THE

DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The digestive system is made up of the
gastrointestinal tract—also called the GI
tract or digestive tract—and the liver,
pancreas, and gallbladder. The GI tract is a
series of hollow organs joined in a long,
twisting tube from the mouth to the anus.
The hollow organs that make up the GI
tract are the mouth, esophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine, and anus.
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The liver, pancreas, and gallbladder are the
solid organs of the digestive system.
Bacteria in your GI tract, also called gut flora
or microbiome, help with digestion. Parts of
your nervous and circulatory systems also
help. Working together, nerves, hormones,
bacteria, blood, and the organs of your
digestive system digest the foods and
liquids you eat or drink each day.
IMPORTANCE
Digestion is important because your body
needs nutrients from food and drink to
work properly and stay healthy. Proteins,
fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, and
water are nutrients. Your digestive system
breaks nutrients into parts small enough for
your body to absorb and use for energy,
growth, and cell repair.
PROCESS
Each part of your digestive system helps to
move food and liquid through your GI tract,
break food and liquid into smaller parts, or
both. Once foods are broken into small
enough parts, your body can absorb and
move the nutrients to where they are
needed. Your large intestine absorbs water,
and the waste products of digestion
become stool. Nerves and hormones help
control the digestive process.
PROCESS
Food moves through your GI tract by a
process called peristalsis. The large, hollow
organs of your GI tract contain a layer of
muscle that enables their walls to move.
The movement pushes food and liquid
through your GI tract and mixes the
contents within each organ. The muscle
behind the food contracts and squeezes the
food forward, while the muscle in front of
the food relaxes to allow the food to move.
PARTS OF THE
DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
MOUTH
The digestive process starts in your
mouth when you chew. Your
salivary glands make saliva, a
digestive juice, which moistens
food so it moves more easily
through your esophagus into your
stomach. Saliva also has Salivary
amylase, an enzyme that begins to
break down starches in your food.
MOUTH
When you swallow, your tongue
pushes the food into your throat. A
small flap of tissue, called the
epiglottis, folds over your windpipe
to prevent choking and the food
passes into your esophagus.
ESOPHAGUS
Once you begin swallowing, the process
becomes automatic. Your brain signals the
muscles of the esophagus and peristalsis
begins. Peristalsis is the automatic wave-
like movement of the muscles that line
your gastrointestinal tract. Peristalsis moves
food through your digestive system,
beginning in your throat when you swallow
and continuing through your esophagus,
stomach and intestines while you digest.
STOMACH
After food enters your stomach, the
stomach muscles mix the food and
liquid with digestive juices. The
stomach slowly empties its
contents, called chyme, into your
small intestine.
SMALL INTESTINE
The muscles of the small intestine mix
food with digestive juices from the
pancreas, liver, and intestine, and push
the mixture forward for further
digestion. The walls of the small
intestine absorb water and the
digested nutrients into your
bloodstream. As peristalsis continues,
the waste products of the digestive
process move into the large intestine.
SMALL INTESTINE
The small intestine has three parts.
The first part is called the
duodenum. The jejunum is in the
middle and the ileum is at the end
LARGE INTESTINE
Bacteria in the large intestine help
break down remaining nutrients and
make vitamin K . Waste products from
the digestive process include
undigested parts of food, fluid, and
older cells from the lining of your GI
tract. The large intestine absorbs water
and changes the waste from liquid
into stool. Peristalsis helps move the
stool into your rectum.
LARGE INTESTINE
The large intestine includes the appendix, cecum, colon, and
rectum. The appendix is a finger-shaped pouch attached to the
cecum. The cecum is the first part of the large intestine. The
colon is next. The rectum is the end of the large intestine.
RECTUM
The lower end of your large intestine,
the rectum, stores stool until it pushes
stool out of your anus during a bowel
movement.
OTHER ORGANS
THAT HELP IN
DIGESTION
PANCREAS
Your pancreas makes a digestive juice
that has enzymes that break down
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. The
pancreas delivers the digestive juice to
the small intestine through small
tubes called ducts
LIVER
Your liver makes a digestive juice
called bile that helps digest fats and
some vitamins. Bile ducts carry bile
from your liver to your gallbladder for
storage, or to the small intestine for
use.
GALLBLADER
Your gallbladder stores bile between
meals. When you eat, your gallbladder
squeezes bile through the bile ducts
into your small intestine.
HOW DOES THE
BODY CONTROL
THE DIGESTIVE
PROCESS?
HOW DOES THE BODY CONTROL
THE DIGESTIVE PROCESS?
Your hormones and nerves work together to
help control the digestive process. Signals flow
within your GI tract and back and forth from
your GI tract to your brain.
HORMONES
Cells lining your stomach and small intestine make and release
hormones that control how your digestive system works. These
hormones tell your body when to make digestive juices and
send signals to your brain that you are hungry or full. Your
pancreas also makes hormones that are important to digestion.
NERVES
You have nerves that connect your central nervous system—your
brain and spinal cord—to your digestive system and control
some digestive functions. For example, when you see or smell
food, your brain sends a signal that causes your salivary glands
to "make your mouth water" to prepare you to eat.
HOW THE DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM INTERACTS
WITH OTHER ORGAN
SYSTEMS
NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system plays a crucial role in regulating and
coordinating digestive processes. Nerves from the autonomic
nervous system innervate the digestive organs, controlling
muscle contractions, secretions, and blood flow. Additionally,
the nervous system receives signals from the digestive system,
such as feelings of hunger or fullness, and influences appetite
and food intake.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system and the digestive system work together
to regulate digestion and nutrient metabolism. Hormones
released by various endocrine glands, such as the pancreas and
small intestine, help regulate the secretion of digestive
enzymes, control blood sugar levels, and influence appetite and
satiety.
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
he cardiovascular system provides the necessary blood supply
to the digestive organs. During digestion, blood vessels dilate in
the digestive tract, increasing blood flow to facilitate nutrient
absorption. The cardiovascular system also transports nutrients
absorbed in the digestive system to other tissues and organs
throughout the body.
IMMUNE SYSTEM
The digestive system interacts closely with the immune system
to defend against harmful pathogens. The gut-associated
lymphoid tissue (GALT) located in the digestive tract helps
protect against infections and plays a vital role in immune
responses. It detects and eliminates pathogens while
maintaining a balance with beneficial bacteria in the gut.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The digestive and respiratory systems share a common passage
in the throat. Coordination between the two systems is crucial
to prevent food or liquid from entering the respiratory tract. The
epiglottis, a flap of tissue, covers the trachea during swallowing
to direct food to the esophagus and prevent choking.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
The skeletal system provides support and protection for the
digestive organs. For example, the ribcage safeguards the
stomach and liver, while the spine supports the esophagus and
intestines. Additionally, certain nutrients obtained from
digestion, such as calcium and vitamin D, are essential for bone
health.
URINARY SYSTEM
The digestive system interacts with the urinary system through
the elimination of waste products. The liver processes and
eliminates metabolic waste products from the bloodstream,
which are then excreted by the kidneys as urine.
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
The integumentary system, which includes the skin, plays a role
in vitamin D synthesis. Vitamin D is necessary for the absorption
of calcium and phosphorus in the digestive system, aiding in
bone health.
COMMON
DISORDERS OF THE
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX DISEASE (GERD)

