ASYNCHRONOUS TASK

REVIEW MATERIALS FOR 2022 PRC COMPETENCIES (SCIENCES)

Prepared by: Dr. NIKKO LORENZ P. LAWSIN & CTE-4H Sciences Batch 2021-2022

AREA 1: BIOLOGY
1. Plant and Animal Biology (℅: DR. NIKKO)
1.1. Demonstrate familiarity with the classification of plants and animals and their basic needs
for survival

● Animals can be classified into 9 phyla:

○ Porifera (Sponges) - Pore-bearing animals; sessile organisms
○ Cnidaria (Jellyfishes, Corals, Anemones) - dimorphic organism (polyp-medusa), radial
symmetry
○ Platyhelminthes (flatworms, Flukes, Tapeworms) - dorsoventrally flattened
○ Nematoda (Roundworms) - Pseudocoelomate
○ Mollusca (Clam, Squid, Snail) - Soft-bodied animals with shell, mantle, radula
○ Annelida (Segmented worms, earthworm, leech, clam worm)
○ Arthropoda (Insects, Arachnids, Crustaceans, Centipede, Millipede)
○ Echinodermata (Sea star, Sea Urchins, Sea Cucumber) - Water vascular cavity,
pentaradial symmetry
○ Chordata (Vertebrates – Fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds, Mammals) - notochord
that develop into vertebral column or backbone, pharyngeal slits, dorsal nerve cord,
post-anal tail.

❖ Animals require food and shelter (habitat)

➢ Based on Diet
■ Heterotroph/Consumer (Herbivores, Carnivores, Omnivores(
■ Detritus feeders
■ Scavenging
➢ Based on Habitat
■ Terrestrial
■ Aquatic (Marine Water and Freshwater)

● Plants can be classified into:

○ Non-vascular plants - (w/o vascular tissues – Xylem & Phloem)
■ Moss and Ferns

○ Vascular plants - (with vascular tissues – Xylem & Phloem)

■ Gymnosperm (produces cones)
■ Angiosperm (produces flowers, fruit, then eventually seeds)
Plants can also be classified in terms of water requirements (Xerophytes - minimal
amount of water; Mesophytes = average minimum water requirement; Hydrophytes =
require more water, etc.)

1.2. Show how plants and animals maintain homeostasis and energy acquisition for
sustainability
● Plants perform photosynthesis using its organelle – chloroplast, which contains the green
pigment known as chlorophyll which captures light energy.
● Animals depend on their food/diet to other organisms.
● Both plants and animals perform cellular respiration via mitochondria to produce energy in
the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
 ● Animals and Plants have cell transport systems that allow them to maintain the balance
between and amongst cells: Diffusion, Osmosis, and Active Transport.

2. Genetics (VILLAR)
2.1. Illustrate the roles of chromosomes and genes in genetic technology

● Genetic technology is the term given to a range of activities concerned with understanding
gene expression, taking advantage of natural genetic variation, modifying genes and
transferring genes to new hosts. It provides medical assistance and treatment to alter
abnormalities or developing diseases due to occurrence of mutation during replication.

● Chromosomes are thread-like structures that carry hereditary information in the form of
genes, definitely genes made up of DNA which are completely and tightly packaged within
the nucleus and also called itself as a genome. Living organisms do not have no the same
numbers of chromosomes such as humans with 23 pairs of chromosomes, dogs with 78
grand total of chromosomes, cats with 19 pairs of chromosomes etc. Every pair of
chromosomes must have correct genetic codes and properly arrange before it undergoes the
process called cell division. If there are issues occurring, it will probably jump to mutation, but
with the help of technology there are many chances to change the particular issues that
make up solutions for genetic disorders and diseases. Genetic Technology presented by
many professional scientists to look what’s the best alternative solution to resolve the
particular issues such chromosomes and genes carrying disorder may no longer be passed
and come out in another generation.

2.2. Identify the benefits, derived from genetic technology in the fields of medicine and
agriculture
● To prevent developing symptoms or disease brought by the viruses and other pathogens.
● Protection for any types of dangerous disease like polio, measles, smallpox and some
infections.
● Provide protection against Sexual Transmitted Diseases.
● To produce healthy vitamins that everyone can take orally.
● Boosting immunity.
● To provide treatment for diseases that come from mutation such as cancer, hemophilia,
leukemia, and genetic disorders.
● To improve drugs against biotic drug resistant and viral diseases.
 ● Production of clean cow’s milk that can be drunk even if the person has lactose intolerance.
● Reduce the use of pesticides.
● Reduce the use of fertilizer with higher cost.
● Provide protection to crops, vegetables and fruits against attackers such as bugs, bacteria,
fungi and parasites.
● Enhance food nutrients and quality.
● Increased tolerance to various biotic and abiotic stresses.
● Increased supply of food with reduced cost and longer shelf life.
● Faster growing plants and animals.
● Disease and drought-resistant plants that require fewer environmental resources.

3. Cell and Molecular Biology (CASQUERO)

3.1. Distinguish between cell and molecule

● WHAT IS CELL?
-Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things.
- Structural and fundamental units of life.
- Complexes and their components perform various functions in organisms.
- Cells have many parts called organelles used as specialized structures that perform certain
tasks.
***Organelles
1. Cell Membrane, Nucleus, Mitochondria, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi Apparatus,
Lysosomes, Vacuoles, Cytoplasm, Chloroplasts, Peroxisome

***Sub-organelles
1. Centrosomes, Ribosomes, Cilia and Flagella, Centrioles

Cell Organelles Structure Functions

Cell membrane A double membrane Provides shape, protects the

composed of lipids and inner organelles of the cell and
proteins. Present both in acts as a selectively
plant and animal cells. permeable membrane.

Centrosomes Composed of centrioles and It plays a major role in

found only in the animal organizing the microtubule and
cells. cell division.

Chloroplasts Present only in plant cells Sites of photosynthesis.

and contains a
green-coloured pigment
known as chlorophyll.

Cytoplasm A jelly-like substance, which Responsible for the cell’s

consists of water, dissolved metabolic activities.
nutrients and waste
products of the cell.
Endoplasmic Reticulum A network of membranous Forms the skeletal framework
tubules, present within the of the cell, involved in the
cytoplasm of a cell. detoxification, production of
a. Rough Endoplasmic lipids and proteins.
Reticulum
b. Smooth
Endoplasmic
Reticulum

Golgi apparatus Membrane-bound, sac-like It is mainly involved in

organelles, present within secretion and intracellular
the cytoplasm of the transport.
eukaryotic cells.

Lysosomes A tiny, circular-shaped, Helps in the digestion and

single membrane-bound removes wastes and digests
organelles, filled with dead and damaged cells.
digestive enzymes. Therefore, it is also called as
the “suicidal bags”.

Mitochondria An oval-shaped, The main site of cellular

membrane-bound organelle, respiration and also involved in
also called the “Powerhouse storing energy in the form of
of The Cell”. ATP molecules.

Nucleus The largest, double Controls the activity of the cell,

membrane-bound helps in cell division and
organelles, which contains controls the hereditary
all the cell’s genetic characters.
information.

