NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

Momentum (p)
Momentum is the product of mass and velocity of a body.
Momentum p = mv

Impulse (I)
Impulse is the product of force acting on a body and the time it acts.
I = Ft
Momentum and impulse are vectors with same unit Ns (kgm/s)
Newton’s Laws Of Motion
Newton’s first law of motion (Law of inertia)
A body will continue in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon
by an external force.
This tendency of bodies to remain in their state of rest or of uniform linear motion is called
inertia.
Inertia mass is defined as the quantitative measure of the reluctance of a body to move from rest
or to stop when in uniform motion.
Newton’s second law of motion
The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied force and takes
place in the direction of the applied force.
F α change in momentum
Time
mv – mu
Fα
t

Fαk ( mv – mu
t )
But k = 1
mv – mu
∴F= .............i
t
m(v – u)
F=
t
v –u
But =a
t
∴F = ma
From eqni,
Ft = mv – mu
OR Impulse = change in momentum
Example 1
A car of mass 600 kg, moving with a forward acceleration of 5 ms -2 is acted upon by a constant
resistive force of 1000 N. Calculate the force from the engine to maintain this forward
acceleration.
Solution
Net force = ma
F – 1000 = ma
F = ma + 1000
= 600 x 5 + 1000 = 3000 + 1000 = 4000 N = 4 kN
Example 2(JAMB)
When taking a penalty kick, a footballer applies a force of 30.0 N for a period of 0.05 s. If the
mass of the ball is 0.075 kg, calculate the speed with which the ball moves off.
Solution
F = 30.0 N, t = 0.05 s, m = 0.075 kg, u = 0 m/s (from rest)
Impulse = change in momentum

 Ft = m(v – u)
30 x 0.05 = 0.075(v – 0)
1.5 = 0.075v
1.5
v=
0.075
v = 20 m/s
Newton‘s Third Law of Motion
Action and reaction are equal and opposite.
Conservation of Linear Momentum and Conservation Of Energy

The principle of conservation of linear momentum states that if two or more bodies collide in a
closed system, the total momentum after the collision is equal to the total momentum before the
collision.

Conservation of momentum and energy in collision

Take u1, u2, and v1, v2 as the initial and final velocities of two colliding bodies of masses m 1 and
m2.
Elastic collision
In elastic collision both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.
Conservation of momentum: m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
1 1 1 1
Conservation of kinetic energy: m1u12 + m2u22 = m1v12 + m2v22
2 2 2 2
Inelastic collision
In this case, only momentum is conserved. The kinetic energy decreases as the two objects stick
together1. The objects move with the same velocity in the same direction.

Conservation of momentum: m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2)v

For kinetic energy
1 1
Before collision: m1u12 + m2u22
2 2
1 1 1
After collision: m1v2 + m2v2 = (m1 + m2)v2
2 2 2
Example 1 (JAMB)
A body of mass 100 g moving with a velocity of 10.0 ms -1 collides with a wall. If after the
collision, it moves with a velocity of 2.0 ms -1 in the opposite direction. Calculate the change in
momentum.

Solution
Change in momentum = Δp = p2 – p1
= m(-v - u)
= 0.1(-2 - 10)
= 0.1 x (-12)
= - 1.2 Ns
Note v is negative because it is in opposite direction to u

Example 2
Two bodies A and B of masses 4 kg and 2 kg moving towards each other with velocities of 3 ms -
1
and 2 ms-1 collide. If the collision is perfectly inelastic,
a. find the velocity of the two bodies after collision
b. find the total kinetic energy of the system before and after collision
c. calculate the loss in kinetic energy

Solution

a) From conservation of momentum,

1
Part of the kinetic energy (K.E) is converted to sound, heat, etc.
 m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2)v
4 x 3 – 2 x 2 = (4 + 2)v
12 – 4 = 6v
8 = 6v
8
v = = 1.33 ms-1 (to the right)
6
b) K.E before collision
1 1
Ek1 = m1u12 + m2u22
2 2
1 1
= x 4 x 32 + x 2 x 22
2 2
= 18 + 4 = 22 J
K.E after collision
1
Ek2 = (m1 + m2)v2
2
1
= (4 + 2) x 1.332
2
1
= x 6 x 1.332
2
= 5.31 J
c) Loss in K.E = Ek1 - Ek2
= 22 – 5.31 = 16.69 J

Applications of Newton’s laws and the laws of conservation of momentum

1. Recoil of a gun
Before the gun is fired, the bullet and the gun have zero initial velocity (at rest). If m 1 and
m2 are the masses of the bullet and the gun; v 1 the velocity at which the bullet leaves the
gun; while v2 is the recoil velocity of the gun,

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

m1 x 0 + m2 x 0 = m1v1 + m2v2
0 = m1v1 + m2v2
∴ m1v1 = - m2v2

2. Jet and rocket propulsion

A blast of hot gas is forced out through the exhaust nozzle with high velocity and
momentum; an equal momentum is imparted to the rocket or jet aircraft in the opposite
direction which propels it forward.