GERD occurs when the lower esophageal sphincter weakens or

relaxes abnormally, causing stomach acid to flow back into the
esophagus. Symptoms include heartburn, regurgitation, chest
pain, and difficulty swallowing.
PEPTIC ULCER
Peptic ulcers are open sores that develop on the lining of the
stomach, upper small intestine, or esophagus. They can be
caused by infection with Helicobacter pylori bacteria, long-term
use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), or
excessive stomach acid production. Symptoms include
abdominal pain, bloating, nausea, and vomiting.
GALLSTONES
Gallstones are hardened deposits that form in the gallbladder.
They can block the bile duct, leading to severe pain in the upper
abdomen (gallstone colic), jaundice, and digestive disturbances
after eating fatty foods.
INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASE (IBD)
IBD comprises two main conditions, namely Crohn's disease
and ulcerative colitis. These are chronic inflammatory disorders
that primarily affect the intestines, leading to symptoms such as
abdominal pain, diarrhea, rectal bleeding, weight loss, and
fatigue.
IRRITABLE BOWEL SYNDROME (IBS)
IBS is a functional gastrointestinal disorder characterized by
abdominal pain, bloating, and changes in bowel habits
(diarrhea, constipation, or both). It does not cause structural
damage but can significantly impact a person's quality of life.
CELIAC DISEASE
Celiac disease is an autoimmune disorder triggered by the
ingestion of gluten, a protein found in wheat, barley, and rye. It
damages the small intestine's lining, leading to malabsorption
of nutrients. Symptoms include abdominal pain, diarrhea,
bloating, and weight loss.
DIVERTICULAR DISEASE
Diverticular disease involves the development of small pouches
(diverticula) in the colon wall. When these pouches become
inflamed or infected, it is known as diverticulitis. Symptoms
include abdominal pain, fever, bloating, and changes in bowel
habits.
GASTROENTERITIS
Gastroenteritis, commonly known as stomach flu, is
inflammation of the stomach and intestines, often caused by
viral or bacterial infections. It leads to symptoms such as
diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and dehydration.
HEMORRHOIDS
Hemorrhoids are swollen blood vessels located in the rectum or
anus. They can cause pain, itching, bleeding during bowel
movements, and discomfort.
LIVER DISEASE
Liver diseases, such as hepatitis, cirrhosis, and fatty liver disease,
can affect the structure and function of the liver, impairing
digestion, metabolism, and detoxification processes.
THE
ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system is a complex network
of glands and organs that regulate and
control various processes in the body
through the production and secretion of
hormones. These hormones act as chemical
messengers and play a vital role in
maintaining homeostasis, growth and
development, metabolism, reproduction,
and overall well-being.
FUNCTIONS OF
THE ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM
HORMONE REGULATION

