a continuous spectrum defined by G( f ).

 The periodic signal gT0(t) has a discrete spectrum.

 Periodicity in the time domain has the effect of changing

the frequency-domain description or spectrum of the
signal into a discrete form defined at integer multiples of
the fundamental frequency.

74
Chapter 2.6 Fourier Transform of Periodic Signals

 [Example 2.11] Ideal Sampling Function

 An ideal sampling function, or Dirac comb, consists of an infinite
sequence of uniformly spaced 
delta functions.
 T0  t      t  mT0 
m 
 The generating function g(t) for the ideal sampling function δT0(t)
consists of the delta function δ(t). We therefore have G( f )=1 and
G(nf0)=1 for all n.  
 Using Eq. (2.88)  g  t  mT0  f 0  G  nf 0    f  nf 0  yields
m n
 

   t  mT 
m
0 f 0    f  nf 0 
n 
 The Fourier transform of a periodic train of delta functions, spaced T0
seconds apart, consists of another set of delta functions weighted by the
factor f0=1/ T0 and regularly spaced f0 Hz apart along the frequency axis.
75
Chapter 2.6 Fourier Transform of Periodic Signals
 [Example 2.11] Ideal Sampling Function (cont.)

 
 From Poisson’s sum formula:  g  t  mT   f  G  nf  exp  j 2 nf t 
m 
0 0
n 
0 0

   


m
  t  mT0   f 0 
n 
exp  j 2 nf 0t  Fourier
Dual
 exp  j 2 mfT   f    f  nf 
m
0 0
n 
0

76
 Nyquist Sampling Theorem
 A band-limited signal of finite energy, which only has frequency
components less than fm Hertz, is completely described by
specifying the values of the signal at instants of time separated by
1/2 fm seconds.
1
TS  or sampling rate f S  2 f m
2 fm
 A band-limited signal of finite energy, which only has frequency
components less than fm Hertz, may be completely recovered from
a knowledge of its samples taken at the rate of 2 fm samples per
second.

 The sampling rate of 2fm per second, for a signal bandwidth of fm

Hertz, is called the Nyquist rate; its reciprocal 1/2 fm (measured in
seconds) is called the Nyquist interval.
77
Nyquist Sampling Theorem


1
X S ( f )  X ( f )  X ( f ) 
TS
 X ( f  nf
n  
S )

78
Spectra for Various Sampling Rates

79
 Chapter 2.7
Transmission of Signals Through Linear Systems
Chapter 2.7 Transmission of Signals Through Linear
Systems
 System: any physical device that produces an output signal in
response to an input signal.
 Excitation: input signal.
 Response: output signal.
 In a linear system, the principle of superposition holds, i.e., the
response of a linear system to a number of excitations applied
simultaneously is equal to the sum of the responses of the system
when each excitation is applied individually.
 Important examples: filters, communication channels.
 Filter: a frequency-selective device that is used to limit the
spectrum of a signal to some band of frequencies.
 Channel: transmission medium that connects the transmitter and
receiver of a communication system.

81
Chapter 2.7 Transmission of Signals Through Linear
Systems

 Time Response
 In the time domain, a linear system is described in terms of its
impulse response, which is defined as the response of the
system (with zero initial conditions) to a unit impulse or delta
function δ(t) applied to the input of the system.
 If the system is time invariant, then the shape of the impulse
response is the same no matter when the unit impulse is
applied to the system.
 Convolution Integral:


y  t    x  h  t    d  x  t   h  t 


  h  x  t    d  h  t   x  t 


82
Chapter 2.7 Transmission of Signals Through Linear
Systems

 Causality and Stability

 Causal: A system is said to be causal if it does not respond
before the excitation is applied.
 For a linear time-invariant (LTI) system to be causal, the impulse
response h(t) must vanish for negative time, i.e. h(t)=0, t<0.
 A system operating in real time to be physically realizable, it must be
causal.
 The system can be noncausal and yet physically realizable. (non-real-
time).
 Stable: A system is said to be stable if the output signal is
bounded for all bounded input signals.
 Bounded input-bounded output (BIBO) stability criterion.
 For a LTI system to be stable, the impulse response must be absolutely
integrable, i.e. 
 h  t  dt   (2.100)