3. Revolving lawn sprinkler

 The momentum due to the high velocity jet of water from the two nozzles in opposite
direction sets up a couple which makes the sprinkler to revolve.

Example 1
A 3 kg rifle lies on a smooth table when it suddenly discharges, firing a bullet of 0.02 kg with a
speed of 500 m/s. Calculate the recoil speed of the gun
Solution
m1 = 0.02 kg, v1 = 500 m/s, m2 = 3 kg, v2 = ?
0 = m1v1 + m2v2
v2 = - m1v1
m2
0.02 x 500
v2 = -
3
v2 = -3.33 m/s
EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES (I)
Equilibrium is a state of a body at rest or moving with uniform velocity under the influence of
several forces without accelerating.

Resultants and equilibrants

Resultants: The resultant of two or more forces acting at a point is a single force which produces
the same effect both in magnitude and direction as the original forces when added together.

Equilibrant: The equilibrant of two or more forces is a single force which balances and keeps
other forces acting on a body in equilibrium. The equilibrant is equal and opposite in direction
to the resultant.
Triangle of forces2

The principle of triangle of forces states that if three forces are in equilibrium, they can be
represented in both magnitude and direction by the three sides of a triangle taken in order.

Example 1
A mass of 2.0 kg is supported by two cords which make angles of 30 o and 50o with the vertical.
Calculate the tension in the two cords.
Solution

2
This is applicable to the equilibrium of three forces acting at a point.
 Mass = 2 kg  F = mg = 2 x 10 = 20 N

Ĉ = 180o – (30o + 50o)  Ĉ = 180o – 80o = 100o

T1 = 20 _ T1 = 20 x sin 50
Sin 50 sin 100 sin 100
T1 = 20 x 0.7660
0.9848
T1 = 15.56 N

Similarly,
T2 = 20 _ T2 = 20 x sin 30
Sin 30 sin 100 sin 100

T2 = 20 x 0.5
0.9848
T2 = 10.15 N
Example 2 (SSCE Nov. 1990)

The body P shown in the diagram above is in equilibrium. If the mass of the body is 10 kg,
calculate the tension T in the string. [g = 10 m/s2]

Solution

T is the equilibrant of the force F and the weight mg.

From the vector diagram,

cos 60o = mg
T
 mg
T=
cos 60

= 10 x 10
0.5
= 100
0.5
= 200 N

Moment of a Force
The moment of a force about a point or an axis is the product of the force and the perpendicular
distance between that point or axis of rotation and the line of action of the force.

Moment = Force x Perpendicular distance

Moment is a vector with unit Nm.

Moment = F x d
Conditions for equilibrium of forces
Conditions for equilibrium of a number of parallel coplanar forces
1. The algebraic sum of the forces acting on the body in any direction must be equal to zero.
ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0
In order words, the sum of the forces acting in one direction must be equal to the sum of
the forces acting in opposite direction.
2. The algebraic sum of the moments of all forces about any point on the body must be zero.
In other words, the total clockwise moments of the forces about any point on the body must
be equal to the total anticlockwise moments of the forces about the same point. This is
known as Principle of Moments
ΣCW moments = ΣACW moments3

Conditions for equilibrium of a number of non-parallel coplanar forces

1. The vector sum of all the forces acting on the body must be zero. In other words, the
algebraic sum of the resolved components of the forces acting on the body in any direction
must be zero.
3
Alternatively, calling clockwise moments negative and anticlockwise moments positive,
the sum of all moments about any point must be zero.
 ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0

2. The algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces about any axis perpendicular to the
plane of the forces must be zero.
In other words, the sum of the clockwise moments about any such axis equals the sum of
the anticlockwise moments about the same axis.

Principle of moments
If a body is in equilibrium under the action of parallel forces, the sum of the clockwise moments
about any point is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments about the same point.

Example 1
A metre rule is pivoted at its midpoint M with a vertical force of 10 N hanging from the distance
30 cm from M. At what distance must a 15 N force hang to balance the rule horizontally?
Solution
For a uniform rule, the weight acts through the centre of gravity which is at the midpoint M.