Peroxisome A membrane-bound cellular Involved in the metabolism of

organelle present in the lipids and catabolism of
cytoplasm, which contains long-chain fatty acids.
the reducing enzyme.
 Plastids Double membrane-bound Helps in the process of
organelles. There are 3 photosynthesis and pollination,
types of plastids: imparts color to leaves,
1. Leucoplast flowers, fruits and stores
–Colorless plastids. starch, proteins and fats.
2. Chromoplast–Blue,
red, and yellow color
plastids.
3. Chloroplast –
Green coloured
plastids.

Ribosomes Non-membrane organelles, Involved in the synthesis of

found floating freely in the proteins.
cell’s cytoplasm or
embedded within the
endoplasmic reticulum.

Vacuoles A membrane-bound, Provide shape and rigidity to

fluid-filled organelle found the plant cell and help in
within the cytoplasm. digestion, excretion, and
storage of substances.

● WHAT IS MOLECULE?
- a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a chemical
compound that can take part in a chemical reaction.
- It made up of one or more atoms
- They can vary greatly in size and complexity.

● WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CELL AND MOLECULE?

-The main difference between cell and molecule is that the cell is composed of molecules and
molecules are composed of atoms.
CELL < PROTEIN < MOLECULE

3.2. Exhibit the characteristics and functions of the cell as the fundamental unit of life
● The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life. Cells are independent, single-celled
organisms that take in nutrients, excrete wastes, detect and respond to their environment,
move, breathe, grow, and reproduce. The macromolecules carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
and nucleic acids make up all of the structural and functional units of cells.
1. cellular organization- This simply means that living things are made of cells. Cells are the
most basic unit of life.
2. reproduction- If something is alive it must be capable of reproducing. Multicellular life forms
such as humans reproduce sexually, while unicellular life forms like bacteria reproduce
asexually. (Mitosis and Meiosis)
3. Metabolism- is essentially a collection of chemical reactions occurring within the body (or
cell). These reactions vary in form and function but promote processes such as protein
synthesis, chemical digestion, cell division, or energy transformation.
 4. Homeostasis- is the term used to describe maintaining a stable internal environment. In
other words, think about how our bodies maintain a constant body temperature or how
blood sugar levels are consistent.
5. Heredity - means that our genetic information can be passed from one generation to
another. (DNA Replication)
6. Response to stimuli- is the next characteristic in our countdown. This is simply a reaction
to an internal or external force. (Human reactions, Plant Tropism)

4. Microbiology and Parasitology (CRUZ)

4.1. Demonstrate understanding of disease – causing microorganisms collectively known as
microbes

● What are Microbes?

- A microbe, or “microscopic organism,” is a living thing that is too small to be seen with the
naked eye.
- is used to describe many different types of life forms, with dramatically different sizes and
characteristics:

● Bacteria ● Protists
● Archaea ● Viruses
● Fungi ● Microscopic Animals
- Some microbes make us sick, others are important for our health.

Common Microbes
VIRUS
Common Name: Hanta Virus
Scientific Name: Orthohanta
Pathogenic Diseases(s) and its short description:
Hantavirus is spread when virus-containing particles from
rodent urine, droppings, or saliva are stirred into the air.

Common Name: Hepatitis A

Scientific Name: HAV
Pathogenic Diseases(s) and its short description:
It is a vaccine-preventable liver infection caused by the
hepatitis A virus (HAV). HAV is found in the stool and blood
of people who are infected. Hepatitis A is very contagious.

Common Name: West Nile Virus Encephalitis

Scientific Name:flavivirus genus
Pathogenic Diseases(s) and its short description: An
infectious encephalitis caused by West Nile virus. People
can get infected from the bite of a mosquito that is infected
with the virus. West Nile virus is transferred mainly
between pigeons and crows by 'Culex' mosquito
BACTERIA
Common Name: Shiga toxin-producing E. coli
Scientific Name: Verocytotoxin-producing E. coli (VTEC)
Pathogenic Diseases(s) and its short description: a
bacterium that can cause severe foodborne disease.
Primary sources of STEC outbreaks are raw or
undercooked ground meat products, raw milk, and fecal
contamination of vegetables.

Common Name: Meliodosis- Whitmore's disease

Scientific Name: Burkholderia pseudomallei
Pathogenic Diseases(s) and its short description:
Most people infected with B. pseudomallei experience no
symptoms, but those who do experience symptoms have
signs and symptoms that range from mild, such as fever,
skin changes, pneumonia, and abscesses, to severe
with inflammation of the brain, inflammation of the joints,
and dangerously low blood pressure that causes death.

Common Name: American Chagas Disease

Scientific Name: Trypanasoma cruzi
Pathogenic Diseases(s) and its short description:
Trypanosoma cruzi is a parasitic euglenoids’, phylum:
protozoa, infects all tissues of its hosts, which along with
humans, include hundreds of mammalian species in the
Americas. The epidemiology of T. cruzi has been changing
in that currently the majority of the cases and outbreaks of
Chagas disease occur by the ingestion of comestibles
contaminated by T. cruzi metacyclic form.

PROTIST
Common Name: Meliodosis- Whitmore's disease
Scientific Name: Burkholderia pseudomallei
Pathogenic Diseases(s) and its short description:
Most people infected with B. pseudomallei experience no
symptoms, but those who do experience symptoms have
signs and symptoms that range from mild, such as fever,
skin changes, pneumonia, and abscesses, to severe
with inflammation of the brain, inflammation of the joints,
and dangerously low blood pressure that causes death.
 Common Name: Toxoplasmosis
Scientific Name: Toxoplasma gondii
Pathogenic Diseases(s) and its short description:
A toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular protozoan parasite
that is found in contaminated food and water, animal feces
and undercooked meat. Once a person becomes infected
they will experience certain infections such as
toxoplasmosis, form cysts that affect your internal organs,
and weaken your immune system.

Common name : Induced Gastroenteritis

Scientific name: Aeromonas hydrophila

Pathogenic disease(s) and its short description:

Gastroenteritis typically occurs after the ingestion of
contaminated food or water.

FUNGI
 NEMATODES
Common Name: Oriental lung fluke

Scientific Name: Paragominus westermani

Pathogenic Diseases(s) and its short description:

Oriental lung fluke, a microscopic parasitic worm that can
cause lung disease to a person (who loves eating raw
crustaceans).

Common Name: Ascariasis

Scientific Name: Ascaris lumbricoides
Pathogenic Diseases(s) and its short description:
a type of roundworm infection. These worms are parasites
that use your body as a host to mature from larvae or eggs
to adult worms. Adult worms, which reproduce, can be
more than a foot (30 centimeters) long.

Common Name: Lymphatic filariasis

Scientific Name: Wuchereria bancrofti
Pathogenic Diseases(s) and its short description:
Lymphatic filariasis, commonly known as elephantiasis, is
a neglected tropical disease. Infection occurs when filarial
parasites are transmitted to humans through mosquitoes.
Infection is usually acquired in childhood causing hidden
damage to the lymphatic system

● WHAT IS A DISEASE?
- A disease is an abnormal condition affecting a living organism. Diseases are generally understood
to be medical conditions that involve a pathological process associated with a specific set of
symptoms.
- The diseases causing microorganisms include bacteria, viruses, protozoa, fungi and a few variations
of worms.
- Once they invade the host cell, they disrupt or damage the normal cellular activities. This leads to
diseases on a larger scale.
 ● Diseases Caused By Microorganisms
-Viral diseases are caused by viruses. These include both acute and infectious diseases like the
common cold, to chronic disease like AIDS. Apart from these acute diseases, viruses are also
responsible for mumps, polio, rabies etc.
-Diseases caused by bacteria include diphtheria, typhoid, cholera etc.
-Malaria and sleeping sickness are diseases caused by protozoa.
-Worms like roundworms, tapeworms could cause diseases like Ascariasis and Taeniasis
respectively.