The endocrine system produces hormones

that regulate numerous processes,
including growth and development,
metabolism, water and electrolyte balance,
sleep, mood, and sexual function.
REPRODUCTION

Hormones produced by the endocrine

system control reproductive functions,
including the development of secondary
sexual characteristics, menstrual cycle
regulation, and sperm production.
METABOLISM

Thyroid hormones and pancreatic

hormones (insulin and glucagon) are
involved in regulating metabolism, energy
production, and nutrient utilization.
STRESS RESPONSE

The adrenal glands release hormones such

as cortisol and adrenaline in response to
stress, helping the body cope with physical
and emotional challenges.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system plays a vital role in

maintaining homeostasis, which refers to
the body's ability to maintain stable
internal conditions despite external
changes. Here's how the endocrine system
aids in homeostasis:
HORMONE REGULATION
The endocrine system releases hormones
that help regulate various bodily functions,
including metabolism, growth and
development, fluid balance, blood pressure,
body temperature, and reproductive
processes. These hormones act as chemical
messengers, coordinating and integrating
the activities of different organs and
systems to maintain balance.
FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
The endocrine system utilizes feedback
mechanisms to maintain homeostasis. For
example, negative feedback loops are commonly
used, where the levels of a particular hormone
are monitored and controlled. If the hormone
levels deviate from the set point, the endocrine
system adjusts its secretion accordingly to bring
the levels back to normal. This helps maintain
stability and prevents excessive fluctuations.
REGULATION OF METABOLISM
Hormones produced by the endocrine system,
such as insulin and glucagon from the pancreas
and thyroid hormones, play crucial roles in
regulating metabolism. They control the
breakdown, storage, and utilization of nutrients
like glucose, proteins, and fats, ensuring a
constant supply of energy to the body's cells.
RESPONSE TO STRESS
The endocrine system, particularly the adrenal
glands, helps the body respond to stress. In
situations of stress or danger, the adrenal glands
release stress hormones like cortisol and
adrenaline, initiating the "fight-or-flight"
response. This response triggers physiological
changes such as increased heart rate, elevated
blood pressure, and heightened alertness,
enabling the body to deal with the stressor
effectively.
FLUID AND ELECTROLYTE BALANCE

Hormones produced by the endocrine system,

including aldosterone from the adrenal glands
and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) from the
pituitary gland, help regulate fluid and
electrolyte balance in the body. They control the
reabsorption of water and electrolytes in the
kidneys, maintaining proper hydration and
electrolyte levels.
CALCIUM REGULATION
The endocrine system, particularly the
parathyroid glands, helps regulate calcium levels
in the blood. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) released
by the parathyroid glands stimulates the release
of calcium from bones, enhances its absorption
from the digestive system, and reduces its
excretion by the kidneys. This maintains the
appropriate levels of calcium, which is essential
for various physiological processes like nerve
conduction and muscle function.
SUMMARY
Overall, the endocrine system contributes to
homeostasis by coordinating and regulating
numerous bodily functions, ensuring that the
internal environment remains stable and
optimized for optimal functioning.
PARTS OF THE
ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM
HYPOTHALAMUS

Located in the brain, the

hypothalamus acts as a link
between the nervous and
endocrine systems. It produces
releasing and inhibiting hormones
that regulate the pituitary gland.
PITUITARY GLAND
Often referred to as the "master
gland," the pituitary gland is
located at the base of the brain. It
secretes numerous hormones that
control other endocrine glands and
influence various bodily functions.
THYROID GLAND

Situated in the neck, the thyroid

gland produces thyroid hormones
that regulate metabolism, growth,
and development.
PARATHYROID GLANDS

These small glands are located near

the thyroid gland and secrete
parathyroid hormone, which
regulates calcium and phosphate
levels in the body.
ADRENAL GLANDS

Positioned on top of the kidneys,

the adrenal glands produce
hormones such as cortisol,
adrenaline, and aldosterone, which
are involved in stress response,
metabolism, and electrolyte
balance.
PANCREAS
The pancreas serves both endocrine and exocrine functions. The
endocrine part of the pancreas secretes insulin and glucagon,
which regulate blood sugar levels.
OVARIES

Found in females, the ovaries

produce estrogen and
progesterone, which control the
menstrual cycle and support
reproduction.
TESTES