83
Chapter 2.7 Transmission of Signals Through Linear
Systems
 Frequency Response
 Consider a LTI system of impulse response h(t) driven by a
complex exponential input of unit amplitude and frequency f
x  t   exp  j 2 ft 
 The response of the system is obtained as

y  t   h  t   x  t    h   exp  j 2 f  t     d


 exp  j 2 ft   h   exp   j 2 f   d

 Transfer function of the system is defined as the Fourier
transform of its impulse response

y  t   H  f  exp  j 2 ft 

H  f    h  t  exp   j 2 ft  dt

y t   H  f  x t 
Hf 
x t  x t exp j 2 ft 
84
Chapter 2.7 Transmission of Signals Through Linear
Systems

 Frequency Response (cont.)

 Consider an arbitrary signal x(t) applied to the system:

x  t    X  f  exp  j 2 ft  df

or, equivalently, in the limiting form (a superposition of
complex exponentials of incremental amplitude)

x  t   lim
f 0
 X  f  exp  j 2 ft  f
f  k f k 
 Because the system is linear, the response is:

y  t   lim  H  f X  f  exp  j 2 ft  df y t   H  f  x t 
f 0
f  k f k 

  H  f  X  f  exp  j 2 ft  df

y  t    Y  f  exp  j 2 ft  df



Y f  H f X  f 
85
Chapter 2.7 Transmission of Signals Through Linear
Systems

 Frequency Response (cont.)

 The transfer function H( f ) is a characteristic property of a LTI
system. It is a complex quantity: H  f   H  f  exp  j   f 

 |H( f )|: amplitude response

 β( f ): phase or phase response

 If the impulse response h(t) is real-valued, the transfer

function H( f ) exhibits conjugate symmetry:

H  f   H  f    f      f 

86
Chapter 2.7 Transmission of Signals Through Linear
Systems
 Frequency Response (cont.)
 Illustrating the definition of system bandwidth

Low-pass system of bandwidth B

Band-pass system of bandwidth 2B

87
Chapter 2.7 Transmission of Signals Through Linear
Systems
 Paley-Wiener Criterion
 A necessary and sufficient condition for a function α( f ) to be the
gain of a causal filter is the convergence of the integral
 f 
 1 f 2
df  
this condition is known as the Paley-Wiener criterion.
 We may associate with this gain a suitable phase β( f ), such that
the resulting filter has a causal impulse response that is zero for
negative time.
 The Paley-Wiener criterion is the frequency-domain equivalent of
the causality requirement.
 A realizable gain characteristic may have infinite attenuation for a
discrete set of frequencies, but it cannot have infinite attenuation
over a band of frequencies.
88
Chapter 2.8 Filters
 2.8 Filters
 A filter is a frequency-selective device that is used to limit the
spectrum of a signal to some specified band of frequencies.
 Frequency response is characterized by a passband and a stopband.
 The frequencies inside the passband are transmitted with little or no
distortion, whereas those in the stopband are rejected.
 There are low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, and band-stop filters.

low-pass | H  f  | band-pass | H  f  |

f f
0 0
high-pass | H  f  | band-stop | H  f  |

f f
0 0

90
 2.8 Filters
 Time response of the ideal low-pass filter
x t  LPF y  t   x  t  t0 

 The transfer function of an ideal low-pass filter is defined by:

exp   j 2πft0  , B  f  B
Hf
 0, f B
 The ideal low-pass filter is noncausal because it violates the
Paley-Wiener criterion.
 This can be confirmed by examining the impulse response h(t)

h  t    exp  j 2πf  t  t0  df

B

B

sin  2πB  t  t0  
  2 Bsinc  2 B  t  t0   (2.118)
π  t  t0 
91
2.8 Filters

 There is some response from the filter before the time t=0, so
confirming that the ideal low-pass filter is noncausal.
 However, we can make the delay t0 large enough such that
sinc  2 B  t  t0  1 for t  0
 By so doing, we are able to build a causal filter that closely
approximates an ideal low-pass filter.
92
2.8 Filters
 [Example 2.13] Pulse response of ideal low-pass filter
 Consider a rectangular pulse x(t) of unit amplitude and
duration T, which is applied to an ideal low-pass filter of
bandwidth B. The problem is to determine the response
y(t) of the filter.
 Using Eq. (2.118), and setting t0=0 for simplification
h  t   2Bsinc  2Bt  Gibbs phenomenon
the resulting filter response

