Chapter 1 - DNA and Genetics

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

Deoxyribonucleic acid is the molecule that determines characteristics. It
contributes to the diversity of living things. James Watson and Francis Crick
successfully described its structure. The DNA double-helix model is known as
the Watson-Crick model.
Watson-Crick Model of DNA
DNA has a similar structure in all organisms in that it’s made up of smaller
molecules called nucleotides. The basic structure of a nucleotide is shown
below.
There are three parts in a nucleotide. They are:
- Phosphate group
- Deoxyribose sugar
- One of the nitrogen-rich, which bases
adenine, guanine, thymine and cytosine. These
are commonly known as bases.
The nitrogen rich bases pair up to form the
rungs of the double helix ladder. The bases all
have different chemical structures. They only
pair up in one way (called complementary base
pairs). The complementary bases are adenine
with thymine and guanine with cytosine.
Genes and Chromosomes
Chromosomes are long, thin, threadlike structures found in the nuclei of all
cells in the human body that contain a nucleus. Chromosomes are made of
DNA and protein. Cells in the human body have 46 chromosomes (diploid
number) arranged in 23 pairs. Genes are sections of DNA. Each chromosome
can have over 1000 genes. The difference between genes is the:
- Order of bases along the DNA strand.
- Length of the strand
Gametes only contain 23 chromosomes (haploid number). Red blood cells have
no nucleus. Other organisms have different numbers of chromosomes and
chromosome pairs in their cells. The order of bases along the DNA strand is
your gene code. Gene codes contain instructions for specific proteins. Proteins
may be structural (collagen, keratin), enzymes (amylase, lactase), regulatory
(growth hormones and insulin). Some genes are not required in different
locations. Genes for hair growth are not needed in internal organs and genes
for acid production are not needed in the production of the brain.
Replicating the DNA
Apart from red blood cells, all the cells in your body have nuclei that contain
chromosomes made of DNA. Each cell contains exact copies of the
chromosomes that were in the original zygote that became you. This means
that it must be possible to copy DNA molecules. Process of copying dNA is
known as replication.
Replication
1. The strands of the double helix separate from each other in much the
same way as a zip opens. Bases are exposed. With nucleus there are
individual nucleotides that aren’t part of the DNA chain.
2. These nucleotides pair up with exposed bases following rules of
complementary base pairing.
3. The sugar and phosphate molecules bond with neighbouring nucleotides
and new strands of DNA are formed.
Replication occurs on both exposed strands of DNA and the result is two
identical molecules of DNA. Each chromosome is a double structure made up
of two chromatids joined together. Each chromatid is a double helix of DNA.
Having made copies of all chromosomes, the cell is ready to divide.
Cell Division
Mitosis produces two daughter cells that are identical to the parent cell. This is
the type of cell division involved in growth and repair. Meiosis produces
gametes that have half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell.
Mitosis
Mitosis is a continuous process. However scientists have identified several
distinct stages in the process (IPMAT).
- Interphase:
When the cell begins to divide, the DNA coils up. The DNA replicates and
becomes double-stranded. Chromosomes not visible under microscope.
- Prophase:
This is when the separate chromosomes thicken and shorten and become
visible. Each chromosome consists of two chromatids joined at the
centromere. The nuclear membrane breaks down in this phase.
- Metaphase:
The chromosomes line up across the equator of the cell. Each
chromosome is attached to the spindle fibres at the centromere.
- Anaphase:
Chromatids separate to become two independent chromosomes. The
network of spindle fibres contract, pulling chromosomes to opposite
poles of the cell.
- Telophase:
A nuclear membrane encloses the chromosomes at each pole.
 The chromosomes uncoil and are no longer visible as individual strands.
Nuclear membrane reforms to enclose chromosomes, forming two nuclei
with diploid number of chromosomes.
Mitosis is now complete, with 2 nuclei identical to parent cells.
- Cytokinesis:
The cytoplasm divides and the result is the two identical daughter cells.
Meiosis
Meiosis is the process of cell division that produces gametes (sperm and egg).
The chromosomes replicate in preparation for division, like mitosis.
- Interphase 1:
DNA replicates.
- Prophase 1:
Nuclear membrane breaks down in preparation for the first part of
meiosis. The chromosomes shorten, thicken and become visible.
- Metaphase 1:
Homologous pairs line up across the cell equator and attach to the
spindle fibres.
- Anaphase 1:
Fibres contract, drawing one chromosome from each pair to opposite
poles of the cell.
- Telophase 1:
Two daughter cells are produced. The chromosomes are still double
stranded.
- Prophase 1:
The nuclear membrane disappears.
- Metaphase 2:
Single chromosomes line up across the equator. The spindle fibres attach
to the chromosomes that have lined up on the cell equator.
- Anaphase 2:
Chromatids are pulled apart towards cell poles.
- Telophase 2:
There are now bundles of 23 chromosomes. New nuclear membranes
form and the cytoplasm divides to produce four new cells. Each cell
contains the haploid number of chromosomes. These cells are the
gametes.
Asexual Reproduction
There are plants and animals the can reproduce asexually. This means they
reproduce without the union of gametes, instead reproducing through the
mitosis of certain cells.
Sexual Reproduction
The following figures show the functions of the human reproductive systems.
Creating Differences
Four gametes produced by meiosis of one cell are different. They all have the
same number of chromosomes and carry information about the same
characteristics. Every gamete produced is different.
Dominant and Recessive Inheritance
Genetics is the study of inherited characteristic traits. In natural populations
all the individuals are genetically different. Some patterns of inheritance of
these traits can be identified. Traits are distinguishable characteristics
belonging to an individual.
Genes
A gene is part of a chromosome. Each inherited characteristic is controlled by
two copies of its genes. The two copies of the gene determine a particular
characteristic. Different forms of the same gene are called alleles.
Alleles
Alleles are described as dominant or recessive. The dominant allele shows in
the phenotype, and the recessive allele shows only if it’s homozygous. Letters
are used to represent the type of allele. Dominant alleles are always shown
with capital letters, while recessive ones are shown with lower case letters.
Homozygous and Heterozygous
Homozygous organisms have two identical alleles of a gene. Heterozygous
organisms have two different alleles.
Genotype and Phenotype
Genotype is genetic information carried by an individual. The phenotype is the
observable characteristics of an individual. Phenotype is dependent on
genotype.
Punnett Squares
Punnett squares are a way of showing all the possible types of offspring that
could result from a cross. It cannot be assumed that the offspring will appear
in exactly the order and ratio seen in the punnett square. It only represents
possibilities.
Sex Determination
If a sperm containing an X chromosome fertilises an egg, the result will be a
female. If a sperm containing a Y chromosome fertilises an egg, then the
offspring will be a male. (XX) is a female, (XY) is a male.
Sex Linkage
Some genes are found on the sex chromosome. These are called alleles
because they are present on one of the chromosomes that are responsible for
the determination of the sex. The X chromosome is longer than the Y
chromosome, so it carries more alleles. Most sex-linked genes are carried on
the X chromosomes.
Chromosomal Abnormalities
Sometimes mistakes happen during meiosis when gametes are produced and
the information is passed onto the next generation. If chromatids fail to
separate, it could mean:
- A person is born with an extra chromosome
- A person is born with less chromosomes
Mutations
A mutation is a change that occurs in the base sequence of DNA. They may
arise from radiation or chemical exposure.
Types of mutations
Silent mutation: Changes in the genetic code that do not affect the individual,
occurring when a single base on a DNA strand is changed, and doesn’t affect
protein made using that genetic information.
Missense mutation: Changes that don’t stop the gene from making a protein,
but the protein produced is different from the one that’s meant to be produced.
It may not function correctly and cause disease, e.g - sickle cell anaemia.
Nonsense mutation: This mutation causes the cells to stop reading the
information on the gene before its end. The protein created is incomplete and
cannot function at all. Diseases include cystic fibrosis and Duchenne muscular
dystrophy.
Frameshift mutation: Caused by insertion of deletion of a single base. Causes
all the information to be jumbled, so it can’t be used to make a protein. They
result in severe genetic diseases, such as Tay-Sachs disease.
Genetic Modification
Scientists have developed gene technologies that enable plant cells to be
genetically modified. In genetically modified organisms, the genetic
information is changed by interesting new genes. The new genes are then
copied to all daughter cells when the parent cell divides by mitosis. These
modified cells will mature (grow up) into a completely new strain of plant.
Example 1: Canola
GM canola is resistant to herbicides that are commonly used to control weeds.
Farmers can spray herbicide on the crop and kill the weeds but leave the
canola unaffected.
Example 2: Rice
Rice is the main food source for more than half the world’s population. Whiter
rice lacks essential minerals and vitamins, including vitamin A. Vitamin A
deficiency is a cause of childhood blindness that affects up to 500,000 children
worldwide each year. Golden rice-2 is genetically modified using genes from
daffodils, corn and bacteria. Golden rice-2 contains beta-carotene, the
chemical that gives carrots their orange colour, and which the body converts
into vitamin A.
Gene Splicing
Bacteria have DNA in chromosomes, but they also have separate rings of DNA
called plasmids. Using enzymes, scientists can cut these plasmids open and
splice (inser) desirable genes into the plasmid. This process is called gene
splicing. The technology of coming DNA from different genes is called
recombinant DNA technology.
Human Genome Project
A genome is the genetic information carried by a haploid set of chromosomes.
The human genome project was an international project. It aimed to:
 - Identify all 20000-25000 genes in the human genome.
- Determine the sequence of the 3 billion base pairs that make up human
chromosomes.
Although the project was finished in 2006, analysis of the data will continue
for years. All humans share about 99.9% of their DNA. The variation is caused
by the other 0.01%. Scientists have identified millions of locations that differ
by only one base from human to human. The differences are known as single
nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). They may be associated with common
diseases.
Gene Testing
Once the function of a gene is known, scientists are able to test for the gene.
More than 400 genetic make-up could help avoid diseases that are controlled
by lifestyle as well as genetics. Genetic testing can tell if people are carrying
specific disease-causing genes that could be passed down to children. Genetic
testing detects a particular problem gene. However, it can’t predict how
severely the person carrying the gene will be affected. Genetic testing can be
used to diagnose genetic disorders in foetuses such as Down Syndrome, Turner
Syndrome, Fragile X Syndrome, and more. With knowledge of genetic disease
in the foetus, parents can decide whether or not to continue with the
pregnancy. Other uses include criminal investigations, biological parent
identification and medical analysis to prevent rejection.
Drawbacks
Knowledge of genes that cause disease can affect an individual’s ability to get
life insurance cover. This affects the whole family. If some has disease-carrying
genes, then other members of the family may carry the same genes, so they’d
also consider testing.
Gene Therapy
Gene therapy is when a defective gene is replaced with a normal gene.
Treating Cancer
There is a gene (RGS5) which can be turned off to reverse blood vessel growth,
to make them more normal in size, which hopefully would lead to control in
tumour growth.
Development of Vaccines
Bacterial diseases are a major threat to health worldwide. Vaccines were
developed to help stop the spread of infectious disease which lead to death.
Vaccines work by causing your body to provoke an immune response to react
as if it has been infected by a pathogen. Traditional vaccines work by taking a
small amount of the poison produced by the bacterium and making it inactive
or using dead bacteria. Both are harmless.
Genome Vaccines
Bacteria contain various proteins on their surface. Some of these proteins will
start to make your body produce antibodies. Vaccines can be produced by
using any one of these proteins.
Steps in Making Vaccines using Genomes
1. Scientists identify the genetic code that causes the surface proteins to be
produced.
2. They analyse the surface proteins and identify which ones will cause the
body to produce antibodies.
3. Genes for these proteins are isolated, then spliced into a plasmid of
bacterium E.coli, found in the human intestines.
4. These are then grown in the laboratory, where the E.coli bacteria produces
proteins coded by spliced genes.
5. The ones that produce large quantities are tested on mice.
6. The blood of the mice is analysed for antibodies.
7. The proteins with highest antibody production are then further tested.
8. Finally, 2 or 3 proteins go to human trials.
Stem Cells
When an embryo is a few days old, it contains cells that are pluripotent.
Pluripotent cells are capable of becoming any one of the 220 different cell
types found in the human body. These cells are known as embryonic stem cells.
In a late stage embryo, the cells have differentiated and become fixed as skin
cells, cardiac muscle cells, or nerve cells in the brain.
Adult Stem Cells
Harvesting of embryonic stem cells destroys the embryo. Many people object to
this on moral or religious grounds. For this reason, scientists began looking for
other cells that were pluripotent and had the ability to change into other cell
types. Adult stem cells lie deep within organs, such as the skin, which is
surrounded by millions of ordinary cells. Adult stem cells are specialised in
some ways, making certain types of cells.
Induced Pluripotent Cells (iPSCs)
In 2006, Shinya Yamanaka of Kyoto University discovered a way of returning
mature skin cells from a mouse to their pluripotent state. This process is called
inducing pluripotent cells. Research is required to make iPSCs behave in the
same way as embryonic stem cells. Scientists believe that it could produce
parts of cells or organs damaged by disease. There would be no problem with
rejection of replacement, as it would be made from the patient’s own cells.
In-Vitro Fertilisation
In the process of fertilising eggs outside the human body, then placing the
developing embryo back into the woman’s uterus. IVF is used to treat couples
who are infertile or have trouble conceiving a child naturally. Possible causes
of infertility include:
- Blocked oviducts preventing eggs and sperm meeting
- Disease causing damage to oviduct and ovaries
- Abnormal or insufficient sperm
- Blocked sperm ducts
Collecting of Eggs
Eggs are collected under light sedation. An ultrasound is used to show mature
follicles in the ovary. A fine needle is passed through the wall of the vagina
and into the ovary. Each mature follicle is pierced and the egg is sucked into a
hollow tube. Eggs placed in a special solution in a sterile petri dish in an
incubator.
Sperm Collection and Fertilisation
Once eggs are read, the male provides a sample of the semen. The sample is
washed to concentrate the sperm. The healthiest sperm is selected and added
to the petri dish containing the eggs. The petri dish of egg and sperm are
placed into an incubator at 38 degrees Celsius. Fertilisation should occur
within 18-24 hours.
Embryo Transfer
Any embryo produced is allowed to develop in the petri dish between 2 and 7
days. One or two embryos are transferred into the woman’s uterus. 16 days
later, a pregnancy test is carried out. When more embryos are produced than
are used, they are frozen and used later. In Australia, the time limit for storing
embryos varies from state to state.
Donor Eggs and Sperm
There are situations in which eggs cannot be prepared from the female or the
male cannot produce suitable sperm. In these situations, donor eggs and
sperm are used. The baby conceived in this way will have only genetic
information from one parent. When a donor embryo is used, the baby will have
no genetic link to the parents.
Embryo Testing
It is possible to test embryos before implantation. If one parent is known to be
a carrier of a sex-linked genetic disease, couples can choose to use IVF rather
conceive naturally. This way, parents can test the embryos and see if it
contains the genetic disease. If free of disease, then it is transferred and used
in the fertilisation. This way, the baby wouldn’t have the disease, but be a
carrier.
Animal Testing
Using animals for product testing is subjected to controversial views. Some
people reject it, others support it on the basis that there is minimum pain, and
there is little suffering.
Drawing Punnett Squares