● Types of parasites (ENDO, ECTO, Opportunistic)

Endoparasites- a parasite, such as a tapeworm, that lives inside its host.
Ectoparasites- a parasite, such as a flea, that lives on the outside of its host.
Opportunistic- Opportunistic parasitic infections are infections of parasite species that are mild or
asymptomatic in immunocompetent people; however, in immunocompromised people they become
fatal

● Types of Host
Fomite - A fomite refers to inanimate objects that can carry and spread disease and infectious agents.
Fomites can also be called passive vectors.
Living Host - a living animal or plant on or in which a parasite lives.

4.2. Distinguish bacteria, protists, and viruses and their effects on humans
● Viruses
- Viruses can be seen only through an electron microscope. They are inactive outside a living cell.
- Once they are inside the host body, they take over the entire cellular activities of the organism. They
cannot be destroyed by antibiotics.
- Common cold, measles, mumps, smallpox are some of the diseases caused by viruses.

● Bacteria
- Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms that exist in their millions, in every environment,
both inside and outside other organisms.
- Not all bacteria cause diseases. The bacteria that infects an organism produces toxins that can
cause diseases.
- Cholera, tuberculosis, and anthrax are caused by bacteria. These can be killed by antibiotics.

● Protists
- simple eukaryotic organisms that are neither plants nor animals or fungi. Protists are unicellular in
nature but can also be found as a colony of cells.
- Protozoans such as amoeba cause diseases such as amoebic dysentery. Malaria and sleeping
sickness is also caused by protozoans.

5. Anatomy and Physiology (MAGNO & BERGONIO)

5.1. Exhibit understanding of the functions, diseases and care for the 12 systems of the body.

5.1.1 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
● For protection
● For Sensation of external stimuli
● For synthesis of vitamin D
● For thermal regulation
COMPONENTS AND ITS SPECIFIC FUNCTION(S):
● Skin
- Is the body's largest organ, made of water, protein, fats and minerals.
- Skin protects your body from germs and regulates body temperature.
- Skin is continually damaged, but replaces cells instead of repairing them.

3 Layers of the Skin

EPIDERMIS
- Outermost layer of skin.
- Made of layers of epithelial cells.
- Outermost layer of cells are flattened, dead, and
keratin filled.
- Layers of actively dividing cells at base of
epidermis
- make new cells that move up to replace old ones
on the surface, producing keratin as they go.
- Epidermal cells contain melanin, a pigment that
absorbs UV radiation.
keratin - Keratin makes skin tough and waterproof.
It also tough, flexible protein; found in hair and fingernails
melanocytes - cells that produce melanin. And melanin
ranges from reddish brown to black.

DERMIS
- Supports epidermis. Contains nerve endings, blood
vessels, and smooth muscles.
- Assist in thermoregulation, and aid in sensation
Papillary Dermis- The papillary dermis has connective
tissue and blood vessels that give nutrients to the epidermis
and help control the temperature of the skin.
Reticular Dermis- Is denser than the papillary dermis, and it
strengthens the skin, providing structure and elasticity.
It also supports other components of the skin, such as hair
follicles, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands.

2 types of glands
A) Sweat glands - controlled by nervous system
B) Sebaceous glands - produce oily secretions that help keep the epidermis flexible and waterproof.

HYPODERMIS/SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE
- Located beneath the Dermis.
- It’s a layer of connective tissue made of fat.
- It’s a shock absorber, insulator, and energy storage.
- Anchors skin to underlying organs.
- Thickness varies throughout the body.

● Hair
- Aids in regulating body temperature.
- Filters out dust and dirt .
- Sensitive to movement
- Absorbs radiation from the sun that may be harmful.
- Mechanical protection for the skin increases sensory function.
● Nails
- To reinforce and protect the ends of the fingers and
toes. Sweat glands are exocrine glands that secrete
water and salt from the skin or hair.

COMMON DISEASES

● Acne
- Is a disorder of the hair follicles and sebaceous glands
that become clogged.
This leads to pimples and cysts.
- Acne is a common condition that usually begins during
puberty because of hormonal changes.
Acne can be either superficial or deep.
Cause:
Occurs when the opening of hair cells are blocked by dead
epidermal cells.
The oil from the sebaceous glands gets trapped and bacteria that live in your skin
build up and cause irritation that leads to inflammation
Treatment:
Acne treatments work by reducing oil production, speeding up skin cell turnover, fighting bacterial infection,
and reducing the inflammation of the affected area.
Each pore opens to a follicle. A follicle contains a hair and an oil gland. The oil released by the gland helps
remove old skin cells and keeps your skin soft.
When glands produce too much oil, the pores can become blocked and dirt, bacteria, and cells build up.
The blockage is called a plug or comedone.
If the top of the plug is white,
It is called a whitehead.
If the top of the plug is dark,
It is called a blackhead.
If the plug breaks open, swelling and red bumps occur.

● Psoriasis

- A skin disease that causes a rash with itchy, scaly patches,

most commonly on the knees, elbows, trunk and scalp.
- It causes areas to thicken, inflamed, red skin, covered with
silvery scales.
Cause
Psoriasis is an autoimmune condition. Autoimmune conditions are the result of your body attacking itself.
In the case of psoriasis, white blood cells known as T cells mistakenly attack your skin cells.
Generally, in the body, white blood cells are deployed to attack and destroy invading bacteria
and mount a defense against infections. This mistaken autoimmune attack causes the skin cell
production process to go into overdrive. The sped-up skin cell production causes new skin cells to
develop too quickly. They are pushed to the skin’s surface, where they pile up. This results in the
plaques that are most commonly associated with psoriasis. The attacks on the skin cells also cause red,
inflamed areas of skin to develop.

Treatment

Topical treatments
Creams and ointments applied directly to the skin can be helpful for reducing mild to moderate psoriasis.
Topical psoriasis treatments include: Topical corticosteroids, Topical retinoids, Anthralin, Vitamin D
analogues, Salicylic acid and Moisturizer
Systemic medications
People with moderate to severe psoriasis, and those who have not responded well to other treatment types,
may need to use oral or injected medications.
Many of these medications can have severe side effects, and for that reason, doctors usually prescribe them
for short periods of time. These medications include: Methotrexate, cyclosporine (Sandimmune), Biologics
and Oral retinoids.
Light therapy
This psoriasis treatment uses ultraviolet (UV) or natural light. Sunlight kills the overactive white blood cells
that are attacking healthy skin cells and causing rapid cell growth. Both UVA and UVB light may be helpful in
reducing symptoms of mild to moderate psoriasis.

WAYS OF TAKING GOOD CARE

- Proper hygiene and hydration.

- Bathe in warm, not hot water; use mild cleansers that don’t irritate; and wash gently and don't scrub.
- Avoid intense sun exposure, use sunscreen, and wear protective clothing.
- Don’t use tanning beds or sunlamps. They emit the same harmful UV radiation as the sun.
- Reduce stress. Stress can harm your skin and other body systems and get enough sleep.