y  t    x  h  t    d


T 2 sin  2πB  t    
 2B d
T 2 2πB  t   
(no closed form)
93
 2.8 Filters
 Design of Filters
 Design of filters is usually carried out in the frequency domain.
There are two basic steps:
 The approximation of a prescribed frequency response(i.e. amplitude
response, phase response, or both) by a realizable transfer function.
 The realization of the approximating transfer function by a physical
device.
 For an approximating transfer function H( f ) to be physically
realizable, it must represent a stable system.
 Stability is defined here on the basis of the bounded input
bounded output criterion described in Eq. (2.100).
 In the following, we specify the corresponding condition for
stability in terms of the transfer function.
 The traditional approach is to replace j2π f with s.

94
 2.8 Filters
 Design of Filters
 Ordinarily, the approximating transfer function H’(s) is a
rational function, which may be expressed in a factored form as:
H ' s  H  f  j 2πf  s

 s  z1  s  z2   s  zm 
K
 s  p1  s  p2   s  pn 
where K is scaling factor; z1, z2, …, zm are the zeros of the
transfer function; p1, p2,…, pn are its poles.
 For low-pass and band-pass filters: m<n.
 If the system is causal, all the poles of the transfer function H’(s)
should be inside the left half of the s-plane, i.e. Re[pi]<0.

95
 2.8 Filters
 Different Types of Filters
 Two popular families of low-pass filters: Butterworth filters
and Chebyshev filters. All their zero are at s= ∞ and the poles
are confined to the left half of the s-plane.
 Butterworth filter
 The poles of the transfer function lie on a circle with origin as the center
and 2πB as the radius, where B is the 3-dB bandwidth of the filter.
 Is said to have a maximally flat passband response.
 Chebyshev filter
 The poles lie on an ellipse.
 Provide faster roll-off than Butterworth filter by allowing ripple in the
frequency response.
 Type 1 filters have ripple only in the passband.
 Type 2 filters have ripple only in the stopband and are seldom used.

96
 2.8 Filters
 Comparison of the amplitude response of 6th order Butterworth
low-pass filter with that of 6th order Chebyshev filter.

97
 2.8 Filters
 A common alternative to both the Butterworth and Chebyshev
filters is the elliptic filter, which has ripple in both the passband
and the stopband.
 Elliptic filter provide even faster roll-off for a given number of
poles but at the expense of ripple in both the passband and
stopband.
 Butterworth filters are the simplest and elliptic filters are the
more complicated to design in mathematical terms.
 The finite-duration impulse response (FIR) filter is often used
in digital signal processing.
 The FIR filter is the equivalent of the tapped delay-line filter
described in the previous section.
 The FIR filter has only zeros; it is thus inherently stable.
98
2.8 Filters
 Amplitude response of 8th order elliptic bandpass filter.

99
2.8 Filters
 Amplitude response of 29-tap FIR low-pass filter.

100
2.8 Filters
 Tapped-delay-line Filter (FIR Filter)

101
 Chapter 2.9
Low-Pass and Band-Pass Signals
 2.9 Low-Pass and Band-Pass Signals
 Communication using low-pass signals is referred to as baseband
communication.
 In some transmission media, there is insufficient spectrum at
baseband (e.g., radio waves) or the properties of media are not
conductive to conducting signal at baseband (e.g., optical fibers).
In these cases, we employ band-pass communications.

Illustration of spectrum of band-pass signal. Illustration of time-domain band-pass signal.

103
 2.9 Low-Pass and Band-Pass Signals
 Narrow-band signal: the bandwidth 2W is small compared to the
carrier frequency f0.
 A real-valued band-pass signal g(t) with non-zero spectrum G( f )
in the vicinity of fc may be expressed in the form:
g  t   a  t  cos  2πf ct    t 
 a(t): envelope (non-negative)
  (t ) : phase
 Using the relationship cos(A+B)=cos(A)cos(B)-sin(A)sin(B)

g  t   g I  t  cos  2πfct   gQ  t  sin  2πf ct  (2.123)

a  t   g I2  t   gQ2  t 
g I  t   a  t  cos   t  and gQ  t   a  t  sin  t 
 gQ  t  
  t   tan 
1

in-phase of g t  quadrature of g  t  g
 I  t  
104
 2.9 Low-Pass and Band-Pass Signals
 Complex Baseband Representation
 Eq. (2.123) may be written as
g  t   Re  g  t  exp  j 2πf ct   (2.126)

where we define g (t )  g I (t )  jg Q (t )
 The g I (t ) and g Q (t ) are real, we refer to g (t ) as the complex
envelope of the band-pass signal.
1
g  t    g  t  exp  j 2πf ct   g   t  exp   j 2πf ct 
2
g t 
G  f  