Taking moments about M, ΣCW moments = ΣACW moments

15 xX = 10 x 30
10 x 30
X= = 20 cm
15
Example 2
A weightless bar is pivoted at its centre, and weights of 5 N and 10 N, 3m and 2m respectively
from the pivot on one side, are balanced by a weight of 20 N on the other side. How far is the 20
N weight from the pivot?
Solution
By the principle of moments:
ΣCW moments = ΣACW moments
20x = (5x3) + (10x2)
20 x = 15 + 20 _ 20 x = 35

x = 35
20 = 1.75 m
Example 3
A light beam AB sits on two pivots C & D. A load of 10 N hangs at O, 2m from the support at
C. Find the value of the reaction forces P and Q at C and D. Take the distances as shown below.

Solution
Being a light beam, the weight is ignored.

Sum of upward forces = sum of downward forces

P + Q = 10 …………………………………………………………………………………
i
Taking moments about C,
Sum of CW moments = sum of ACW moments

10 x 2 = Q x (2+6)
 20 = 8Q
Q = 20 _ Q = 2.5 N
8
From equation i,
P = 10 – Q _ P = 10 – 2.5
P = 7.5 N

Example 4 (WAEC/SSCE 1988)

A metre rule is found to balance at the 48 cm mark. When a body of mass 60 g is suspended at
the 6 cm mark the balance point is found to be at the 30 cm mark. Calculate:
i. the mass of the metre rule
ii. the distance of the balance point from the zero end, if the body were moved to
the 13 cm mark
Solution

i. Using the cgs system and taking moments about P,

ΣCW moments = ΣACW moments
M X 18 = 60 X 24

M = 60 x 24
18
M = 80 g

ii. Let the distance from the zero end be x.

 Taking moments about the new position of the pivot N,
ΣCW moments = ΣACW moments
_ 80 x (48 – x) = 60 x (x – 13)
3840 – 80x = 60x – 780
- 80x – 60x = -780 – 3840
- 140x = -4620
140x = 4620
4620
x=
140
x = 33 cm
EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES (II)
Centre of gravity and stability
The centre of gravity of an object is the point at which the entire weight of the object appears to
be concentrated; while the centre of mass of an object is the point at which the entire mass
appears to be concentrated.4
Types of equilibriums5
1. Stable equilibrium
This is the type of equilibrium in which an object tends to return to its original position whenever
the centre of gravity is slightly displaced.

When a body in a stable equilibrium is displaced slightly, the line of action of the weight mg
changes position relative to the base of the body. Since the line of action of the weight has not
4
5
shifted outside the base, its turning moment (mgx) about P sets up a restoring couple which
returns the body to its original position. Examples are a cone resting on its base, a sphere placed
in a concave-shaped object etc

2. Unstable equilibrium
This occurs when object tends to move further away from its original position whenever the
centre of gravity is slightly displaced.
Examples include a cone resting on the apex, a sphere resting on a convex-shaped object, a
lorry loaded with light materials near the base and heavy materials at the top.

When slightly displaced, the line of action of the weight shifts outside with the moment of the
weight (mgx) about P thereby setting up a couple which displaces it further.

3. Neutral equilibrium
This is the type of equilibrium in which an object tends to come to rest in a new position
whenever the centre of gravity is slightly displaced.

Examples include a sphere on a flat horizontal surface, a cone or cylinder resting on its side, an
egg resting on its side etc.

When such a body is displaced, the position of the centre of gravity and its height above the
resting surface remain the same; hence, the weight has no moment setting up a couple about
where the object touches the surface

Factors affecting stability

1. The height of the centre of gravity (cg). The lower, the more stable.
2. The width or wideness of the base. The wider, the more stable.
Couples
A couple is a system of two equal, opposite and parallel forces causing the rotation of a body.

The resultant of the forces is zero.6

Moment of a couple
The moment of a couple is the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular distance
between their lines of action.
Moment of a couple = Fd
Both moment of a force and moment of a couple are also called torque.

Example (WAEC/SSCE 1990)

Two forces each of 4 N act on the opposite sides of a rectangular plate as shown in the diagram
below. Calculate the magnitude of the couple acting on the plate.

Solution
Moment of a couple = One of the forces x perpendicular distance
= 4 x 0.4
= 1.6 Nm
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM) I

Simple harmonic motion is a periodic motion of a body to and fro in a straight line by a
restoring force in such a way that the acceleration of the body towards a fixed point called the
equilibrium point is proportional to its distance from that point.