When drawing Punnett squares, the following must be done to ensure it is

correct:
- Fully boxed squares, as seen above.
- The genotype cross must be stated, for example PP x pp.
- The ratio or percentage of the offspring must be stated next to or below
the Punnett square.
- To identify different alleles, it’s best to use letters which are clearly
different in uppercase and lowercase form.
True Breeding
Animals that always pass on the same characteristic to their offspring over
generations is known as true breeding. Pure breeding is a result of breeding
homozygous parents for a certain trait. Another type of cross iw when each
parent is a true breeding individual, but each has a different phenotype. This is
known as a monohybrid cross.
Glossary Terms - Chapter 1
Chromosomes: Thread-like structures in the nucleus. Composed of DNA and
proteins; contains the genetic information in the form of genes.
Complementary base pairs: A pair of bases that can join to make the rungs of
the DNA ladder - adenine and thymine, guanine and cytosine.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA): A double helix made of nucleotides; the molecule
that determines the genetic characteristics of most living things.
Deoxyribose sugar: One of the parts that make up a nucleotide.
Gene: A section of DNA that carries the genetic code for a particular
characteristic.
Nitrogen-rich base: Part of a nucleotide; the four types are adenine (A),
guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).
Nucleotides: The building blocks of DNA; composed of deoxyribose sugar, a
phosphate group and nitrogen-rich base.
Phosphate group: One of the parts that make up a nucleotide.
Traits: Inherited characteristics
Watson-Crick model: The double helix structure of the DNA molecule.
Autosomes: All the chromosomes in a cell other than the sex chromosomes.
Centromere: The point on a chromosome where the two chromatids are joined
together.
Chromatid: One of the strands of a chromosome following replication.
Diploid number: The number of chromosomes in body cells; two sets or 2N.
Gametes: Sperm and egg cells.
Haploid number: The number of chromosomes in gametes; one set or N.
Homologous chromosomes: Chromosomes with genes for particular
characteristics at the same location.
Meiosis: The type of cell division that produces gametes with half the number
of chromosomes of the parent cell.
Mitosis: The type of cell division that produces two daughter cells identical to
the parent cell.
Replication: The process of making copies of DNA.
Sex chromosomes: The chromosomes that determine the sex of an individual;
in humans they are the X and Y chromosomes.
Alleles: Different forms of the same gene located at the same point of
homologous chromosomes.
Dominant allele: Allele for the trait that is observed in the outward
appearance of an individual.
Genotype: Genetic information carried by an individual.
Heterozygous: Having two different alleles on homologous chromosomes.
Homozygous: Having two identical alleles on homologous chromosomes.
Mutation: A mistake that happens as DNA is copied, causing a change to the
base sequence.
Phenotype: Observable characteristics of the individual; the way the genotype
is expressed.
Pure breeding: Where all individuals have the same genetic information for a
characteristic generation after generation.
Recessive allele: Allele for the trait that remains hidden in the heterozygous
condition.
Sex-linked genes: Genes present on the sex chromosomes.
Gene splicing: The process used to add a gene into or remove genes from DNA.
Gene therapy: The process of replacing a defective gene with a normal gene.
Genetically modified: Having the genes changed.
Genome: The genetic information carried by a haploid set of chromosomes.
Human Genome Project: An international project that aims to identify all the
human genes and determine the sequence of the base pairs that make up
human chromosomes.
Plasmid: Ring of DNA found in bacteria.
Recombinant DNA technology: Technology that allows DNA to be recombined
with other genes.
Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs): Differences of only one base between
one human and another.

Chapter 2 - Geological Time

What is a fossil?
Fossils are the preserved evidence in rocks or soils of organisms that once
existed on Earth. Palaeontology is the study of past life, especially fossils.
Palaeontologists are scientists who reconstruct past environments using fossils
and geology.
The Fossil Record
Lists all the species of living organisms that have been found as fossils, their
location and relative age. This record can be thought of as the Earth’s timeline.
The soft parts of organisms decay much faster than the hard parts and so it is
extremely rare for soft parts to be preserved. Hard objects such as skeletons,
shells, teeth and wood are most commonly found as fossils. Hence fossils of
dinosaurs, crabs and trees are more likely to be found than fossils for slugs.
Fossil Formation
1. Ammonite dies and falls to the bottom of the sea. It’s covered by
sediments and protected from being eaten. Soft parts decay, leaving
only the shell.
 2. More sediment covers and squeezes the shell. Shell may remain or be
replaced with minerals, which seep into solution before shell dissolves.
3. Movements in crust may thrust the layer of sedimentary rock upwards.
4. Weathering and erosion may wear away some part of the rock, exposing
the fossil.