1
F
 G  f   G  f  f c   G*   f  f c 
2 
Re  A   A  A* 
1
|G f | 2
|G f |

 fc 0 fc f
W 0 W f 2W 2W
105
 2.9 Low-Pass and Band-Pass Signals
 [Example 2.14] PF pulse (continued) – read by yourself
 To determine the complex envelope of the RF pulse
t
g  t   A rect   cos  2πf ct 
T 
 Assume fcT>>1, so that g(t) is narrow-band
 t 
g  t   Re  A rect   exp  j 2πf ct  
 T  
the complex envelope is
t
g  t   A rect  
T 
and the envelope equals
t
a  t   g  t   A rect  
T 
106
 Chapter 2.10
Band-Pass Systems
2.10 Band-Pass Systems

 Summaries of low-pass systems:

 x(t) represents the message signal, y(t) is the received or output
signal, and h(t) is the impulse response of the channel or filter.
 X( f )=F[x(t)], H( f )= F[h(t)], Y( f )= F[y(t)].

 Time domain
     
y t  x  h t   d

 Frequency domain Y f  H f X  f 
 These equations are valid for linear systems.
 Band-pass system 
 Time domain y t    x  h  t    d


 Frequency domain Y f  H f X  f 

108
2.10 Band-Pass Systems

 Band-pass systems g  t   Re  g  t  exp  j 2πf ct  (2.126)

 When h(t) is the impulse response of a bandpass filter, by

analogy with g(t) of Eq. 2.126, it may be represented as
h  t   Re h  t  exp  j 2πf ct 
where h  t  is the complex impulse response of the bandpass
filter.
 This response and its Fourier transform may be expressed as

h  t   Re  h  t  exp  j 2πf ct   Re  A   A  A* 
1
2
1
  h  t  exp  j 2πf ct   h *  t  exp   j 2πf ct  
2 
1
H  f    H  f  f c   H *   f  f c  (analogous to 2.129)
2
Positive frequency portions of H( f ) Negative frequency portions of H( f )
109
2.10 Band-Pass Systems

 Since H ( f ) is low-pass limited to | f |<B, we can obtain

2 H  f  , f 0
H  f  fc   
 0, f 0
 0, f 0
H   f  fc    *
2 H  f  , f 0
 This low-pass filter response is the frequency-domain
equivalent of the complex impulse response of the filter.
 The output y(t) is also a band-pass signal:

y  t   Re  y  t  exp  j 2 f ct 

where y  t  is the complex envelope of y(t).

110
2.10 Band-Pass Systems

Y f  H f X  f 
1 1
  H  f  f c   H   f  f c     X  f  f c   X *   f  f c  
 *

2 2
1 1 1 
  H  f  fc  X  f  fc   H *   f  f c  X *   f  f c 
2 2 2 
1
 Y  f  f c   Y   f  f c  
* H  f  f c  X *
  f  fc 
2
1 =H *
  f  fc  X  f  fc 
where Y  f   H  f  X  f  (2.139)
2 0
1
y t   h t   x t  (2.140)
2
 The complex envelope of the band-pass output is the convolution
of the complex envelope of the filter and the input, scaled by the
factor ½ .
111
2.10 Band-Pass Systems
 The analysis of a band-pass system is complicated due to the
multiplying factors cos(2πfct) and sin(2πfct).
 The significance of Eq. (2.140) is that, we need only concern the
low-pass functions, x  t  , h  t  , and y  t  .
 In other words, the analysis of a band-pass system is replaced by
an equivalent but much simpler low-pass analysis that completely
retains the essence of the filtering process.