5.1.2 SKELETAL SYSTEM

GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF SKELETAL SYSTEM

● Supports the body

● Facilitates movement
● Protects internal organs
● Produces blood cells
● Stores and releases minerals and fat
● It gives the body its shape, allows movement,
makes blood cells, provides protection for organs
and stores minerals.
COMPONENTS AND ITS SPECIFIC FUNCTION(S):

Bones are where new blood cells are generated (in the marrow), and require the mineral calcium for strength.
Osteocytes - cells that build and maintain bones.
There are 206 bones in an adult human skeleton.

Each bone has three main layers:

Periosteum: The periosteum is a tough

membrane that covers and protects the
outside of the bone.

Compact bone: Below the periosteum,

compact bone is white, hard, and
smooth. It provides structural support
and protection.

Spongy bone: The core, inner layer of

the bone is softer than compact bone. It
has small holes called pores to store
marrow.

Bone marrow- Produce white and red

blood cells.

The other components of your skeletal system include:

● Cartilage: This smooth and flexible substance covers the tips of

your bones where they meet. It enables bones to move without
friction (rubbing against each other)

● Joints: A joint is where two or more bones in the body come

together.

The types of joints are:

Immovable joints: Immovable joints don’t let the bones

move at all, like the joints between your skull bones.
Partly movable joints: These joints allow limited
movement. The joints in your rib cage are partly movable
joints.
Movable joints: Movable joints allow a wide range of
motion. Your elbow, shoulder, and knee are movable
joints.

● Ligaments: Bands of strong connective tissue called

ligaments hold bones together.
(Binds Bone to Bone)

● Tendons: Bands of tissue that connect the ends of a

muscle to your bone.(Binds Bone to Bone)
Major Bones of the Human Body
● Femur (Thigh bone) -Longest, strongest bone in your body.

● Humerus (Upper arm) -A long bone that runs from the

shoulder and scapula (shoulder blade) to the elbow.

● Radius and Ulna (Lower arm) -The radius and ulna refer to
the bones in your forearm that connect your wrist to your
elbow. The radius connects to the thumb side of your wrist and
is the larger of the two while the ulna connects to the pinky side
and is the smaller one.

● Cranium (Skull) -The bones that form the head. Is also made up
of cranial bones (bones that surround and protect the brain) and
facial bones (bones that form the eye sockets, nose, cheeks, jaw,
and other parts of the face).

Body System and Components and Common Diseases (at Ways of taking good
General Functions Specific Function least 2) care
2. Skeletal System
● Osteoporosis -Eats a lot of
● ● Sternum vegetables because
(breastbone) - It is a condition
where bones they’re one of the best
Cell Type: -Is a partially sources of vitamin C,
T-shaped vertical become thin and
lose their strength, which stimulates the
bone that forms the production of
anterior portion of the as they become
less dense and bone-forming cells. C’s
chest wall centrally. antioxidant effects may
their quality is
reduced. This can protect bone cells from
lead to broken damage Vegetables
bones, which also seem to increase
cause pain, bone mineral density.
disability, and
make everyday Perform Strength
activities Training and
extremely difficult. Weight-Bearing
Cause Exercises can help
increase bone
● Clavicle Bone structure and formation during bone
(shoulder body weight. growth and protect
blade) Petite and thin people bone health in older
-Is the bone that have a greater risk of adults, including those
connects the developing osteoporosis with low bone density.
breastplate (sternum) because they have less
to the shoulder. It is a bone to lose than people Consume Enough
very solid bone that with more body weight Protein a low protein
has a slight S-shape. and larger frames. intake can lead to bone
loss, while a high
protein intake can help
Treatment protect bone health
Treatments for during aging and
established osteoporosis weight loss.
may include exercise,
vitamin and mineral Eat High-Calcium
supplements, and Foods because it is the
medications. Exercise main mineral found in
and supplementation are bones and must be
often suggested to help consumed every day to
you prevent osteoporosis. protect bone health.
● Fibula and
Tibia (calf) Weight-bearing,
resistance and balance Getting Plenty of
-The tibia is a larger
exercises are all Vitamin D and
bone on the inside
important. Vitamin K for
much thicker than the
adequate amounts of
fibula while Fibula is a
vitamins D and K2 from
smaller bone on the
food or supplements
outside.
may help protect bone
health.

Maintaining a Stable,
 Healthy Weight
because being too thin
or too heavy can
negatively affect bone
health. Furthermore,
maintaining a stable
weight, rather than
repeatedly losing and
regaining it, can help
preserve bone density.

● Vertebrae
(back)
- Protect and support
the spinal cord. They
also bear the majority
of the weight put upon
your spine. The body ● Scoliosis
of each vertebra is the - Is an abnormal
large, round portion of lateral curvature of
bone. the spine. It is
most often
diagnosed in
childhood or early
adolescence. The
spine's normal
curves occur at
the cervical,
thoracic and
lumbar regions in
the so-called
“sagittal” plane.

● Scapula
(shoulder)
-Also called the
shoulder blade, either
of two large bones of
the shoulder girdle in
vertebrates. In
humans they are
triangular and lie on
the upper back
between the levels of
the second and eighth
ribs.
Cause

Neuromuscular
conditions:
These conditions affect
the nerves and muscles.
They include cerebral
palsy, poliomyelitis, and
muscular dystrophy.

Congenital scoliosis:
● Pelvic bone Congenital means that
- Pelvis, also called the condition was present
bony pelvis or pelvic at birth. Scoliosis is rare
girdle. Basin-shaped at birth, but it can occur if
complex of bones that the bones in the spine
connects the trunk develop abnormally when
and the legs, supports the fetus is growing.
and balances the
trunk, and contains Specific genes:
and supports the Researchers believe that
intestines, the urinary at least one gene plays a
bladder, and the role in the development of
internal sex organs. scoliosis.

Leg length:
If one leg is longer than
the other, an individual
may develop scoliosis.

Syndromic scoliosis:
Scoliosis can develop as
part of a medical
condition, including
neurofibromatosis or
● Coccyx (tail Marfan’s syndrome.
bone)
-Triangular bony Osteoporosis:
structure located at Osteoporosis can cause
the bottom of the secondary scoliosis due
vertebral column. It is to bone degeneration.
composed of three to
five bony segments Other causes:
held in place by joints Poor posture, carrying
and ligaments backpacks or satchels,
connective tissue
disorders, and some
injuries can cause spinal
curvature.
 Treatment

Braces
Wearing a brace won't
cure scoliosis or reverse
the curve, but it usually
prevents the curve from
getting worse.

● Phalanges Brace's effectiveness

(fingers/toes) increases with the
-Phalanges of the number of hours a day it's
hand are the group of worn.
small bones that
comprise the bony
core of the digits
(fingers) of the hand.

Surgery
Surgical options include:

Spinal fusion
In this procedure,
surgeons connect two or
more of the bones in the
spine (vertebrae) together
so they can't move
independently. Pieces of
bone or a bone-like
material are placed
between the vertebrae.
Expanding rod
If the scoliosis is
progressing rapidly at a
young age, surgeons can
attach one or two
expandable rods along
the spine that can adjust
in length as the child
grows.