Types of Fossils
Many types of fossils can occur due to the different ways in which they form.
Types of organisms also affect what type of fossil it will become. Fossils can be
classified in different ways, including:
- Original
- Replacement
- Carbon film
- Indirect
Original Fossils
Original fossils form when a part of the organism is preserved, with its
chemical composition being about the same as it was when it was living.
Original fossils commonly include shelled sea creatures and vertebrates.
Replacement Fossils
A replacement fossil forms when a part of the organism is chemically changed
into another mineral. This takes a long time to happen so most of these fossils
date back to over 60 million years. If the material being replaced and fossilised
is wood, then scientists refer to the wood as being petrified.
Carbon Film Fossils
Carbon film fossils occur when the dead body partially decays and leaves a
thin black deposit of carbon.
Indirect Fossils
Indirect fossils (trace fossils) are not part of the organism itself, but instead,
preserved remains of things such as imprints of the body, burrows and
fossilised dung (corpolites). A mould is usually an imprint left in the rock,
showing the outside of an organism. A mould is a ‘negative image’, meaning
that it is space when there is no body. It is possible to have a mould of the
inside of an organism. This is referred to as an internal mould. A cast forms
when an organism in rock decomposes and the space in the rock fills with soil
and turns to rock. This leaves a copy of the outside of the organism in a solid
piece of rock. This is a positive image and is a 3D model of what the organism
looked like while it was alive.
Index Fossil Criteria
To be used as an index fossil, the species must:
- Have been fairly widespread
- Have lived in a narrow period of time
- Haven been abundant
- Be easy to identify
Index fossils allow rock layers in different locations to be compared and dated
(stratigraphy).
Two excellent examples of index fossils are trilobites and ammonites.
Fluorine Analysis
Fluorine dating is another relative dating method. It compares the amounts of
fluorine in different bones found in the same rock. Bones absorb fluorine from
the water in the surrounding rock. It happens at a slow rate and depends on
how much is in the water surrounding the bone.
Absolute Dating
Radioactive elements decay at a known rate, so they are used to date fossils
and objects from long ago. This dating method is much more reliable than
relative dating, as it gives scientists an estimated age. This decay allows
scientists to estimate how long ago the rock was laid down. From a decay
curve, the element’s half-life can be estimated.
Tree Rings
Using tree rings is another useful method of absolute dating for dating wood.
This method can give a date to several thousand years ago. Tree ring dating
involves counting growth rings in the woody trunks of trees.
Creating a Time Scale
Palaeontologists have constructed the geological time scale which shows past
life and geology found in strata around the world.
Relative Dates
Geological time scale was constructed by combining relative and absolute
dates. Stratigraphy and index fossils of many different plants and animals
showed that a particular time period covered by a set of fossils was a
geological period.
Absolute Dates
Development of techniques such as radioactive carbon dating allowed
palaeontologists for the first time to calculate the actual age of each index
fossil and rocks they were found in. These dates were added to the fossil
sequence. The combined information from both became the geological time
scale. It represents time all the way back since Earth’s formation 4.5 billion
years ago.
The Earliest Organisms
Despite the lack of fossil evidence, palaeontologists concluded that the first
forms of life on Earth were single-celled organisms (bacteria). All the oldest
fossils found have been from the oceans, suggesting life began there. Most
ancient organisms for which there are fossil records were cyanobacteria. They
lived in shallow waters of early seas, where they formed stromatolites.
Vertebrate Fossil History
Vertebrates are animals with a bony inner skeleton and include fish,
amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. The earliest known vertebrate
ancestors were primitive fish from the Cambrian era, dated back to 525 million
years ago.
Moving from Water to Land
Life started to spread from sea to land. Insects and vertebrates followed soon
after.
Lobe-Finned Fish
Palaeontologists are fairly sure that the lobe-finned fish are the ancestors of
the group of life forms that finally made the move to land.
Land Vertebrates
The first land vertebrates in the fossil record were amphibian ancestors. They
were the first of the tetrapods. Living tetrapods are now classified into
amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.
Birds
Bird-like animals appear in the Jurassic period around 200 million years ago.
The oldest true birds date from about 110 million years ago. Birds shared
many features with a small group of dinosaurs called theropods.
Mammals
The earliest mammal-like fossils appeared in the Triassic period, 190 million
years ago.
Glossary Terms - Chapter 2
Carbon film fossil: When the dead body partially decays and leaves a thin
black deposit of carbon.
Cast: When an organism in rock decomposes and the space in the rock fills with
soil that turns to rock.
Ediacaran period: Time period on the geological time scale when complex life
forms were developing.
Fossil record: A list showing the classification of all the species that have been
found as fossils.
Fossils: The preserved evidence in rocks or soils of organisms that were once
alive.
Indirect fossils: Preserved remains of things such as imprints of the body,
fossilised dung and burrows.
Mould: An imprint of the outside of the body in rock.
Original fossils: When a part of the organism such as a skeleton is preserved
and remains in its original form.
Palaeontologist: Scientist who studies prehistoric life.
Palaeontology: The study of prehistoric life.
Petrified: When wood is replaced by minerals and fossilised.
Replacement fossil: When a part of the organism is changed into another
mineral.
Absolute dating: A way of determining the actual age of rocks and fossils.
Fluorine dating: Finding a relative age for two bones from the same area by
comparing the amount of fluorine in them.
Half-life: The time it takes for half of a radioactive sample to decay.
Index fossil: Fossils that can be used to compare the relative age of rock strata
in different locations.
Isotope: Different forms of the same element with different numbers of
neutrons, and so different atomic masses.
Relative dating: Comparing the age of one fossil or rock against another to see
if one is older or younger than the other.
Strata: Layers of sedimentary rock.
Stratigraphy: Comparing strata in different locations to determine their relative
ages.
Tree ring dating: Counting growth rings in the woody trunks of trees to find
their age.
Archaeopteryx: Bird-like dinosaur that had feathers.
Coelacanths: Ancient group of fish related to the lobe-finned fish ancestors of
the amphibians.
Ectothermic: Depending on surroundings for warmth.
Endothermic: Able to control body temperature.
Geological time scale: A scale showing the history of life and geology.
Ichthyostega: Early amphibians which were the first of the group called
tetrapods.
Lobe-finned fish: Fish with bones in their fins similar to land animals.
Lungfish: Relatives of the lobe-finned fish that made the move from water to
land.
Primates: Orders of mammals to which humans belong.
Stromatolite: Circular rocky structures thought to be the earliest evidence of
living organisms called the cyanobacteria.
Tetrapods: Land animals with four limbs. Living tetrapods are now classified as
amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.
Theropods: A dinosaur group closely related to birds and from which birds
probably developed.

Chapter 3 - Natural Selection and Evolution

Fossils and Evolution

Evolution is defined as a genetic change in the characteristics of a species over
many generations, resulting in the formation of new species. A generation is
the time between the birth of an individual and when that individual produces
their own offspring.
Fossil history of the Horse
The fossil history of the horse is a good example of changes occurring over
many generations. Fossil skeletons have been found of a horse-like animal
that was the size of a small dog. The scientific name of the genus of this
animal is Hyracotherium. Radioactive dating methods show that it lived about
52 million years ago. The fossil skeletons of at least 17 different genera and
many more of horses have been found and dated. All of them form a complex
family tree with many side branches. There seems to be a gradual change in
many parts of the skeletons of different horses, such as increase in body size,
longer legs and decrease in toe number.
Structure and Relationships
Genetics has shown us that species with the same basic structure share many
identical genes or have genes that are similar in effect, which control structure
and function. It is obvious that the species had a common ancestry and that
the genes have been passed down.
Homologous Structures
In related species, characteristics that have the same basic structure are called
homologous characteristics. These characteristics are controlled by particular
inherited genes. A homologous structure does not necessarily have the same
function in all the groups that share it.
Analogous Structures
Not all similar structures are homologous structures. Structures that look
similar on genetically very different organisms are known as analogous
structures.
Selective Breeding
Selective breeding is when parents with particular characteristics are chosen to
breed together to produce offspring with desirable characteristics.
Inbreeding
Inbreeding is when related individuals are allowed to mate.
This method is not often used in animal breeding, as there can be health issues
within the offspring.
Natural Selection
Natural selection is the process where an environmental factor acts on a
population and results in some organisms having more offspring than others.
The environmental factor that acts on the population is known as the selective
agent. The selective agent may be a biotic or abiotic factor.
Many selective agents act by killing individuals, which are less suited to
surviving and are ‘poorly adapted’. Selective agents do not always act by
killing. Sexual selection is another form of natural selection, and it is another
form of natural selection because both change the characteristics of a species
through speciation.
Process of Natural Selection
1. Overproduction
Each species produces more offspring than can survive. This ensures that
at least some offspring can survive to reproductive age and pass on
genes.
2. Variation
Each individual has a unique combination of inherited traits. Adaptation
is an inherited trait that increases an organism’s chances of survival.
3. Competition
Individuals compete for limited resources; food, water, space and mates.
Natural selection occurs through survival of the fittest. Some individuals
are better suited for their environment than others. Those best suited
will survive to adulthood.
 4. Selection
The individuals with the best traits/adaptations will survive and have
the opportunity to pass on their traits to offspring. Individuals with traits
that are not well suited to their environment either die or leave few
offspring. Evolution occurs when good traits build up in a population
over many generations and bad traits are removed by the death of
individuals.
Variation
Darwin concluded that natural selection could only act if there is variation in
the population. However, genetics was unknown in his time and so he did not
know how or why this variation happened.
Genetics and Natural Selection
Natural selection is the change in the proportion of a particular genetic make
up (genotype) of a species over many generations due to environmental
selection of a particular characteristic (phenotype). This means the proportion
of a particular phenotype in a species changes because individuals with a
particular genotype within it are being favoured to breed.
Natural Selection of Insects
In the mid 20th century, chemical insecticides were sprayed onto crops to kill
insects and reduce crop damage. However, this was only effective for a few
years as not all sprayed insects died. This ability of insects to survive was
called resistance and was due to an inherited mechanism that allowed them
to destroy the poison in their bodies. The resistant insects bred and produced
offspring, most of which is inherited resistance. This is an example of natural
selection.
Natural Selection in Bacteria
Antibiotics are chemicals that defend against and kill bacteria. Doctors
sometimes prescribe antibiotics to kill infectious bacteria. Due to overuse,
several types of antibiotics lost their effectiveness against many different
bacteria. The bacteria became resistant to the antibiotics through natural
selection. When antibiotics are taken, the non-resistant bacteria are killed,
while resistant ones survive and reproduce, forming resistant offspring.
Bacteria reproduce by dividing in half every 20 minutes, making the amount of
resistant bacteria double. One very dangerous type of bacteria which has
become resistant to many different kinds of antibiotics and is difficult to kill
because of its resistance is golden staph, or Staphylococcus aureus.
Evolution
Charles Darwin proposed that natural selection could result in the formation
of new species. The term evolution was applied to his work by other scientists.
He noticed this in the Galapagos finches, wherein he observed that different
finch species had beak variations that suited them to food sources on their
islands.
Species
It is impossible to determine if two species are the same from their anatomy. In
the past, the test was to see if 2 species could mate under normal conditions
and produce fertile offspring. They would only be considered to be from the
same species if they produced fertile offspring. This inbreeding test can still be
used to classify living organisms on the species level. Nowadays, biologists
study DNA to identify amino acids. The theory of evolution states that similar
species must be closely related to each other.
Speciation
Speciation is the process by which one species splits into more, separate
species. It is responsible for the formation of new species that appear in the
fossil record. The process of speciation occurs in three basic steps:
- Variation
- Isolation
- Selection
Variation
There must be variation in the population of organisms, or speciation cannot
occur. Natural selection is involved and selection can only act on variation
already present in the population.
Isolation
Formation of new species requires isolation. That means that different groups
of the population are prevented by some mechanism from interbreeding.
Isolation prevents gene flow throughout the population, stopping any
differences in one population from reaching the other population. Any new
genes that arise by mutation in one isolated population cannot spread to the
other isolated population.
Isolation into separate populations can occur in several ways, such as
geographical barriers like oceans, rivers, mountain ranges and gorges or
climatic barriers, which include different rainfall, temperatures, water salinity,
ocean currents and sunlight.
Selection
Once isolated by barriers, natural selection affects the genotype and causes
changes that prevent the groups from breeding, even if they came back
together in the future. It changes courtship behaviour, breeding seasons,
sterility and fertility and introduces chemical barriers.
Evidence for Evolution
There are a number of evidences for evolution, such as fossils, comparative
anatomy, DNA and protein structure, distribution of current species,
embryology.
Fossils
The fossil record shows that there is an increasing number of species that have
lived on Earth. Many have become extinct along the way. Fossils also show
transitional forms, wherein an organism has features from different animal
groups. Early fossils are of simple organisms and later ones have become
increasingly complex.
Comparative Anatomy
Compares the structures of organisms of both living species and fossils.
Homologous structures such as pentadactyl limbs; they provide evidence for
evolution from a single vertebrate ancestor.
DNA and Protein Structure
All living things have the same basic DNA structure and use the same genetic
code. Organisms with similar anatomy show more genes in common than
organisms that are less alike. Proteins made up of amino acids are arranged in
a sequence. The sequence is controlled by genes. These sequences are used to
compare how closely related organisms are. This is mostly done with living
things, but DNA and fossils can be analysed using this method as well.
Cytochrome C is a protein found in living organisms, and comparing how much
of it is on a chain can point to the relation between species.
Distribution of Current
Species
Biogeography describes the global
distribution of lifeforms over
geographical areas, both in the
past and in the present. This
supports the theory of evolution
by natural selection as it found
that closely related species are
usually found in close proximity to
one another and that fossils from
these regions resemble modern
organisms. This suggests that
there is a common ancestor.
Embryology
Embryology is the study of the development, structure and function of
embryos. There are times during the embryonic development of fish, lizards
and humans when they all have branchial arches (gill slits), which are
arch-shaped structures in the throat region. Thus the development of
mammals, reptiles, birds and fish are linked to the branchial arches. In fish,
they develop into gills, but in humans, they develop into parathyroid glands.
Biologists have long ago proposed that fish evolved into amphibians which
evolved into everything else. This is supported by evidence from embryology.
Glossary Terms - Chapter 3
Analogous: Structures that appear similar or have the same function but are
controlled by different genes.
Artificial selection: The process by which people choose to breed particular
organisms with desirable features; also known as selective breeding or directed
selection.
Cross-breeding: Selective breeding by combining in the offspring a desirable
feature of one individual with a different desirable feature in another.
Evolution: Change in the characteristics of a species over many generations.
Generation: The time between the birth of an individual and when they
produce their own offspring.
Homologous: Structures that are controlled by some of the same inherited
genes.
Inbreeding: Selective breeding between two closely related individuals.
Antibiotics: Chemical made by organisms such as fungi to defend them against
bacteria.
Natural selection: The process in which an environmental factor acts on a
population and results in some organisms having more offspring than others.
Resistance: Inherited ability of a species to withstand chemicals such as
pesticides.
Selective agent: The environmental factor that acts on the population during
natural selection.
Sexual selection: A sepcial case of natural selection in which the
environmental factor is the selection of a mate.
Variation: Differences in characteristics due to different genes.
Biodiversity: The number and range of different species that exist on Earth or in
an ecosystem.
Distribution: A map of all the places where a species occurs.
Embryology: The study of the embryos of different species.
Isolation: Keeping interbreeding groups apart by some barrier or mechanism.
Species: Group of organisms that can interbreed to proud fertile offspring
under natural conditions.
Speciation: The process by which one species splits into two or more separate
species.
Transitional Forms: Fossils that have features or two or more different groups.
 Science Notes T1