1
3

1
y t   h t   x t 
2

2 112
2.10 Band-Pass Systems

 [Example 2.15] Response of an ideal band-pass filter to a

pulsed RF wave
 Target: compute the response of an ideal band-pass filter H( f )
to an RF pulse of duration T and carrier frequency fc ( fc T>>1)

t
x  t   A rect   cos  2πf ct 
T 

low-pass equivalent

2, B  f  B
Hf  
F
 h  t   4 B sinc  2 Bt 
0, f B
113
2.10 Band-Pass Systems

t
x  t   A rect   cos  2πf ct 
T 
low-pass equivalent
t
x  t   A rect  
T 

1
 y t   h t   x t  (no closed form)
2

114
 Chapter 2.11
Phase and Group Delay
 2.11 Phase and Group Delay

 Whenever a signal is transmitted through a dispersive (frequency-

selective) device such as a filter or communication channel, some
delay is introduced into the output signal in relation to the input
signal.
 In an ideal filter, the phase response varies linearly with frequency
inside the passband of the filter, in which case the filter introduces a
constant delay.
 Question: what if the phase response of the filter is nonlinear?
 Signal Models: assume that a steady sinusoidal signal at frequency fc is
transmitted through a dispersive channel that has a total phase-shift of β( fc).
 Phase delay of the channel: β( fc)/2 πfc [sec] is the time taken by the received
signal phasor to sweep out this phase lag.
 Phase delay is not necessarily the true signal delay.
 The true signal delay is represented by the envelope or group delay.
116
 2.11 Phase and Group Delay

 Assume that the dispersive channel is described by the transfer

function:
H  f   K exp  j   f  

where K is a constant and the phase β( f ) is a nonlinear function of

frequency.
 The input signal x(t) consists of a narrow-band signal:
x  t   m  t  cos  2πfct 
where m(t) is a low-pass (information-bearing) signal with its
spectrum limited to the frequency interval | f | ≦ W. Assume fc >> W.
 By using the Taylor series about the point f=fc and retaining only the
first two terms:
Taylor series at f  f c
β  f 
β  f  β  fc    f  fc  β  fc 
 n

  f  fc 
n
f  fc
f n 0 n!
117
 2.11 Phase and Group Delay
  fc 
 Define phase delay:  p  
2 f c
1   f 
 Define group delay:  g   ff
2 f c

  f 
  f    fc    f  fc  ff    f  2 f c p  2  f  f c  g
f c

 The transfer function of the channel takes the form:

Hf  K exp   j 2 f c p  j 2  f  f c  g 
2 H  f  f c  , f  fc  0
Hf 
 Equivalent low-pass filter  0, f  fc  0

Hf  2 K exp   j 2 f c p  j 2 f  g 
(2.134)

 Low-pass complex envelope and its Fourier transform:

x t   m t  , X  f   M  f  F m  t  
118
 2.11 Phase and Group Delay

 The Fourier transform of the complex envelope of the received

signal: 1
Y f  H f X  f  (2.139)
2
K exp   j 2 f c p  exp   j 2 f  g  M  f 
 The term exp(-j2πfτg)M( f ) represents the Fourier transform of the
delayed signal m(t-τg).
 Complex envelope of the received signal:

y t  K exp   j 2 f c p  m  t   g 
 Received signal:
y  t   Re  y  t  exp  j 2 f ct  
 Km  t   g  cos  2 f c  t   p  
119
2.11 Phase and Group Delay

 The sinusoidal carrier wave cos(2πfct) is delay by τp seconds,

hence τp represents the phase delay. Sometimes, τp is also
referred to as the carrier delay.
 The envelope m(t) is delayed by τg seconds; hence, τg represents
the envelope or group delay.

 τg is related to the slope of the phase β( f ), measured at f=fc.

 When the phase response β( f ) varies linearly with frequency,
the signal is delayed but undistorted.
 When this linear condition is violated, we get group delay
distortion.

120
 Chapter 2.12
Sources of Information
2.12 Sources of Information

 An example of waveform that represents an analog source of

information.

122
2.12 Sources of Information

 Some source are digital in the sense that the information can
be naturally represented as a sequence of zeros and ones.
 The digital waveform can be represented as:
K
g  t    bk p  t  kT 
k 0

Figure 2.38 (a)

rectangular pulse shape

Figure 2.38 (b)

non-rectangular
pulse shape

123