Vertebral body tethering

This procedure can be
performed through small
incisions. Screws are
placed along the outside
edge of the abnormal
spinal curve and a strong,
flexible cord is threaded
through the screws.
When the cord is
tightened, the spine
straightens. As the child
grows, the spine may
straighten even more.
3. Muscular System A High-Protein Diet
● Musculoskeletal A healthy diet rich in
● To allow ● Muscle cells lean protein is a
movement. are fibrous Disorders
mainstay for athletes
When muscles ● Muscle - Musculoskeletal who want to perform
contract, they contractions disorders are injuries that their best, and research
contribute to can be occur in muscles or shows that it’s just as
gross and fine voluntary or associated tissues (such important for aging
movement. involuntary as tendons) because of adults. Protein is
● Makes up to biomechanical stresses. composed of amino
Gross movement 40 – 50% of acids, the building
refers to large, the body mass. Musculoskeletal disorders blocks your body uses
coordinated motions ● Muscles work are often work- or to grow and repair
and includes: in antagonistic sports-related, and muscle tissue.
- walking pairs (opposite generally just one or a
- running each other) few muscles are affected. Quality Supplements
- swimming and are always They can often be treated
in a state of successfully, and full For instance, omega-3
Fine movement slight recovery can be very fatty acids have been
involves smaller contraction. likely. The disorders shown to have
movements, such as: ● Muscles include muscle strains, muscle-sparing effects
- writing always pull, tendinitis, and carpal in seniors, but it can be
- speaking bones do not tunnel syndrome. tough to get enough of
- facial push them. this nutrient if you don’t
expressions regularly consume
*Flexor - decreases wild-caught, fatty fish
● Works with the the angle of the joint such as salmon. The
skeletal and (bends), same is true for vitamin
nervous Examples are biceps D, a nutrient your body
system to and hamstrings synthesizes during sun
produce *Extensor - opens a exposure. Overall, fish
movement, joint to normal position oil, a vitamin D
also helps to (extends), supplement and a
circulate blood Examples triceps and multivitamin are great
through the quadriceps additions to a varied
human body *Abductor - moves diet.
bone away from
 ● Maintaining midline of the body, Resistance Training
normal body like the deltoids * According to the Mayo
temperature *Adductor - moves Clinic, exercise is the
● Protect the bone towards the most powerful way to
bones and midline of the body, stave off muscle loss in
organs by like the latissimus aging and even
absorbing dorsi. disabled populations.
shock and Weight training and
reducing Three types of They may be caused by
other resistance
friction in the muscles: sudden exertion,
exercises, in particular,
joints. over-exertion, repetitive
are excellent ways to
1. Skeletal muscles - motions, or long periods
maintain strength and
Cell Type: Muscle Attached to bones, of maintaining awkward
muscle mass — and
Tissue voluntary control, positions.
they can even
multinucleated, positively impact your
striated. cardiovascular system.
Also as part of the -Muscle Strain An Active Lifestyle
Musculoskeletal
system, these Aside from a formal
muscles work with exercise program, an
your bones, tendons overall active lifestyle
and ligaments. will also keep you fit
Tendons attach and strong. A
skeletal muscles to sedentary lifestyle has
bones all over your been shown to cause
body. Together, they greater age-related
support the weight of muscle atrophy, and by
your body and help getting up, moving and
you move. using your muscles, it
can slow or stop the
decline.

Healthy Bones
Bone health and
muscle health go
hand-in-hand, and
much like muscles,
A muscle strain is an your bones respond to
injury in which muscle weight-bearing
fibres tear as a result of exercise by becoming
overstretching. A muscle denser and stronger.To
strain is also commonly keep your bones
called a pulled muscle or healthy, get plenty of
2. Smooth muscle - torn muscle. (Strains are exercise, avoid
Internal organs often confused with smoking and consume
(except heart), one sprains, which are similar a diet rich in calcium
nucleus, nonstriated, injuries to ligaments.) and potassium.
involuntary control. Depending on the degree
of injury to muscle fibres, Hormonal Balance
a muscle strain can range
from mildly to extremely Aside from diet and
And also these painful. Besides pain, exercise, your muscle
muscles line the typical symptoms include mass (and bone mass)
insides of organs such stiffness and bruising in are heavily regulated
as the bladder, the area of the strained by your hormone
stomach and muscle. The photo here levels. Estrogen,
intestines. Smooth shows a large bruise testosterone and
muscles play an caused by a hamstring thyroid hormones all
important role in many muscle strain. Hamstring play a role, and it’s
body systems, strains are very common important that you keep
including the female in track and field athletes. these hormones in
reproductive system, In sprinters, for example, balance as you age.
male reproductive about one third of injuries
system, urinary are hamstring injuries. Anti-Inflammatory
system and Having a previous Foods
respiratory system. hamstring injury puts an
These types of athlete at increased risk Acute inflammation is
muscles work without for having another one. your body’s normal
you having to think response to hard
about them. Proper first aid for a exercise and other
muscle strain includes forms of stress.
five steps, which are Chronic inflammation,
represented by the however, is painful and
acronym PRICE. The potentially damaging to
PRICE steps should be muscle tissue.
followed for several days Fortunately, you may
after the injury. The five be able to stave off
steps are: inflammation with
1. Protection: Apply certain
soft padding to the anti-inflammatory
strained muscle to foods, including leafy
minimize impact green vegetables, olive
with objects that oil, nuts and berries. It
3. Cardiac muscle- might cause also helps to avoid
Heart, one nucleus, further damage. pro-inflammatory foods
striated, involuntary 2. Rest: Rest the such as refined sugar,
control. muscle to trans fats and
accelerate healing processed grains.
And these muscles and reduce the
line the heart walls. potential for Cutting Back on
They help your heart re-injury. Alcohol
pump blood that 3. Ice: Apply ice for reducing your alcohol
travels through your 20 minutes at a consumption can have
cardiovascular time every two a major impact on your
system. You don’t hours to reduce strength and longevity.
control cardiac swelling and pain. Alcohol tends to cause
muscles. Your heart 4. Compression: an inflammatory
tells them when to Apply a stretchy response, and can
contract. bandage to the make it more difficult
strained muscle to for your body to digest
reduce swelling. and absorb nutrients
from food. Even a few
 5. Elevation: Keep drinks can cause
the strained dehydration if you’re
muscle elevated not vigilant about
to reduce the drinking enough water,
chance of blood which can lead to
pooling in the muscle pains and
muscle. cramps.

Non-steroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs, such as
ibuprofen) can help
reduce inflammation and
Structure: relieve pain. Because
such drugs interfere with
Tendons- Dense blood clotting, however,
strips of connective they should be taken only
tissue. after bleeding in the
Flexor- Muscles that muscle has stopped —
cause a joint to bend. not immediately after the
Extensor- Muscles injury occurs. For severe
that cause the joint to muscle strains,
straighten. professional medical care
Actin & Myosin- may be needed.
Enable muscles to
contract.
Myofibrils- A fiber
found in straighten
muscle cells and that
is responsible of
muscle contractions.
Sarcomere- Basic
unit of contraction in
skeletal and cardiac
muscles.
Origin- Muscle pulls
against origin.
Insertion- Bone that
moves when muscle
contracts.