Chapter 8- Motion and Energy

8.1- Describing Motion
Vocab/Unit Glossary
Acceleration: rate of change of velocity
Air resistance: friction between the air and a moving object
Average speed: a measure of how fast something moves on average.
Displacement: a measurement of the change in position of a moving body; a
straight line connecting the start and end points is specified in terms of length
and direction
Distance: a measurement of how far apart objects are
Gradient: slope of a hill of a graph: gradient= rise/run
Instantaneous speed: the speed of an object at a particular moment
Reaction distance: distance moved while reacting to an emergency
Reaction time: the length of time it takes a driver to respond to a hazard
Speed: the rate of change of distance
Terminal velocity: the final velocity that an object falls with no further
acceleration possible due to air resistance
Velocity: the rate of change of displacement
-----------------------------------------------------------------
---
Distance and Displacement
Distance is a measure of how far you travel.
· Measured in km, time in days or weeks etc.
Displacement is the straight-line distance between your finishing and starting
points.
· Doesn’t only specify distance but also direction of the end point from
the starting point.
Speed
· Speed is a measure of how fast something moves.
· Average speed: A measure of how fast something moves overall.
Ignores the stops and changes that happen in any journey, assumes
that the object was travelling at a constant speed the whole time.
· Instantaneous Speed: Speed at a particular instance. Speed is
measured in m/s.

Measuring Speed
There are various ways to measure speed, for instance -
· Fixed speed uses 2 electronic sensors- travelling over the first sensor is
timed to travel over the second sensor. Speed of a car can then be determined.
Light gates used for sporting events- skiing. Uses a sensor to trigger an
electronic timing mechanism when an object breaks through the sensor.
· Multiflash photograph shows diff. stages in a motion. The spacing
between each image gives some idea of speed.
Increase in spacing shows acceleration.
· A ticker timer is another device that can
be used to measure speed. When the timer is
attached to an object moving in a straight line,
dots record its motion.

Speed and Driving

· Reaction distance is the measurement of
how far a vehicle travels between the time
a driver realises the brakes must be
applied and when the driver actually
starts pushing on the brakes.
· Once the brakes are applied the car
begins to slow to a stop. The distance
travelled by the car during this time is
known as the braking distance.
· The total distance taken to stop the car is the sum of the reaction distance
and the braking distance. Stopping distance= reaction distance + braking
distance.
Calculations
 Speed and Velocity
· Speed is a scalar quantity that refers to “how fast an object
is moving”. Speed can be thought of as the rate at which an
object covers distance.
· Velocity: the rate and direction of an object’s movement.
The speed of something in a given direction, e.g., 50 km/hr West.
Acceleration
· Acceleration is the rate at which something changes (speed or velocity).
· Imagine two cars taking off at traffic lights. Both reach 60km/hr, but their
accelerations are not necessarily the same unless you are told how long each
took. If one took 6 seconds, while the other took 16 seconds it becomes
obvious which one is accelerating the fastest.
· Deceleration is negative acceleration.
Definitions -
Mass: The amount of matter an object contains.
Weight: Is a force caused by gravity (gravitational attraction the object feels)-
how strongly gravity pulls on matter.
Gravity: A force that attracts a body to the centre of the Earth.
Acceleration due to Gravity
· A falling object travels towards Earth because of the force of gravity. This
means it speeds up as it falls. Acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s2 so the
speed of an object increases by almost 10 m/s. Another 10 m/s is added to its
speed over the next second so that it is falling approx. 20 m/s.
· An acceleration of 9.8 m/s2 is called “1g” (acceleration of gravity).
· You may think it would reach enormous speeds, but friction between the fair
and moving object will eventually reduce this acceleration to 0.
· The friction between the air and the falling body is called air resistance, and
the final velocity is called terminal velocity (steady speed achieved by an
object when its speed and air resistance reach an equilibrium- free fall
position).

What is terminal velocity?

Terminal velocity is the constant velocity
that results when the force of atmosphere
friction equals the force of gravity for a
falling object. At this terminal velocity, the
falling object no longer accelerates.
Acceleration Formula is a = v-u/t.
Graphing Motion
Distance-Time Graphs
· Distance-time graphs show the total distance travelled by an object as time
progressed. Time is always placed on the horizontal axis.
· Steep graphs indicate that the object is covering more distance and travelling
faster than flatter graphs.
· A horizontal graph indicates no movement at all: the object is at rest or
stationary. The slope or gradient of a distance-time graph gives us the object’s
average speed.
Speed-Time Graphs
· Speed-time graph: A graph of speed
against time gives another picture of what
is happening in the motion of an object.
· If an object is getting faster, the graph
rises. If slowing, the graph falls. Constant
speed gives a flat graph.
· The area under a speed-time graph gives
the distance that an object has travelled up
to that point.
Displacement-Time Graphs
· An object’s displacement can be
shown on the vertical axis on a
graph instead of a distance.
· It shows how the position of the
object changes compared to where
it started.

8.2- Newton’s Laws of Motion

Vocab/Unit Glossary
Inertia: the tendency of an object to resist changes in motion
Newton’s first law of motion: an object at rest will remain this way unless
acted upon by an unbalanced force; an object that is moving will continue to
move in the same manner unless acted upon by an unbalanced force
Newton’s second law of motion: an object will accelerate in the direction of an
unbalanced force acting upon it such that: F=ma
Newton’s third law of motion: for every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction.
What is a force?
A force is a push, pull or twist that causes an object to either:
· Increase its speed (accelerate)
· Decrease its speed (decelerate)
· Change its direction, or
· Change its shape
If any of the above things occur, a force is the reason behind it.
Newton’s First Law
Newton’s first law examines the forces on an object that is at rest and in
motion.
Newton’s first law states that:
· An object at rest will remain this way unless it is acted upon by a force.
· An object that is moving will continue to move at the same speed and in the
same direction unless an unbalanced force changes it.
In other words, this law states that a force is needed to get something moving.
A force is also required to change the speed or direction of something that is
already moving.
Inertia
The tendency to resist any change in motion, is called an object’s inertia. The
larger the mass of an object, the greater its inertia and the harder it is to
change its motion.
Examples of Newton’s First Law
When a person is travelling in a car at 60km/h and the car is suddenly brought
to a stop, then the person’s body will continue to move forward at 60km/h
until an unbalanced force stops it. In this case, the unbalanced force would be
the seat belt restraints your body so that you come to a stop with a car.