Examples of S.H.M.
i. The motion of the simple pendulum
ii. The motion of a vertically loaded test-tube in a liquid e.g water
iii. The motion of a vertically loaded spiral spring
iv. The motion of the springboard of a swimming pool

6
Examples of couples are the turning of a water tap, corkscrew etc.
 v. The motion of the prongs of a vibrating tuning fork
vi. The motion of the piston of an internal combustion engine
vii. The motion of the wiper of a car

Relationship between linear and angular velocity

Angular velocity (ω) is the rate of change of angular displacement with time.

Angular velocity = angular displacement

time
Unit: radians per second (rad s-1)

Linear velocity, v = ωr (Unit: m/s)

OR v = ωA
Where, r is the radius; A is the amplitude.

But at any point which is at a distance x from the equilibrium position (less than the amplitude),
the above equations become:

v=ω √ r 2−x 2
v=ω √ A2−x 2

Relationship between linear and angular acceleration

Angular acceleration = ω2

Unit: rad s-2

Linear acceleration, a = ω2r (Unit: m/s2)

OR a = ω 2A

Centripetal force

2
mv
Centripetal force, F =
r
( ωr )2
OR F=mx
r
 F = mω2r

Example 1
A boy ties a stone to the end of a string which he then whirls above his head round a circular
path of radius 15 cm. If the stone makes 20 oscillations in 10 secs, calculate the
i. angular and
ii. linear speed of the stone
Solution
i. But Angular velocity = angular displacement
time
-1
ω = θ (rad s )
t
ω = 20 x 2пrads (Note 360o = 2 п rads)
10 s
∴ ω = 4п rad/s

ii. Linear velocity v = ωr

v = 4п x 15cm (radius, r = 15 cm)
= 60п cm/s
v = 0.6п m/s
Velocity and acceleration in SHM

1. In a SHM, the maximum velocity occurs at the equilibrium position (the centre of
oscillation) i.e. when displacement x = 0
From v=ω √ A2−x 2
vmax¿ ω √ A2−02
vmax = ω√ A 2
vmax = ωA or simply vmax = ωr

2. Maximum acceleration occurs at the extremes of oscillation due to the maximum

restoring force at these points. Here, the body oscillates at full amplitude.
amax = ω2A or simply amax = ω2r
 At any instantaneous points less than the extreme positions, the displacement (x) is less
than the amplitude; hence, the acceleration is less than the maximum acceleration and
it is given by
a = ω2 x
3. At the equilibrium position where the velocity is maximum, the acceleration is zero;
while at the extreme positions where the acceleration is maximum, the velocity is zero.

Example 2
A body vibrates with s.h.m. with a frequency of 50 Hz and amplitude of 4 cm. Calculate the
a. period;
b. angular velocity;
c. acceleration at the middle and at the end of the path of oscillation;
d. velocities at the middle and at the end of path of oscillation;
e. velocity and acceleration at a distance 2 cm from the centre of oscillation. [Take п =
3.142]
Solution
f = 50 Hz, amplitude A = (4 cm) = 0.04 m
1 1
a. Period T = = = 0.02 sec
f 50

b. ω = 2пf or ω = 2п
T
ω = 2п x 50 = 100п rad/s
= 100 x 3.142
= 314.2 rad/s
c. Acceleration a = ω2x or a = ω2 A
i. At midpoint, x = 0
∴ a = ω2 x 0 = 0
ii. At the end of the path, x = A = 4 cm
∴ amax = ω2A
= (2пf)2 x A
= (2 x 3.142 x 50)2 x 4
= 3.95 x 105 cms-2
amax = 3.95 x 103 ms-2
d. v = v=ω √ A2−x 2
i. At midpoint, x = 0
∴ vmax = v=ω √ A2−02
vmax = ω√ A 2
 vmax = ωA
vmax = (2пf) x A
= 2 x 3.142 x 50 x 4cm
= 1256.8 cm/s
= 12.57 m/s
ii. At the end of the path, x = A  x=A=4
∴ v=ω √ A 2−x 2
v=ω √ 4 2−42
v = ω x 0 = 0 m/s
e. At x = 2 cm
i. v=ω √ A2−x 2
v = 2пf√ A 2−x 2
v = 2 x 3.142 x 50√ 4 2−22
= 314.2√ 12
= 1088 cms-1
= 10.88 ms-1
ii. a = ω2 x
= (2пf)2 x
= (2 x 3.142 x 50)2 x 2
= 1.974 x 105 cms-2
= 1.974 x 103 ms-2
ENERGY OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
i. The simple pendulum

At the equilibrium position Z, the kinetic energy is maximum; and, it is equal to the maximum
potential energy at the extreme positions (X or Y).