Major Muscles in the

Human Body

- Biceps,triceps
Deltoids, Glutes and
Hamstrings.
4. Digestive System Major Organs and Gastroesophageal Restrict Alcohol
their Functions: Reflux Disease (GERD) Intake: Alcohol is a
● to convert food depressant and
particles into Mouth – to chew and relaxant, and it
simpler grind up food increases the acid
macromolecule content in the
s that can be -- saliva also begins stomach so should be
absorbed into the chemical used in moderation.
the breakdown
bloodstream
Keep a Diary: Keep a
and used by Esophagus – pipe
daily log of the food
the body. connecting mouth to
GERD (gastroesophageal you eat and any
● breaks stomach
nutrients into reflux disease, or chronic symptoms you
parts small Stomach – secretes acid reflux) is a condition experience to help
enough for an extraordinarily in which acid-containing you identify triggers.
your body to strong acid (pH = 2) contents in your stomach As triggers are not
absorb and that leads to persistently leak back up always food related,
use for energy, breakdown of food into your esophagus, the be sure to include
growth, and tube from your throat to other potential triggers
cell repair. -- once the food is your stomach. such as stress and
● broken down in the poor sleep.
Acid reflux happens
stomach and mixed
because a valve at the
with digestive juices, it De-Stress: The gut
end of your esophagus,
is called chyme and brain are closely
the lower esophageal
sphincter, doesn’t close connected so excess
Pancreas – secretes stress can cause the
properly when food
digestive enzymes, digestive system to go
arrives at your stomach.
produces the hormone into overdrive.
Acid backwash then flows
insulin that regulates Practice relaxation
back up through your
blood sugar levels techniques, such as
esophagus into your
throat and mouth, giving deep breathing
-- also help neutralize
you a sour taste. exercises, daily to
stomach acid
reduce stress.
Liver – produces bile, What are the main
which breaks down symptoms of GERD Exercise: Regular
fats in foods (chronic acid reflux)? exercise triggers
muscle contractions in
The main symptoms are the large intestine
Gallbladder –
persistent heartburn and which speeds up the
pouch-like organ that
acid regurgitation. Some movement of food.
stores bile for future
people have GERD This reduces the level
use
without heartburn. of water lost from
Instead, they experience
Small Intestine – after stools as they travel
pain in the chest,
digestion is complete, through the intestine,
hoarseness in the
the chyme enters the and keeps stools soft
morning or trouble
small intestine where and easy to pass.
swallowing. You may feel
it is absorbed into the
like you have food stuck
bloodstream Stop Eating When
in your throat, or like you
are choking or your throat You Feel Full: It can
-- the chyme is is tight. GERD can also take up to 20 minutes
propelled along by cause a dry cough and for your brain to
folded surfaces called bad breath. receive signals from
villi, on the intestine your stomach telling it
How common is GERD that you are full, so
Large Intestine – (chronic acid reflux)? eat slowly. A good
removes water from way to achieve this is
the chyme and gets GERD is very common. to ensure you chew
the waste ready for The condition and its your food around 30
excretion symptoms touch a huge
times per mouthful.
number of people: 20% of
the U.S. population.
Add Fibre to Your
Anyone of any age can Diet: Fibre slows the
develop GERD, but some absorption rate of
may be more at risk for it. foods and so provides
For example, the chances a steady release of
you’ll have some form of energy, rather than
GERD (mild or severe) sudden peaks and
increase after age 40. crashes in energy.The
best dietary sources
You’re also more likely to of fibre are
have it if you’re: vegetables, fruits, and
beans.
● Overweight or
obese.
Add Probiotics:
● Pregnant.
● Smoking or are Probiotics such as
regularly exposed Acidophilus help to
to second-hand balance ‘good'
smoke. bacteria within the
● Taking certain digestive tract, and
medications that improve the
may cause acid functioning of the
reflux. digestive system.

What causes acid Drink Herbal Teas:

reflux? Drinking warm herbal
tea after your meal
Acid reflux is caused by can offer many health
weakness or relaxation of benefits. Peppermint
the lower esophageal tea can help to relieve
sphincter (valve). discomfort from
Normally this valve closes bloating, gas, IBS,
tightly after food enters and digestive spasms,
your stomach. If it relaxes while ginger tea can
when it shouldn’t, your
relieve nausea and
stomach contents rise
bloating.
back up into the
esophagus.
Drink Lots of Fluids:
Dehydration is a
 leading cause of
constipation so be
sure to drink plenty of
water throughout the
day. Warm liquids,
especially first thing in
the morning, also help
to stimulate bowel
movements.
Stomach acids flow back
up into the esophagus,
Establish a Regular
causing reflux.
Schedule for Food:
Factors that can lead to Try to eat every few
this include: hours to avoid
‘crashes' in energy –
● Too much these ‘crashes'
pressure on the increase sugar
abdomen. Some cravings because the
pregnant women body craves a quick
experience burst of energy.
heartburn almost
daily because of
this increased
pressure.
● Particular types of
food (for example,
dairy, spicy or fried
foods) and eating
habits.
● Medications that
include medicines
for asthma, high
blood pressure
and allergies; as
well as painkillers,
sedatives and
anti-depressants.
● A hiatal hernia.
The upper part of
the stomach
bulges into the
diaphragm, getting
in the way of
normal intake of
food.

What are the symptoms

of GERD (chronic acid
reflux)?

Different people are

affected in different ways
by GERD. The most
common symptoms are:

● Heartburn.
● Regurgitation
(food comes back
into your mouth
from the
esophagus).
● The feeling of food
caught in your
throat.
● Coughing.
● Chest pain.
● Problem
swallowing.
● Vomiting.
● Sore throat and
hoarseness.

Infants and children can

experience similar
symptoms of GERD, as
well as:

● Frequent small
vomiting episodes.
● Excessive crying,
not wanting to eat
(in babies and
infants).
● Other respiratory
(breathing)
difficulties.
● Frequent sour
taste of acid,
especially when
lying down.
● Hoarse throat.
● Feeling of choking
that may wake the
child up.
● Bad breath.
● Difficulty sleeping
after eating,
especially in
infants.

-Chronic diarrhea
Chronic diarrhea is
defined as loose stools
that last for at least four
weeks. This usually
means three or more
loose stools per day.
There are many possible
causes of chronic
diarrhea. Treatment is
aimed at correcting the
cause of diarrhea
(whenever possible),
firming up loose stools,
and dealing with any
complications of diarrhea.
Chronic diarrhea can
have a substantial impact
on your quality of life and
overall health. At its
mildest, diarrhea is an
inconvenience; at its
worst, it may be disabling
and even life threatening.
Fortunately, effective
treatments are available.

CHRONIC DIARRHEA
CAUSES

A wide range of problems

can cause chronic
diarrhea; some of the
most common causes
include irritable bowel
syndrome (IBS),
inflammatory bowel
disease (Crohn disease
and ulcerative colitis),
malabsorption syndromes
in which food cannot be
digested and absorbed,
and chronic infections.
There are also many
other less common
causes of chronic
diarrhea.
Irritable bowel
syndrome — Irritable
bowel syndrome is one of
the most common causes
of chronic diarrhea. IBS
can cause crampy
abdominal pain and
changes in bowel habits
(diarrhea, constipation, or
both). IBS can develop
after having an infection.

Inflammatory bowel
disease — There are
several types of
inflammatory bowel
disease, two of the most
common of which are
Crohn disease and
ulcerative colitis. These
conditions may develop
when the body's immune
system attacks parts of
the digestive tract. A clue
to the presence of
inflammatory bowel
disease is the presence
of blood in the stool.