Newton’s Second Law

Newton’s second law states:
· An object will accelerate in the direction of an unbalanced force acting upon
it. The size of this acceleration depends upon the mass of the object and the
size of the force acting.
According to Newton’s law:
· A larger force is needed to accelerate a heavy load than a lighter load.
· A larger force is required to make something accelerate at a fast rate.
· F=ma
Second Law Formula
The force (F) of an object is equal to the
mass (m) of an object, times its acceleration
(a).
Newton’s Third Law
Newton’s third law of motion states that:
· For every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction force.
8.3- Energy Changes
Vocab/Unit Glossary
Efficiency: a measure of the useful energy output of an energy transfer
Elastic potential energy: energy stored in a stretched or compressed material,
such as a spring or elastic band
Gravitational potential energy: the potential energy possessed by an object
due to its position above the ground
Kinetic energy: the energy of a moving body
Law of conservation of energy: energy may be transferred but is never created
or destroyed
Potential energy: energy possessed by an object because of its position or
structure, also called stored energy

Forms of Energy
· Energy is required to make things happen. Energy is needed whenever
something moves.
· There are many types of energy, such as kinetic, sound, light, heat and
electrical. Objects that have the potential to use energy possess potential
energy.
· Energy can be passed or transferred from one object to another.
· Energy can also be changed or transformed from one form to another.
Kinetic Energy
· The energy of a moving object is called kinetic energy. The amount of kinetic
energy an object has depends on its mass and speed.
· If an object’s mass doubles, its kinetic energy doubles too. However, if an
object’s speed doubles, its kinetic energy increases by a factor of four.
Potential Energy
Potential energy is energy that an object has because of its position or
structure. Potential energy is also called stored energy.
Gravitational Potential Energy
· An object positioned above the ground has gravitational potential energy.
· An object positioned high above the ground has greater gravitational
potential energy than the same object found closer to the ground.
· The greater the mass of an object, the greater its gravitational potential
energy would be.
Elastic Potential Energy
· A stretched or compressed spring has elastic potential energy.
· This energy is converted into kinetic energy when the spring is released and
returns to its original shape.
Conservation of Energy
The law of conservation of energy states that
energy may be transferred from one object to
another, but it is never created or destroyed.
Energy Efficiency
Although energy is always conserved in an
energy transfer, a little energy is usually “lost”
because it changes into non-useful forms such
as heat and sound. For example:

Chapter 6
- Global Systems
6.1- Earth’s Spheres
Vocab/Unit Glossary
Atmosphere: The layer of gases surrounding the planet.
Biosphere: All living things on Earth.
Carbon cycle: The process by which carbon is recycled through the soil, water,
living things and the atmosphere.
Denitrifying bacteria: Bacteria that convert nitrates back into gaseous nitrogen
(N2), which is then released back into the atmosphere.
Fossil fuels: Fuels that contain the carbon of plants and animals that died and
were preserved millions of years ago.
Fossils: The preserved remains of once living organisms.
Hydrosphere: All the liquid water on Earth’s surface.
Liquefaction: A process in which soils lose their strength and behave as a
liquid.
Lithosphere: The landmasses on Earth.
Nitrogen cycle: The process through which nitrogen cycles between the living
and non-living environments.
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria: Bacteria that absorb nitrogen from the air and
convert it into ammonia and then into nitrates.
Photosynthesis: Process by which green plants and some other organisms use
sunlight to synthesise glucose from carbon dioxide and water; it generally
involves the green pigment chlorophyll and generates oxygen as a by-product.
Respiration: Process occurring within living cells by which chemical energy is
released in a series of metabolic steps involving the consumption of oxygen
and the release of carbon dioxide and water.
Sustainable ecosystems: Ecosystems that are diverse and provide for the needs
of the organisms that live there.
--------------------------------------------------------------
---
The Biosphere
The biosphere includes all parts of the Earth’s surface and atmosphere where
living things exist. It is the sum of all Earth’s ecosystems. It’s where the other
spheres of Earth interact:
- The land (lithosphere) interacts with the water (hydrosphere).
- The land interacts with the air (atmosphere).
- Living things interact with the land, water and air.
Natural Changes
Major natural events such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and tropical
cyclones have shaped Earth. These natural events influence the atmosphere,
lithosphere and hydrosphere. They also cause the different spheres to interact
in different ways.
Earthquakes
Depending on their severity, earthquakes may cause parts of the lithosphere to
move apart, move together, rise or subside (drop). This movement may cause
large cracks to appear or land to increase in height. The movement may cause
landslides or mudslides. Landslides and mudslides tear down forests and any
other vegetation in their path. Earthquakes may also cause liquefaction, which
is when saturated sandy soils lose their structure and behave as a liquid.
In saturated soils, water fills the spaces between the particles. When an
earthquake compresses the soil, it puts the water in it under pressure. This
causes the water to squeeze out from between the particles, large quantities
of water/soil bubble up through the layers and flow over the surface like a
liquid.
Earthquakes have little effect on the atmosphere, however have significant
effects on the hydrosphere. They can cause tsunamis if they happen out at sea.
Earthquakes on land can:
- Change the course of rivers
- Cause landslides and rock falls that block rivers, creating new lakes
- Destroy dams, releasing large amounts of water in a huge flood down a
valley.
A mudslide is mud or other material that’s fallen down a hillside. A landslide
is the collapse of earth or rocks from a mountain or cliff.
Tsunamis
The 2011 Japanese tsunami was the effect of an underwater earthquake that
caused a huge shift in tectonic plates in the Pacific Ocean. Since that
catastrophic event, Pacific Nations have updated their tsunami warning
systems and have contingency plans in place. This involves computer
modelling of Earth’s crust and using it to predict tsunami severity.
Volcanic Eruptions
Volcanic eruptions have short term and long term effects on the atmosphere
and environment. Short term effects include:
- Sending large ash clouds into the atmosphere, causing heavy rain and
spectacular lighting. Toxic gases that are released may cause acid rain.
Sometimes, rain occurs because the ash particles allow water vapour to
condense around them and form rain droplets. The probable cause of the
lightning is the collision of ash and air particles that become charged and are
then forced apart. Some areas of the atmosphere become negatively charged
while others become positively charged. When the difference in charge and the
voltage it creates becomes high enough, a flow of electric charge occurs. This is
lightning.
Long term effects of volcanic eruptions include:
- The clouds of ash in the atmosphere reduce the amount of sunlight
reaching the surface, which has a cooling effect on Earth, killing crops
and livestock.
- It has an impact on the biosphere, as it may burn vegetation.
- It could form new land, but it would be too hot, so seeds and pores
would take many years to germinate.
- Toxic gases and ash suffocate organisms.
Despite the multitude of impacts of volcanic eruptions, many people choose to
live near volcanoes, as volcanic soil is nutrient-rich and fertile due to the
minerals released from the eruption. It is ideal for growing crops.
Tropical Cyclones
Tropical cyclones are caused by intense low pressure atmospheric systems that
develop in the warm tropics when sea surface temperatures are above 26.5
degrees C. Evaporation above the warm water causes clouds to form, and the
low air pressure causes the clouds to spiral upwards forming very large and
high clouds. These spirals can become very destructive. Tropical cyclones
produce very heavy rain and wind speed of 63 km/h to more than 200 km/h.
Heavy rainfall associated with tropical cyclones continues after the tropical
cyclone has moved inland and decayed. The rain causes rivers to flood and the
effects extend far beyond the area of the cyclone.
Impacts of cyclones can include storm surges, floods, torrential rain, erosion of
land and waterways, blocked rivers, habitat destruction and more.
A storm surge is when the tide level of the sea increases due to winds and low
pressure systems.

Nitrogen Cycle
The nitrogen cycle is an important natural cycle for living things, as nitrogen is
an important element in proteins. Air is 78% nitrogen, but most living things
can’t use it in the form of gas. Plants use nitrogen compounds from the soil.
Animals are consumers that obtain their nitrogen by eating plants or other
animals. Some bacteria, such as decomposers and nitrogen-fixing bacteria,
make nitrogen available to other living things. They do this by converting it
into ammonia and then intrates that plants can use. Other bacteria, known as
denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates back into gaseous nitrogen (N2). This is
then released back into the atmosphere.
- Nitrification is the process by which ammonium (NH4+) or ammonia (NH3)
is oxidised into nitrite (NO2-) and nitrates (NO3-).
- Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonia to nitrates in the soil.
- Nitrogen fixing bacteria convert nitrogen gas into nitrates in the soil or
root nodules.
- Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates into nitrogen gas (N2).
- Denitrification is the reverse process of nitrification. Nitrates are reduced
to nitrates, then nitrites, then nitrogen gas and ammonia.
- Legumes are a group of plants with root nodules.
Steps of Nitrogen Cycle
1. Nitrogen fixing bacteria absorb nitrogen gas from the air in the soil and
make it into ammonia (NH3).
2. Nitrifying bacteria then convert the ammonia into nitrates. This process
is called nitrification.
 3. Other species of bacteria change the ammonia into chemicals called
nitrites and then into nitrates.
4. Nitrates are absorbed by plants through the roots and are used to
construct protein and other compounds.
5. Animals consume plants, take in nitrogen to construct proteins and
other compounds that become part of the animal.
6. Some nitrates
that aren’t
absorbed by
plants can be
turned back into
atmospheric
nitrogen. This is
denitrification.

Carbon Cycle
The carbon cycle is
essential for life on
Earth. Carbon is found in all living things, and in their dead bodies and wastes.
It is part of the carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins and DNA found in cells,
tissues and organs. Carbon is also found in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide
gas (CO2).
Carbon dioxide is used in photosynthesis when plants combine it with the
hydrogen from water to form glucose.
Organic means something contains carbon.

Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction.

Respiration releases carbon back into the atmosphere and the hydrosphere as
carbon dioxide, where it becomes available for photosynthesis.

Respiration is an exothermic reaction.

Respiration and Photosynthesis
The process of respiration and photosynthesis are important for the recycling
of carbon. Carbon needs to be continuously unlocked from compounds to be
free to recombine and form other compounds.
Plants can then use this carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. Respiration
releases CO2 and plants uptake it during photosynthesis. Animals and other
consumer organisms obtain the carbon they need from food they eat.
There isn’t an endless supply of carbon. It is recycled through the soil, through
living things and the atmosphere in the carbon cycle. Photosynthesis
incorporates carbon into living things, and plants use carbon for
photosynthesis.
Carbon Cycle
Plants absorb the carbon dioxide and water, and through the help of sunlight
and chlorophyll, produce oxygen and glucose.
Primary consumers eat plants, gaining glucose. Animals respire by breathing in
oxygen which reacts with glucose, producing carbon dioxide, water and ATP
energy.
Waste from plants and animals is decomposed by decomposers (fungi) and
detritivores (dung beetles). The decomposers also respire, releasing carbon
dioxide back into the atmosphere.
Wood and fossil fuels are burnt to produce energy. Combustion of these fossil
fuels releases carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere.