1 2
mv max = mgh
2
 1 2
v = gh
2 max
v2max = 2gh
vmax= √ 2 gh
l
Period , T =2 π
g
The period depends only on the length (l) of the pendulum
√
ii. The helical spring

ω=
√ K
m
- - - - - - - - - - i.

2π
But ω= (Note ω=2 πf ¿
T
∴ From eqn (i)
2π
T
=
√ K
m
T
2π
=
√ m
K

T =2 π
√ m
K
(Period of oscillating spiral spring)

The period varies only with the mass (m) attached.

If mo is the mass of the spring,

T =2 π
√ m+ mo
K

Example 1
An oscillating pendulum bob has a mass of 0.1 kg. Its amplitude is
0.01 m and its period is 2s. Calculate
i. the angular velocity
ii. the maximum kinetic energy of the bob
iii. the kinetic energy when the bob is 0.004 m from the centre of oscillation.
Solution
m = 0.1 kg, A = 0.01 m T=2s
2π
i. From ω =
T
2π
ω= =π
2
 = 3.142 rad/s
vmax = ωA
vmax = 3.142 x 0.01 = 0.03142 m/s
1
But K.Emax = mv2max
2
1
= x 0.1 x 0.031422
2
= 4.9 x 10-5 J

iii. With x = 0.004 m and A = 0.01 m

v = ω √ A2− x2
v = 3.142√ 0.012−0.004 2
v = 0.0288 m/s
1
But K.E = mv2
2
1
= x 0.1 x 0.02882
2
= 4.15 x 10-5 J

Example 2
A mass of 0.5 kg is suspended from a vertical spring and is pulled down a small distance of 4
mm and then released. If the force constant of the spring is 200 N/m, calculate the
i. period of the motion,
ii. maximum K.E. of the mass.
Solution

m = 0.5 kg, A = (4 mm) = 0.004 m; K = 200 N/m

i. T =2 π
√ m
K

T =2 π
√
0.5
200
¿ 2 π √ 0.0025
= 2п x 0.05
= 2 x 3.142 x 0.05
= 0.31 s

ii. v max=ωA
 √
v max = K x A
m

v max=
√ 200
0.5
x 0.004

v max= √ 400 x 0.004

v max=20 x 0.004
v max=¿ 0.08 m/s
1
But K.Emax = mv2max
2
1
= x 0.5 x 0.082
2
K.Emax = 0.0016 J

Example 3
A spring stretches by 15 cm when a mass of 300 g hangs down from it. If the spring is then
stretched an additional 10 cm and released, calculate the
a. spring constant
b. angular velocity
c. amplitude of oscillation
d. maximum velocity
e. maximum acceleration of the mass [g = 10 m/s2]
Solution
m = (300 g) = 0.3 kg; e = 15 cm = 0.15 m; A = 10 cm = (0.1 m)
F
a. k=
e
mg
k=
e
0.3 x 10
=
0.15
k = 20 N/m

b. ω=
√ k
m

= √ 66.67
ω=
√ 20
0.3

= 8.17 rad/s

c. A = 10 cm = (0.1 m)
d. v max=ωA
v max = 8.17 x 0.1
v max=¿ 0.817 m/s

e. amax = ω2A
= 8.172 x 0.1
= 6.67 m/s2
Types of oscillations and resonance

There are three types of vibrations or oscillations:

Free vibration: A free oscillation is a simple harmonic motion in which the amplitude remains
constant with time.

Damped oscillation: This is a periodic motion in which the amplitude decreases with time until it
dies away (i.e. becomes zero).

Forced vibration: This is an oscillation or vibration in which an external periodic force is used to
set another body into vibration or to sustain the free vibration of the body in spite of damping.

Naturally, all objects vibrate with a natural frequency in the absence of external forces; in
forced vibration, the objects vibrate with a forcing frequency which is different from its natural
frequency.
An example of forced vibration is the experimental observation when the stem of a tuning fork
is placed on a table. The fork forces the table to vibrate which in turn sets a large mass of air in
contact with it to vibrate.

Resonance
This is a special case of forced vibration.

Resonance is a phenomenon in which a vibrating body or system sets another body or system
into vibration with both of them having the same natural frequencies leading to a vibration of
higher amplitude.

From the definition, both the forcing frequency of the vibrator and the natural frequency of the
body set in vibration are the same.