Unit 1: Waves: An Introduction

At the end of this Unit, the students should be able to:

1. describe waves in terms of its features and characteristics
2. classify waves according to medium, direction of wave propagation, number of
disturbances, and type of disturbance
3. describe how waves exhibit propagation, reflection, refraction, diffraction, and
interference
4. differentiate amplitudes of reflection and transmission of wave in a non-
homogeneous medium which depends on impedance
6. explain how the Principle of Superposition brings about beats
7. explain what happens to a wave for moving source and/or a moving observer
8. describe how bow or shock waves are formed
9. give practical applications of waves
10. solve problems on travelling waves

Lesson1: Features of Mechanical Waves

A wave is a movement or oscillation that spreads from a defined point, moving energy as it
progresses. It can vary in different forms. The focus of this course is on Mechanical and
Electromagnetic waves.

Mechanical waves and electromagnetic waves are two important ways that energy is
transported in the world around us. Waves in water and sound waves in air are two
examples of mechanical waves. Mechanical waves are caused by a disturbance or vibration
in matter, whether solid, gas, liquid, or plasma. Rusell 2016 defined mechanical waves
as waves that propagate through a material medium (solid, liquid, or gas) at a wave speed
that depends on the elastic and inertial properties of that medium. Matter that waves are
traveling through is called a medium. Water waves are formed by vibrations in a liquid and
sound waves are formed by vibrations in a gas (air). These mechanical waves travel through
a medium by causing the molecules to bump into each other, like falling dominoes
transferring energy from one to the next. Sound waves cannot travel in the vacuum of space
because there is no medium to transmit these mechanical waves.

While mechanical waves require a medium to be propagated, electromagnetic waves, on

the other hand, do not require such. This means that electromagnetic waves can travel not
only through air and solid materials, but also through the vacuum of space.

To understand better the concept of waves, we first discuss the basic features and
characteristics of waves.
Scientists use a standard set of terminology to describe the feature of waves. The following
illustration from Science Primer.com shows a cross-section through a transverse wave.

Definitions

• Crest - the highest point in the wave.

• Trough - the lowest point in the wave.

• Wavelength - the horizontal distance between successive crests, troughs or other

parts of a wave.

• Wave height - the vertical distance between the crest of a wave and its neighboring
trough. This term is commonly used when describing water waves where the
undisturbed surface is not easily determined.
• Amplitude - the amount of displacement from the equilibrium or rest position.
Equal to one half the wave height.

• Undisturbed surface - resting state or equilibrium position of medium in the

absence of a wave.

• Period - the time it takes for successive crests or troughs to pass a specific point.

• Frequency - the inverse of period.The number of crests or troughs that pass a point
during a set time interval.
In a general illustration, these are the parts/features of a wave.

Visit the animation in this link:

https://scienceprimer.com/wave-features
Lesson 2: Types of Mechanical Waves
Every sound we hear, every photon of light that hits our eyes, the movement of grass blown
by the wind and the regular beat of the tides are all examples of waves. They are all around
us. Visible, physical wave*s such as those we see when a rock is thrown into water are what
many people think about when they first began to think about waves. These waves have
distinct properties specific to their type but also exhibit characteristics in common with
more abstract waves such as sound waves and light (electromagnetic) waves.

Longitudinal Waves
In a longitudinal wave the particle displacement is parallel to the direction of wave
propagation. The animation at right shows a one-dimensional longitudinal plane wave
propagating down a tube. The particles do not move down the tube with the wave; they
simply oscillate back and forth about their individual equilibrium positions. Pick a single
particle and watch its motion. The wave is seen as the motion of the compressed region (ie,
it is a pressure wave), which moves from left to right.

The second animation at right shows the difference between the oscillatory motion of
individual particles and the propagation of the wave through the medium. The animation
also identifies the regions of compression and rarefaction.

The P waves (Primary waves) in an earthquake are examples of Longitudinal waves. The P
waves travel with the fastest velocity and are the first to arrive.

To see a animations of spherical longitudinal waves check out:

• Sound Radiation from Simple Sources

• Radiation from Cylindrical Sources

Transverse Waves
In a transverse wave the particle displacement is perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation. The animation below shows a one-dimensional transverse plane wave
propagating from left to right. The particles do not move along with the wave; they simply
oscillate up and down about their individual equilibrium positions as the wave passes by.
Pick a single particle and watch its motion.

The S waves (Secondary waves) in an earthquake are examples of Transverse waves. S waves
propagate with a velocity slower than P waves, arriving several seconds later.

Water/Surface Waves
Water waves are an example of waves that involve a combination of both longitudinal and
transverse motions. As a wave travels through the waver, the particles travel in clockwise
circles. The radius of the circles decreases as the depth into the water increases. The
animation at right shows a water wave travelling from left to right in a region where the
depth of the water is greater than the wavelength of the waves. I have identified two
particles in orange to show that each particle indeed travels in a clockwise circle as the wave
passes.
Rayleigh surface waves

Another example of waves with both longitudinal and transverse motion may be found in
solids as Rayleigh surface waves(named after John W. Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh who first
studied them in 1885). The particles in a solid, through which a Rayleigh surface wave
passes, move in elliptical paths, with the major axis of the ellipse perpendicular to the
surface of the solid. As the depth into the solid increases the "width" of the elliptical path
decreases.

Rayleigh waves in an elastic solid are different from surface waves in water in a very
important way. In a water wave all particles travel in clockwise circles. However, in a Rayleigh
surface wave, particles at the surface trace out a counter-clockwise ellipse, while particles at
a depth of more than 1/5th of a wavelength trace out clockwise ellispes. This motion is often
referred to as being "retrograde" since at the surface, the horizontal component of the
particle motion is in the opposite direction as the wave propagation direction. I have
identified two particles in orange in this animation to illustrate the retrograde elliptical path
at the surface and the reversal in the direction of motion as a function of depth.

The Rayleigh surface waves are the waves that cause the most damage during an
earthquake. They travel with velocities slower than S waves, and arrive later, but with much
greater amplitudes. These are also the waves that are most easily felt during an earthquake
and involve both up-down and side-to-side motion.
Contents and Graphics by: Daniel A. Russell, Graduate Program in Acoustics, The
Pennsylvania State University