Fossil Fuels
Fossils are the preserved remains of once lying organisms. Fossil fuels such as
coal and oil contain carbon of dead plants and animals preserved over
millions of years. Burning fossil fuels releases carbon back into the carbon
cycle.
The general chemical formula for complete combustion is CxHy + O2 → CO2 +
H2O. The word equation is hydrocarbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water.
The general chemical formula for incomplete combustion is CxHy + O2 → CO +
H2O or CxHy + O2 → C + H2O. The word equations are hydrocarbon + oxygen →
carbon monoxide + water, or hydrocarbon + oxygen → carbon + water.
Long-Term Stores of Carbon
Carbon is stored in many places and forms across Earth. It is stored in fossil
fuels, rainforest trees, sediments and much more. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
or limestone is the oldest and largest long-term store of carbon on Earth.
Limestone is a sedimentary rock usually made from the shells of molluscs and
other marine organisms.
Water Cycle
The water on Earth is continuously recycled in the water cycle.
1. The evaporation process is driven by the sun. AS the sun interacts with
water on the surface of the ocean, water becomes water vapour.
2. Condensation causes water vapour to become water droplets to form
clouds.
3. Precipitation describes any liquid or solid water that falls to the Earth as
a result of condensation in the atmosphere.
4. Liquid water moves across the land in a variety of ways. Water runs off
mountain surfaces and collects in rivers and oceans.
5. Oceans and lakes collect water that has fallen as a result of
precipitation or that is a result of surface runoff.
6. Transpiration is the process of water vapour being released from plants
and soil. Plants release water vapour through microscopic pores called
stomata.

6.2- Natural Influences on Climate

Vocab/Unit Glossary
Climate: The long term averages of weather conditions.
Climate change: Changes to the averages of aspects of climate that persists for
decades or longer.
Global conveyor belt: The common name for the thermohaline circulation.
Global warming: A time when the average world temperature is increasing.
Greenhouse effect: The warming of Earth caused by greenhouse gases.
Gyres: The circular patterns shown by the ocean currents in the major ocean
basins.
Interglacials: Periods between glaciations.
Ocean currents: Continuous movements of ocean water.
Thermohaline circulation: The scientific term for the global conveyor belt, a
continuous circulation of water that can be tacked around the whole Earth.
Weather: The conditions in the atmosphere.
--------------------------------------------------------------
---

Weather and Climate

Weather describes the state of the atmosphere in terms of temperature, wind,
cloud cover and precipitation. Weather describes the state of the atmosphere
in terms of temperature, wind, cloud cover and precipitation. Weather is
created by interactions between the hydrosphere (all the water on Earth), the
lithosphere (Earth’s land masses) and the atmosphere (the layers of gases
surrounding the planet). Weather changes from day to day and sometimes
there are extreme events. Climate is the long-term average of weather
conditions. Climate is described by data that uses averages calculated from 30
years of weather records. This data includes extreme events.
Influences on Climate
There are several factors which influence the world’s climate, one of which is
the sun. The others are:
- Surface of the Earth - Characteristics of Earth’s surface determine how
much of the energy from the Sun is reflected back into space. Clouds and
ice reflect most of the energy coming in from the sun. Ice reflects about
84% of the energy, while dark green forests only reflect 14%.
- Gases in the atmosphere - The energy that comes from the sun is
short-wave radiation. It is absorbed by clouds and the Earth’s surface
and radiated back into space as long-wave radiation (heat). Nitrogen
and oxygen are the gases that make up most of the Earth’s atmosphere,
and they have no effect on the radiation coming in from the sun or on
the radiation going back out into space. The same can’t be said for
greenhouse gases, as they allow incoming short-wave solar radiation to
pass through and absorb the outgoing long-wave radiation and they
re-emit the heat in all directions. Without the greenhouse effect, Earth’s
 average temperature would be -18 degrees C instead of 15 degrees C.

This would affect

weather, plant growth and animal survival.
- Earth’s Orientation: The tilt of the Earth
causes the seasons as it rotates around
the sun. As Earth rotates, the atmosphere
and waters of the oceans are dragged
around with it. This movement influences
the circulation of the air and water on a
global scale. However the major factor
influencing circulation of water in the
oceans is temperature.
Ocean Currents
Currents are continuous movements of ocean water. They flow for great
distances and cause water to circulate around the Earth. The main causes for
ocean currents are wind, temperature, salinity and variation of water, rotation
of Earth and the sun and moon’s gravity.
Surface
Currents
Surface currents
are caused by
wind. Wind
pushes water
along until it
reaches land.
Then the water
has to flow left,
right or
downwards. In
major ocean basins, currents form circular patterns called gyres. They flow in a
clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and in an anticlockwise
direction in the Southern Hemisphere.
These patterns are caused by Earth’s
rotation.
Deep Currents
Deep currents begin at the poles, where
extremely cold water is found. They flow
through the ocean ,carrying very cold
water along the bottom.
Currents and Climate
Surface currents and deep currents.
Interact. Water cycles from deep currents
to the surface, then back. This is the
thermohaline circulation. It takes 1600 years to complete. It’s also called the
‘global conveyor belt’, and is important as it distributes heat around the globe.
The Gulf Stream
The Gulf Stream is part of the ‘global
conveyor belt’. It is a current that
makes western Europe much warmer in
winter than any other region at the
same latitude. It flows from the warm
Caribbean carrying warm water across
the North Atlantic towards Europe. The
Gulf Stream then feeds into the
North-Atlantic drift and Norwegian currents. Arctic winds then cool the water.
Evidence for Climate Change
There is evidence that Australia’s climate
in the past was very different from that
experienced today. More than 62 million
years ago, Australia was joined to
Gondwana, and Australia had a warmer
and wetter climate before.
Global Warming
Interglacials are periods between
glaciations - they are periods of global
warming in which the average world
temperature increases. Reasons for the past warming and cooling of Earth
aren’t understood completely. Therefore, it’s challenging to fully assess human
contribution to present global warming.
Glaciers
Glaciers are indicators of climate change, advancing when the climate cools
and retreating when the climate warms.
Ice Cores
On some glaciers and ice sheets, sufficient snow falls each year to form
recognisable annual layers. Scientists take cores from ice sheets and through
analysis of chemical and physical properties, they collect data about
temperatures and compositions of the air in the past. This also shows links
between temperatures and global sea levels. It also reveals that carbon
dioxide levels in the atmosphere have varied in the past.
Pollen Analysis
Pollen decays very slowly and often becomes fossilised. Fossil pollen indicates
the species growing in the area when the sediments that created the fossils
were laid down. Changes in pollen types indicate changes in vegetation and
climate.
Sea Level Change
Worldwide distribution of sedimentary rocks and types of fossils found in them
are indicators of changes in sea-levels in the past.
Definitions for Rest of Chapter 6
Vocab/Unit Glossary
Enhanced greenhouse effect: An increase in the natural greenhouse effect
caused by human activity.
Permafrost: Areas on Earth where the temperature in layers of soil or rock
beneath the surface never rises above freezing point.
Biodiversity: The variety of ecosystems in the biosphere, the variety of species
within those ecosystems and the genetic variations within those species.
--------------------------------------------------------------
STUDY FROM THE TEXTBOOK AND EXERCISE
BOOK FROM HERE. THERE IS JUST TOO MUCH
CONTENT!
 Chapter 4 - The Periodic Table

What are atoms?

Atoms are the particles that make up all substances in the universe.
The Nucleus
At the centre of each atom is its nucleus, which is a tight, dense bundle of
protons and neutrons. Neutrons are slightly heavier than protons. The table
below shows their relative masses and their charges. Electrons are negatively
charged and are attracted to the positive nucleus.
Relative Charge Relative Mass

Proton +1 1

Neutron 0 1

Electron -1 1/1800
Electron Shells
First electron shell is closest to the nucleus and so the attraction between the
nucleus and the first-shell electrons is the strongest. This is the lowest energy
level for electrons. Electrons in the outer shell have the highest energy.
Electron Configuration
Electron configuration shows how the electrons are arranged in the shells of
an atom when it is in its grouped state. The below image shows the electron
configuration for the first 20 elements.
Elements
Atoms are the smallest unit of an element and each element is made up of
atoms that are the same. The atoms have the same number of protons in the
nuclei and therefore the same number of electrons around them.
The number of protons in the nucleus determines the element to which the
atom belongs. The chemical formula of a compound tells you what elements
make it up and in what proportions. H2O is made up of two hydrogen atoms
and one oxygen atom.
Compounds
Compounds are also considered to be pure substances. However, their building
blocks are made up of two or more different types of atom.
Atoms are chemically bonded together by chemical reactions that lose or gain
or share electrons. Compounds have very different properties to the elements
that make them up.
Molecules and Lattices
Atoms don’t normally exist by themselves but exist in molecules or crystal
lattices. Molecules are small groups of bonded atoms. In a crystal lattice,
atoms keep bonding together to make large structures.
Atomic Number
The number of protons in the nucleus is known as the atomic number. Atomic
number = number of protons.
Mass Number
The total number of particles in the nucleus (protons and neutrons) of an atom
is called its mass number. Mass number = protons + neutrons in nucleus
Isotopes
Atoms belonging to the
same element always have
the same number of
protons in their nuclei and
same atomic number.
However they can have
different numbers of neutrons. This gives the atoms different mass numbers
(isotopes).
Arranging the Elements
The periodic table lists all of the known elements in order of increasing atomic
number. The periodic table lists the elements according to their atomic number
but it also arranges them in rows and columns. The rows are called periods
and are numbered from 1-7. The columns are called groups, numbered 1-18.
The arrangements of the periodic table into columns and rows places elements
with similar physical and chemical properties in the same group. A group is a
column in the periodic table but can be thought of as a set of elements that
act the same. Periodic table has three special blocks of elements known as
transition metals, lanthanides and actinides.
Group 1: Alkali Metals
Group 1 elements form +1 ions. They are far too reactive to be found naturally
in pure form. They have typical metallic properties and display similar extreme
chemical behaviour. Lithium, sodium and potassium are less dense than water,
which allows them to float on it. They all react with chlorine to form white
salts.