Located in males, the testes

produce testosterone, which
influences male sexual
characteristics and
reproductive functions.
HOW THE
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
INTERACTS WITH
OTHER ORGAN
SYSTEMS
NERVOUS SYSTEM
The endocrine system and the nervous system often work
together to regulate bodily functions. The hypothalamus, a part
of the endocrine system, receives signals from the nervous
system and releases hormones that stimulate or inhibit the
secretion of hormones by the pituitary gland. This interaction
between the hypothalamus and pituitary gland is crucial for
coordinating hormonal activities throughout the body.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The endocrine system plays a significant role in the
development and functioning of the reproductive system. In
females, the ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone, which
regulate the menstrual cycle, support pregnancy, and promote
the development of secondary sexual characteristics. In males,
the testes produce testosterone, which is essential for the
development of male reproductive organs and characteristics.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The endocrine system influences various aspects of digestion
and nutrient metabolism. The pancreas, for example, secretes
insulin and glucagon, hormones that regulate blood sugar levels
and control the storage and release of glucose from the liver.
These hormones ensure proper utilization of nutrients and help
maintain stable energy levels in the body.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
The endocrine system interacts with the skeletal system
through the action of hormones such as parathyroid hormone
and calcitonin. These hormones regulate calcium and
phosphate levels in the body, which are essential for bone
growth, development, and maintenance. They ensure the
balance between bone formation and resorption, thereby
contributing to skeletal health.
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Hormones produced by the endocrine system, such as
adrenaline and aldosterone, play a role in regulating blood
pressure, heart rate, and fluid balance. Adrenaline, released by
the adrenal glands, increases heart rate and constricts blood
vessels in response to stress or emergencies. Aldosterone, also
produced by the adrenal glands, helps regulate electrolyte and
fluid balance by affecting the kidneys' reabsorption of sodium
and water.
IMMUNE SYSTEM
The endocrine system and the immune system influence each
other's functions. Certain hormones, such as cortisol, which is
produced by the adrenal glands, have immunosuppressive
effects. They help regulate the body's response to inflammation
and play a role in immune system modulation.
COMMON
DISORDERS OF THE
ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM
DIABETES
A chronic condition characterized by high blood sugar levels
resulting from insufficient insulin production (Type 1) or
ineffective insulin utilization (Type 2).
HYPOTHYROIDISM AND HYPERTHYROIDISM

Hypothyroidism occurs when the thyroid gland produces

insufficient thyroid hormones, leading to symptoms such as
fatigue, weight gain, and cold intolerance. Hyperthyroidism, on
the other hand, involves excessive thyroid hormone production,
resulting in symptoms like weight loss, anxiety, and heat
intolerance.
CUSHING'S SYNDROME
This disorder occurs due to prolonged exposure to high levels
of cortisol, leading to symptoms such as weight gain, muscle
weakness, and mood disturbances.
ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM VS
EXOCRINE SYSTEM
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM EXOCRINE SYSTEM

Glands: The exocrine system

Glands: The endocrine
consists of glands that
system consists of a series of
secrete substances, such as
glands scattered throughout
enzymes, mucous, sweat,
the body. These glands
saliva, and digestive juices,
secrete hormones directly
through ducts that lead to
into the bloodstream.
body surfaces or cavities.
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM EXOCRINE SYSTEM

Hormone Delivery: Ducts: The secretory

Hormones produced by the products of exocrine glands
endocrine glands are are transported through
transported through the ducts to specific locations,
bloodstream to target cells such as the skin surface or
or organs located at a the lumen of the digestive
distance from the glands. tract.
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM EXOCRINE SYSTEM

Target Cells: Hormones act Function: The exocrine

on specific target cells that glands produce and release
have receptors for those substances that have local
hormones. These target cells effects, aiding in digestion,
can be located in different lubrication, protection,
parts of the body. cooling, and other processes.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM EXOCRINE SYSTEM

Mode of Action: Hormones

regulate physiological
processes, such as
metabolism, growth and
development, reproduction,
and mood, by binding to
specific receptors on target
cells and initiating a
response.
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM EXOCRINE SYSTEM

Examples: Glands of the Examples: Glands of the

endocrine system include exocrine system include
the pituitary gland, thyroid salivary glands, sweat glands,
gland, adrenal glands, sebaceous glands, mammary
pancreas, and gonads glands, and digestive glands
(ovaries and testes). like the liver and pancreas.
GROUP 1 MEMBERS
CAÑAS, JHESLY ROBERT
DEL MUNDO, JUN CARLO
ESCALA, KEITH JAIRUS
GALVAN, EMMANUEL
GREGORIO, JIMWELL
MALIJAN, RALPH ANTHONY
PATIÑA, NICOLE ASTER
SACRAMENTO, RIANN ALLEN

12 STEM-A