All alkali metals react violently with water, producing an alkaline or basic
solution and hydrogen gas, which sometimes ignites due to the heat products.
Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals
Group 2 elements are alkaline earth metals. They are all metals and all act in
a similar (slightly less reactive) way to group 1 elements. When they react,
they form +2 ions. They are shiny, silvery-white and have low melting and
boiling points.
Group 14
ELements of group 14 display a wide range of properties. The group begins
with non-metal carbon, moves through the metalloids silicon and germanium
and finishes with the metallic elements tin and lead.
Pure carbon exists in several different forms (allotropes), the most common
being amorphous carbon, diamond, graphite and buckyball.
An allotrope is the property of some chemical elements to exist in two or more
different forms.
Substances that have carbon skeletons are known as organic substances and
their molecules are organic molecules.
Group 17: Halogens
Atoms of halogens form ions with a charge of -1 and are not found in nature
in pure form, but are found in various types of sea salts. As you move down
the group, the elements become larger and less reactive. Halogens are all
diatomic, and produce coloured and poisonous vapours.
Group 18: Noble gases
Noble gases are also known as inert gases. They are all colourless and occur
naturally in the atmosphere. Distillation is used to separate them from liquid
air. They are incredibly stable, only reacting under rare and extreme conditions.
Helium is less dense than air. As you move down group 18, the noble gases
become progressively denser and this makes them heavier.
Transition Metals
Groups 3-12 are all metals and include many colourful, useful and valuable
elements. Transition metals have very similar properties, and they all tend to
have high melting and boiling points and are all relatively hard.
Predicting Chemical Equations
ELements of the same group tend to react in very similar ways so a balanced
chemical equation for one element can be used to predict the reactions for
other elements in the group.

Chapter 5 - Chemical Reactions

Chemical Equations
Chemical equations describe what happens in a chemical reaction.
Reactants → Products (Arrow means rearrange to form)
Word Equations
Replacing reactants and products with the chemical name of each substance
gives you a word equation. For example:
Calcium carbonate + sulfuric acid → calcium sulphate + water + carbon dioxide
gas
Exothermic and Endothermic Reaction
Chemical reactions that release energy in the form of heat or light are referred
to as exothermic. Exothermic reactions are referred to as flames, explosions or
fireworks. For example, octane in petrol explodes, releasing energy as heat
and a flash of light. The word equation for this reaction is:
Octane + oxygen gas → Carbon dioxide + water vapour + energy
2C8H18 + 25O2 → 16CO2 + 18H2O + Energy
Chemical reactions that absorb energy are called endothermic. They usually
feel cold as they absorb heat energy from their surroundings.
Reactions with Oxygen
Reactions that have oxygen as one of the reactants tend to be exothermic.
These reactions have oxygen as one of the reactants. They are:
- Combustion
- Respiration
- Corrosion
Combustion Reactions
Combustion describes any chemical reaction in which substances burn in
oxygen gas to produce light and heat. Hydrogen fuel cells release energy
because of the combustion reaction with oxygen, which produces water vapour.
Hydrogen gas + Oxygen Gas → Water Vapour
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Very reactive metals such as sodium and magnesium can also combust in
oxygen. When magnesium is burnt, it combines with the oxygen in the air to
produce magnesium oxide.
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
Combustion is a limited oxygen supply is incomplete combustion.
Butane + Oxygen → Carbon Monoxide + Water
2C4H10 + 9O2 → 8CO + 10H2O
Respiration
Respiration is a chemical reaction that goes on inside cells of all living things.
It involves the combination of glucose with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide
and water. Respiration is a slow process compared to combustion.
Corrosion
Most metals will combine with oxygen gas in the air to form metal oxides.
Metal + Oxygen → Metal oxide
The most common example of corrosion is the rusting of iron and its alloy,
steel. Corrosion reactions are exothermic.
Iron + Oxygen → Iron (iii) oxide
4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3
Decomposition Reactions
Decomposition reactions are reactions in which one reactant breaks apart to
form several products. The reactant is said to decompose. The general word
equation for decomposition reaction is as follows:
XY → X + Y
An everyday example of such a reaction is the chemical reaction which puts the
fizz in soft drinks. When carbonic acid decomposes, it forms water and bubbles
of carbon dioxide gas. The carbon dioxide gas remains dissolved in the drink
until the drink is removed. The chemical and word equation for this equation is:
Carbonic acid → Water + Carbon dioxide gas
H2CO3 → H2O + CO2
Some substances will only decompose when heated. This is known as thermal
decomposition. Metal carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates both
undergo thermal decomposition when heated. For example when sodium
hydrogen carbonate is heated above 50 degrees C, it decomposes to form
sodium carbonate, carbon dioxide and water. The equation is:
Sodium hydrogen carbonate → Sodium carbonate + carbon dioxide + water
2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
Thermal decomposition of sodium azide (NaN3) is a chemical reaction which
inflated vehicle airbags. When heated, it decomposes into sodium metal and
nitrogen gas. The equation is:
Sodium azide → sodium + nitrogen gas
2NaN3 → 2Na + 3N2
100 grams of sodium azide can produce around 56 litres of nitrogen gas in
under 0.03 seconds. This reaction rapidly inflates the airbag in the event of a
collision.
Decomposition Reactions
Combination reactions occur when two reactants combine to form a single
product. The general equation for a combination reaction can be written as:
X + Y → XY
An example is the creation of hydrogen chloride gas, which is then processed
to create hydrochloric acid. The equation is:
Hydrogen gas + Chlorine gas → Hydrogen chloride gas
H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl
Precipitation Reactions
Occasionally when two clear solutions are mixed together, they react to form
an insoluble solid. The solid is said to precipitate out of the solution. These
types of reactions are known as precipitation reactions.
Solubility
A precipitation reaction occurs when two soluble reactants combine to form an
insoluble product, which is the precipitate. A substance is said to be soluble if
it can dissolve. In precipitation reactions particles from two soluble compounds
mix together and some stick together to form an insoluble solid. The solid
precipitates out of the solution, making it murky. Usually, the solution clears as
the precipitate settles on the bottom.
Ionic Compounds
Cations are atoms that have lost electrons and thus have a positive charge.
Anions are atoms that have gained electrons and thus have a negative charge.
When ionic compounds dissolve, the cations and the anions break away from
the crystal lattice and spread evenly throughout the solvent.
The name of an ionic compound is simply the name of the cation followed by
the name of the anion. In the case where an atom can form more than one
type of ion, a Roman numeral is included in the name of the compound to
indicate the cation’s charge.
Ionic compounds have no overall charge, and are always charge neutral.
Hence the total charge on the cations balances the total charge on the anions.
Polyatomic ions are ions with more than one atom.
Solubility Table
Scientists use the solubility rules to predict if a precipitation reaction will occur
when two ionic solutions are mixed. Below is an example of a solubility table.
Using solubility rules, it’s
possible to predict what
happens when two ionic
solutions are mixed.
An example is below:
Potassium chloride solution +
silver nitrate solution →
potassium nitrate solution +
silver chloride solid
KCl + AgNO3 → KNO3 + AgCl
Acid Reactions
Another method of classifying
chemical reactions is based
on the type of reactants used
in the chemical reactions.
Acids are a common type of
reactant used in everyday
situations. There are several
types of chemical reactions
that use acids, including
neutralisation reactions,
acid-metal reactions and
acid-carbonate reactions.
Neutralisation Reactions
Neutralisation reactions occur
when an acid reacts with a
base. Examples of acids
include sulfuric acid (H2SO4), hydrochloric acid (HCl) and nitric acid (HNO3),
citric acid (C6H8O7), lactic acid (C3H6O3) and acetic acid (CH3COOH). Examples of
bases are sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and ammonia.
When an acid and base mix, they can neutralise each other. This is because the
hydrogen atoms (H+) from the acid combine with hydroxide ions (OH-) from the
base to form water (H2O), which is neutral. The general equation is:
Acid + base → salt + water
The term salt refers to ionic compounds that are produced through a chemical
reaction with an acid. An example is the following reaction:
The hydrogen ions from the sulfuric acid combine with the hydroxide ions to
form water molecules. This leaves the magnesium and sulphate ions. This is
the remaining salt, which is magnesium sulphate.
Heartburn is caused by an excess of acid in the stomach. It can be controlled
by a neutralisation reaction. Antacids are essentially bases in solid or liquid
form that neutralise the excess acid. This is why they relieve heartburn.
Acid-Metal Reactions
Acids react with metals to produce a salt and hydrogen gas. The general
equation for this type of reaction is:

Acid + metal → salt + hydrogen

An example of such a reaction is:
Acid-Carbonate Reactions
Acids react with carbonates to produce salt, water and carbon dioxide gas. The
general word equation for this kind of reaction is:
Acid + carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide
An example of such a reaction is:
Acid carbonate reactions are better for
cleaning up acid spills than a
neutralisation or acid-metal reaction, as
carbonates are relatively harmless and can completely neutralise concentrated
acids without producing flammable gases.
General Equations for Acid Reactions
Acids and bases
Acid + Base → Salt + Water
Acids and carbonates
Acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide
Acids and metals
Acid + metal → salt + hydrogen
Acids and Metal Hydroxides
Acid + metal hydroxide → salt + water
Fast and Slow Chemical Reactions
The speed at which a chemical reaction proceeds is known as the rate of
reaction.
Controlling Rate of Reactions
The rate of almost every reaction can be increased or decreased. Factors that
affect the rate of reaction are:
- Temperature
- Concentration of reactants
 - Surface area of reactants
- Agitation
- Catalysts
By changing these variables, scientists are able to control how fast or slow a
reaction occurs.
Temperature
Increasing the temperature will normally increase the rate of a chemical
reaction. This is because:
- Increasing temperature increases the speed of particles in liquids and
gases. As a result, particles collide more frequently, so more chemical
reactions occur in a shorter amount of time.
- Increasing the temperature gives the particles more energy, so when the
molecules collide, they hit harder. Chemical bonds are more likely to
break and the atoms in the reactants can rearrange more easily to form
products.
Decreasing the temperature has the opposite effect and slows down reactions.
Concentration
The term concentration refers to the amount of a particular substance present
in a particular volume of liquid or gas. Increasing the concentration of the
reactants will increase the rate of reaction as the particles are more likely to
collide and react when there are more of them. Reducing the concentration has
the inverse effect, and slows down the rate of reaction.
Agitation
Stirring reactants can also increase the rate of reaction. Stirring is scientifically
known as agitation, and it ensures that reactants are kept in contact. It does
so by removing the build-up of products from around the reactants. Magnetic
stirrers are used in the laboratory to constantly agitate reactions and ensure
maximum rate of reaction.
Surface Area of Reactants
The surface area of reactants can also contribute to the rate of a chemical
reaction. This can be seen in a reaction between calcium carbonate and
hydrochloric acid. If a lump of calcium carbonate is placed in hydrochloric acid,
then the acid can only react with the outside of the lump. However, if the lump
is broken down into smaller pieces, then the particles inside the lump are
exposed and can react with the acid. This means that more particles react at
the same time, thus making the reaction faster. Cutting up or crushing solid
reactants into smaller pieces creates a much larger surface in contact between
the reactants.
Catalysts
Catalysts are chemicals that speed up chemical reactions but are not
consumed during the reaction. They can be considered as ‘chemical helpers’
that help the reactants to form the products. Catalysts can do this in two
ways:
- They reduce the amount of energy that is required to convert the
reactants into products.
- They make it easier for reactant molecules to collide and form products.
Enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalysts. They are natural molecules that hold
reactant molecules together until they rearrange to form products. Some
enzymes are particularly good at cutting long molecules into smaller pieces. In
a similar way, some cells use enzymes to attack and cut up the genetic
material in viruses. Biologists use similar enzymes to cut DNA into smaller
pieces and isolate specific genes. An example of an enzyme in the body is
amylase, which is found in saliva.
Nuclear Decay
To convert an atom into a different type of atom, it requires a change in the
nucleus. This can only be achieved by a nuclear reaction. The nucleus that sits
at the centre of an atom isn’t still. Protons and neutrons are constantly moving
around. In some cases these rearrangements can cause nuclei to re-emit high
energy electromagnetic radiation and particles. Nuclear decay can cause
atoms to change into completely different types of atoms. This happens when
the number of protons change. The process of one atom converting into
another is called transmutation.
Radioisotopes
Most of the atoms around you in the world have stable nuclei, but a tiny
fraction of atoms have unstable nuclei. These unstable atoms could eject
particles/electromagnetic waves from their nucleus at any moment and
undergo nuclear decay. These are radioisotopes. Isotopes are atoms that have
a different number of neutrons, so they are the same element, just with
different mass numbers. Isotopes are ‘different’ versions of the same element.
Each type of atom may have several isotopes but only some are radioactive.
Carbon has three naturally occurring isotopes, C-12, C-13 and C-14. They are
all carbon atoms as they have 6 protons. They differ based on the number of
neutrons in the nucleus. C-14 is radioactive while the others are stable.
Types of Nuclear Decay
There are three types of nuclear decay. They are:
- Alpha Decay
- Beta Decay
- Gamma Decay
Alpha Decay
During alpha decay, a nucleus ejects an alpha particle which is a cluster of two
protons and neutrons. The alpha particle is given the symbol α. It’s identical to
a helium-4 nucleus, which has the symbol 42He. Alpha decay only occurs in
atoms with very heavy nuclei - this is usually where mass numbers are greater
than 100. For example, radioisotope uranium-238 undergoes alpha decay.
When uranium-238 ejects an alpha particle, the nucleus loses 2 protons and 2
neutrons, becoming a thorium-234 atom with 90 protons and 144 neutrons.
When alpha decay occurs, the atomic number decreases by 2, and the mass
number decreases by 4.
Beta Decay
Beta decay occurs when a nucleus ejects a beta particle, which is biven the
symbol β. It is identical to an electron, so it is very small, and negatively
charged. When a nucleus undergoes beta decay, a neutron is converted into a
proton. This increases the atomic number by one, thus changing the element,
but the mass number stays the same.
Gamma Decay
Sometimes the protons and neutrons simply rearrange inside the nucleus and
release gamma rays, a powerful form of electromagnetic radiation. They are
given the symbol Ƴ.
Nuclear Decay Table
Symbol Equivalent Speed Charge
4
Alpha Par. α He
2 10% of light +2

Beta Par. β Electron 90% of light -1

Gamma Ray Ƴ High-energy Speed of light 0

X-ray
Nuclear Decay - Half Life
The rate at which nuclear decay takes place is measured by radioisotope’s
half-life. The half-life of a radioisotope is the time it takes for half the nuclei
to decay.
Carbon Dating
The half-life of carbon-14 is used to determine the age of fossils and ancient
materials through carbon dating. It’s based on the fact that all living things
contain a small amount of carbon-14. When organisms die, no more C-14 is
absorbed. At that point, the small amounts of C-14 decay into N-14, with a
half-life of 5730 years. By measuring the amount of C-14 in fossils and bones,
scientists can get an accurate idea of when the animal lived. By 50,000 years,
so little C-14 is left, that it no longer gives accurate dates. Trees and plants
also have C-14.
Ionising Radiation
Ionising radiation is a type of energy released by atoms in the form of
electromagnetic waves or particles.
Alpha and beta particles and gamma rays are all types of ionising radiation
because they can remove electrons from atoms and molecules. Exposing cells
to ionising radiation can cause them to die or mutate.
Alpha Radiation
Alpha particles are large, heavy and slow compared to beta particles and
gamma rays. This makes them 20 times better at ionising molecules. However,
their large size also means that alpha radiation can only travel a few
centimetres in air and is easily blocked by a thin sheet of paper or even a layer
of dead skin. If isotopes emitting alpha radiation get inside the body, the effect
can be fatal, particularly if breathed into the lungs.
Beta Radiation
Beta radiation is able to penetrate skin more deeply than alpha radiation. This
means that they are more likely to cause radiation burns to the skin and eyes.
Beta radiation can be blocked by a thin plate of aluminium.
Gamma Radiation
Gamma radiation can travel through skin, bone and aluminium, and only a
thick layer of concrete or lead will stop the radiation. Gamma radiation is
made up of electromagnetic waves. However, only high energy electromagnetic
waves are able to ionise molecules and cause cell damage.
Effects of Cell Death
Cell death occurs when ionising radiation enters the cell and destroys the
biological molecules beyond repair. This may result in radiation burns or
radiation sickness.
Radiation burns are caused by short exposure to very large amounts of ionising
radiation. The radiation damages cells on the surface of skin or other organs,
causing reading and blistering.
Effects of Cell Mutation
Cell mutation occurs when ionising radiation damages the DNA inside the cell
without causing the cell to die. The DNA inside a cell contains all the genetic
information that tells the cell how to function properly. If the DNA is damaged,
the cell is reprogrammed and may cause the cell to develop into a cancer.
If the ionising radiation causes a mutation in sperm or ova, the offspring of the
organism may be affected. This is known as genetic or inherited mutation.
Medical Applications
Radiotherapy is a method of treating cancer in which the cancerous tumour is
exposed to high concentrations of radiation. This radiation is used to kill the
cells in the tumour and stop them from multiplying.
Nuclear imaging is a method of obtaining images of the internal organs.
Radioisotopes are injected into the body, and they collect in the organs and
emit a very low dose of gamma radiation that can be detected outside the
body to build up an image of the organs.
Industrial Applications
Radiation is commonly used in the process of sterilisation to kill bacteria in
medical equipment and even in food. Foods treated with radiation last longer
before rotting or going stale.
Radiation can also be used to ‘look’ inside objects in the same way that X-rays
can be used to look inside you. This is useful in exploring for minerals, oil, gas
and water.
A certain type of smoke detector has a small amount of americium-241, which
produces alpha radiation. If there's smoke in the air, the alpha particles are
blocked and the alarm sounds.

Essential Vocab - Chapter 4

Atomic number: The number of protons in an atom.
Atoms: The particles that make up all materials; the smallest part of an
element that can take part in a chemical reaction.
Element: A substance composed of atoms with the same atomic number.
Indirect evidence: Evidence that doesn’t involve direct observation.
Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
Mass number: The number of particles in the nucleus (protons + neutrons)
Nucleus: Heavy core at the centre of the atom, made of protons and neutrons.
Groups: Vertical columns of the periodic table.
Periods: Horizontal rows of the periodic table.
Alkali Metals: Group 1 elements.
Alkaline Earths: Group 2 elements; alkaline earth metals.
Allotropes: Forms of the same element that have different molecular
structures and therefore different properties.
Halogens: Group 17 elements.
Noble Gases: Inert gases; group 18 elements known for stability.
Organic: Compound that is or was part of a living thing; contains carbon.
Organic molecules: Molecules that have a skeleton of carbon atoms.
Electron configuration: Arrangement of electrons in electron shells.
Electron shells: Energy levels; region surrounding nucleus where electrons are.
 Essential Vocab - Chapter 5
Balanced: Describes a chemical equation that has the same number of atoms
of each element on both sides of the equation.
Chemical Equation: A short-hand notation that scientists use to communicate
what happens during a chemical reaction.
Corrosion: A chemical reaction in which a metal reacts with oxygen to produce
a metal oxide but doesn’t produce significant amounts of heat and light.
Combustion: A chemical reaction in which a substance burns in oxygen gas to
produce light and heat.
Endothermic: Describes a physical or chemical process that absorbs energy in
the form of heat and light.
Exothermic: Describes a physical or chemical process that produces energy in
the form of heat and light.
Hydrocarbons: All substances made up of just hydrogen and carbon atoms;
hydrocarbons are commonly used as fuels.
Incomplete Combustion: Combustion that occurs in a limited oxygen supply.
Product: A substance produced by a chemical reaction.
Reactant: The initial substance of a chemical reaction.
Reactivity: The property of a substance that describes how easily it undergoes
chemical reaction, usually with common substances such as oxygen, water and
acids.
Respiration: An exothermic chemical reaction that takes place in the cells of
living things. It is the reaction between sugar and oxygen to produce carbon
dioxide and water. The energy produced by the reaction is used by the
organism to live, move and grow.
Word equation: A chemical equation in which the reactants and products are
identified by their chemical names.
Acid: A substance that produces hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water.
Alkaline: Describes the solution made when a base is dissolved.
Anion: A negatively charged ion.
Caustic: The term given to corrosive bases.
Scaffolds for Question Verbs
 Miscellaneous Tips and Advice

- Study the second half of chapter 6.3 and 6.4 on your own
(sorry, it was just too much content for me).
- Practise lots of ‘explain’ and ‘describe’ questions, as the
selection exam is going to have a lot of those.
- Make sure you know Chapters 1,2 and 3 very well, as a large
chunk of the exam will be based around that, and you will get
3-5 mark questions about natural selection and evolution and
other biology related concepts, so make sure you practise
questions, and know the content very well.
- Know your scientific skills like the back of your hand, and
know validity, reliability and accuracy very well. Also, revise
other skills, such as writing up methods, aims, hypotheses,
drawing and reading tables, graphing and reading graphs, etc.
And make sure you use rulers for all diagrams, and use pencil
for all diagrams as well.
- Make sure you know your chemistry well, such as chemical
reactions, compounds, naming, solubility and precipitates,
factors affecting reaction rates (with explanations) and nuclear
chemistry (alpha, beta and gamma decay + nuclear chemistry
reactions).
- You will get questions about global systems, such as
questions about the carbon and water cycle, and the impacts
of global warming, etc, so go over global systems well.
- For all questions, answer with thorough detail, as it’s always
better to be safe than sorry.
- The science selection exam will be very application based, so
you need to know how to apply your knowledge. It’s not merely
vomiting out memorised things onto the page, you have to
know what you’re writing or doing, and why you’re doing it.

And that’s it from me. Best of luck with your exam!