Infections — Intestinal
infections are a cause of
chronic diarrhea.
Infections that cause
chronic diarrhea can be
seen in people who travel
or live in tropical or
resource-limited
countries. Intestinal
infections can also
develop after eating
contaminated food or
drinking contaminated
water or unpasteurized
("raw") milk.
Endocrine disorders —
An overactive thyroid
(hyperthyroidism) can
cause chronic diarrhea
and weight loss. Diabetes
can cause chronic
diarrhea if the nerves that
supply the digestive tract
are injured.

Food allergy or
sensitivity — Food
allergies and
hypersensitivity can
cause chronic diarrhea.
People with celiac
disease are sensitive to
gluten, a major
component of wheat flour
which can cause diarrhea
and weight loss. Patients
with lactose intolerance
develop diarrhea and gas
when they ingest milk.

Medicines — Medicines
(prescription and
nonprescription), herbs,
and dietary supplements
can cause diarrhea as a
side effect. To determine
if a medicine could be the
cause of your diarrhea,
review your list of
medicines with your
doctor, nurse, or
pharmacist. This
information may also be
available on the medicine
bottle or paperwork that
comes with most
prescriptions.
5. Circulatory Heart Attack Maintain a healthy
System The parts of your weight.
circulatory system are
● to deliver your: Don’t smoke.
oxygenated
blood to the ● Heart, a Exercise a minimum of
various cells muscular 30 minutes a day, most
and organ organ that days of the week.
systems in pumps blood
your body so throughout Maintain a healthy,
they can your body. low-fat, low-cholesterol
undergo ● Blood diet with more fruits,
cellular vessels, which vegetables, and whole
respiration include your grains.
● Circulates arteries, veins
OXYGEN and and capillaries. A heart attack occurs Avoid trans fats and
removes ● Blood, made when the flow of blood to saturated fats, which
Carbon up of red and the heart is severely are often found in
Dioxide. white blood reduced or blocked. The processed foods and
● Provides cells cells, plasma blockage is usually due to fast food.
with and platelets. a buildup of fat,
NUTRIENTS. cholesterol and other Limit salt and alcohol
● Removes the There are three main substances in the heart intake.
waste products types of blood (coronary) arteries. The
of metabolism vessels: fatty, Use relaxation and
to the cholesterol-containing self-care to reduce
● Arteries: deposits are called
excretory stress.
Arteries are plaques. The process of
organs for
thin, muscular plaque buildup is called
disposal.
tubes that atherosclerosis.
● Protects the
carry Sometimes, a plaque can
body against
oxygenated rupture and form a clot
disease and
blood away that blocks blood flow. A
infection.
from the heart lack of blood flow can
● Clotting stops
and to every damage or destroy part of
bleeding after
part of your the heart muscle.
injury.
body. The A heart attack is also
●
aorta is the called a myocardial
body’s largest infarction.
artery. It starts Prompt treatment is
at the heart needed for a heart attack
and travels up to prevent death. Call 911
the chest or emergency medical
(ascending help if you think you might
aorta) and then be having a heart attack.
down into the
stomach
(descending Symptoms
aorta). The Symptoms of a heart
coronary attack vary. Some people
arteries branch have mild symptoms.
off the aorta, Others have severe
 which then symptoms. Some people
branch into have no symptoms.
smaller Common heart attack
arteries symptoms include:
(arterioles) as
they get farther ● Chest pain that
from your may feel like
heart. pressure,
● Veins: These tightness, pain,
blood vessels squeezing or
return aching
oxygen-deplet ● Pain or discomfort
ed blood to the that spreads to the
heart. Veins shoulder, arm,
start small back, neck, jaw,
(venules) and teeth or
get larger as sometimes the
they approach upper belly
your heart. ● Cold sweat
Two central ● Fatigue
veins deliver ● Heartburn or
blood to your indigestion
heart. The ● Lightheadedness
superior vena or sudden
cava carries dizziness
blood from the ● Nausea
upper body ● Shortness of
(head and breath
arms) to the
heart. The High Blood Pressure
inferior vena
cava brings
blood up from
the lower body
(stomach,
pelvis and
legs) to the
heart. Veins in
the legs have
valves to keep
blood from
flowing
backward.
● Capillaries:
These blood
vessels
connect very
small arteries
High blood pressure, also
(arterioles) and
called hypertension, is
veins
blood pressure that is
(venules).
higher than normal. Your
Capillaries blood pressure changes
have thin walls throughout the day based
that allow on your activities. Having
oxygen, blood pressure measures
carbon dioxide, consistently above normal
nutrients and may result in a diagnosis
waste products of high blood pressure (or
to pass into hypertension).
and out of
cells. The higher your blood
pressure levels, the more
risk you have for other
health problems, such as
heart disease, heart
attack, and stroke.

The guidelines used to

diagnose high blood
pressure may differ from
health care professional
to health care
professional:

● Some health care

professionals
diagnose patients
with high blood
pressure if their
blood pressure is
consistently
140/90 mm Hg or
higher.2 This limit
is based on a
guideline released
in 2003, as seen
in the table below.
● Other health care
professionals
diagnose patients
with high blood
pressure if their
blood pressure is
consistently
130/80 mm Hg or
higher.1 This limit
is based on a
guideline released
in 2017, as seen
in the table below.
 What are the signs and
symptoms of high
blood pressure?
High blood pressure
usually has no warning
signs or symptoms, and
many people do not know
they have it. Measuring
your blood pressure is the
only way to know whether
you have high blood
pressure.

What causes high blood

pressure?
High blood pressure
usually develops over
time. It can happen
because of unhealthy
lifestyle choices, such as
not getting enough
regular physical activity.
Certain health conditions,
such as diabetes and
obesity, can also increase
the risk for developing
high blood pressure. High
blood pressure can also
happen during pregnancy.

6. Respiratory Major Organs and 1. Avoid smoking and

System Their Functions secondhand smoke,
too.
● to provide the Nose – internal entry 2. Be mindful of your
body with a and exit point for air environment’s air
fresh supply of quality. Test for
oxygen for Pharynx – serves as a pollutants or
cellular passage way for both contaminants if you are
respiration and air and food at the concerned and discuss
remove the back of the throat it with your doctor.
 waste product Larynx – your 3. Prevent common
carbon dioxide “voicebox”, as air colds and respiratory
● It also cleans passes over your illnesses by washing
waste gases, vocal chords, you your hands frequently
such as carbon speak with soap and water (or
dioxide, from using an alcohol-based
your blood Trachea – the hand cleaner if not
“windpipe”, or what available).
connects your pharynx 4. Avoid large crowds
to your lungs during the flu season,
Asthma or when you get wind
-- a piece of skin, that some other
called the epiglottis, respiratory illness is
covers the trachea going around.
when you swallow, 5. Stay home if you
preventing food from are sick to avoid
entering spreading colds and
respiratory illnesses to
Bronchi – the two others.
large passageways 6. Get your annual flu
that lead from the shot and encourage
trachea to your lungs others in your
(one for each lung) Asthma affects 25 million household to do the
people in the United same.
-- the bronchi are States. People with a 7. Get regular
further subdivided into family history of asthma, cardiovascular exercise
bronchioles respiratory allergies, or to boost lung fitness
severe childhood and overall health.
-- eventually, the respiratory illness are at a 8. Practice deep
further subdivisions higher risk of developing breathing, or
lead to tiny air sacs asthma. diaphragmatic
called alveoli breathing, exercises.
9. Stay on top of your
Asthma is a chronic
-- alveoli are in dental health and oral
inflammatory disease that
clusters, like grapes hygiene to prevent
causes breathing
harmful bacteria from
problems when the
-- capillaries traveling from your
airways become
surrounding each mouth to your upper
narrowed by inflammation
alveolus is where the airway.
or blocked by mucus. The
exchange of gases 10. Get regular
condition’s severity varies
with the blood occurs check-ups from your
from person to person,
primary care physician
but most people take
Lungs – contain the and discuss any
daily preventive
alveoli, bronchi and concerns about your
medication to control their
connective tissue The lung health, including
symptoms and prevent
diaphragm is the any symptoms of lung
flare-ups.
muscle that causes cancer, and family
you to breath history of lung disease.
Symptoms
-- hiccups are
involuntary Asthma can have several
contractions of the symptoms, including:
diaphragm
● Wheezing
● Coughing
● Tightness in the
chest
● Shortness of
breath

Chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease
(COPD)

is an umbrella term used

to describe two primary
types of obstructive lung
disease that used to be
classified separately:
emphysema and chronic
bronchitis.

Emphysema develops
when the tiny air sacs in
the lungs (alveoli)
become damaged and
less elastic. This reduces
the ability of the sacs to
move oxygen and other
gases between the air
that is breathed in and the
blood. This can lead to a
lack of oxygen in the
blood (hypoxia) and a
buildup of toxic waste
products.

Chronic bronchitis is a
condition where the lining
of the bronchial tubes
becomes irritated and
inflamed. The swelling
can make it more difficult
to breathe and cause an
overproduction of mucus.

Nearly 15 million people

have been diagnosed
with COPD in the United
States, and another 12
million are believed to
have the disease but do
not have an official
diagnosis.

COPD is the fourth

leading cause of death in
the United States. About
eight in 10 cases are
linked to exposure to
cigarette smoke.

Symptoms

The symptoms of COPD

vary based on which type
you have. Common
symptoms can include:

● A frequent or
chronic cough
● A cough that
produces a lot of
mucus
● Wheezing
● A squeaking or
whistling sound
when you breathe
● Shortness of
breath that is
worse with activity
● Tightness in your
chest
● Sensitivity to
respiratory
infections like
colds or the flu
● Weight loss
● Weakness
● Swelling in your
legs and feet
 ● A blue tinge to
your lips or
fingernails
(cyanosis)

7. Lymphatic / Major Organs and Don't smoke.

Immune System Their Functions Enlarged (swollen)
lymph nodes Eat a diet high in fruits
● to remove Skin – also called the (lymphadenopathy): and vegetables.
infectious integumentary system,
diseases and the skin is the body’s Enlarged lymph nodes Exercise regularly.
other first line of defense are caused by infection,
pathogens inflammation or cancer. Maintain a healthy
from the White Blood Cells – Common infections that weight.
human body recognize disease can cause enlarged
● protecting agents (antigens) and lymph nodes include If you drink alcohol,
your body create antibodies to strep throat, drink only in
from tag and remove these mononucleosis, HIV moderation.
antigens infection and infected skin
illness-causin wounds. Lymphadenitis Get adequate sleep.
g invaders,
-- phagocytes are the refers to Take steps to avoid
maintaining white blood cell type lymphadenopathy that is infection, such as
body fluid that actually eats and caused by an infection or washing your hands
levels, destroys these inflammatory condition. frequently and cooking
absorbing antigens meats thoroughly.
digestive tract
fats and Lymph Nodes – help Try to minimize stress.
removing restore fluid lost by the
cellular waste blood and return it to Keep current with all
the circulatory system recommended
vaccines. Vaccines
Spleen – produces prime your immune
and stores white blood system to fight off
cells Swelling or infections before they
accumulation of fluid take hold in your body.
Thymus – site of (lymphedema):
white blood cell Lymphedema can result
maturation from a blockage in the
lymphatic system caused
by scar tissue from
damaged lymph vessels
or nodes. Lymphedema is
also often seen when
lymph nodes are removed
from those who've had
surgery or radiation to
remove cancer. The
buildup of lymphatic fluid
is most commonly seen in
 your arms and legs.
Lymphedema can be very
mild or be quite painful,
disfiguring and disabling.
People with lymphedema
are at risk for serious and
potentially life-threatening
deep skin infections.

8. Excretory System Major Organs and Use the bathroom

Their Functions often and when
Urinary Tract Infection
● regulate the needed. Try to urinate
chemical Kidneys – the main at least once every 3 to
composition of organs of the 4 hours. Holding urine
body fluids by excretory system in your bladder for too
removing long can weaken your
metabolic -- waste-laden blood bladder muscles and
wastes and enters the kidney and make a bladder
retaining the the kidney filters out infection more likely.
proper urea, excess water
amounts of and other waste Be in a relaxed
water, salts, products, which position while
and nutrients eventually travel out of urinating. Relaxing the
the kidney as urine muscles around the
bladder will make it
-- eventually they easier to empty the
travel through the A urinary tract infection, bladder. For women,
ureter to the urinary or UTI, is an infection in hovering over the toilet
bladder any part of your urinary seat may make it hard
system, which includes to relax, so it is best to
Rectum – solid (food) your kidneys, bladder, sit on the toilet seat.
waste travels out of ureters, and urethra.
the body through the If you're a woman, your
rectum chance of getting a Take enough time to
urinary tract infection is fully empty the
high. Some experts rank bladder when
your lifetime risk of urinating. Rushing
when you urinate may
getting one as high as 1 not allow you to fully
in 2, with many women empty the bladder. If
having repeat infections, urine stays in the
sometimes for years. bladder too long, it can
About 1 in 10 men will get make a bladder
a UTI in their lifetime. infection more likely.

Symptoms of UTIs Wipe from front to

back after using the
The symptoms of a UTI
toilet. Women should
can include:
wipe from front to back
● A burning feeling
to keep gut bacteria
when you pee
from getting into the
● A frequent or
urethra. This step is
intense urge to
most important after a
pee, even though
bowel movement.
little comes out
when you do
● Cloudy, dark, Urinate after sex.
bloody, or Sexual activity can
strange-smelling move bacteria from the
pee bowel or vaginal cavity
● Feeling tired or to the urethral opening.
shaky Both women and men
● Fever or chills (a should urinate shortly
sign that the after sex to lower the
infection may risk of infection.
have reached your
kidneys) Exercise regularly.
● Pain or pressure Physical activity can
in your back or help prevent bladder
lower abdomen problems as well as
constipation. It can also
help maintain a healthy
Types of UTIs weight.
An infection can happen
in different parts of your Keep a healthy
urinary tract. Each type weight. People who
has a different name, are overweight may be
based on where it is. at higher risk for
● Cystitis(bladder): leaking urine. Making
You might feel like healthy food choices
you need to pee a and being physically
lot, or it might hurt active can help keep a
when you pee. healthy weight.
You might also
have lower belly
Watch what you eat.
pain and cloudy or
Some people with
bloody urine.
bladder problems find
● Pyelonephritis(kid
that some foods and
neys): This can
drinks, such as sodas,
 cause fever, chills, artificial sweeteners,
nausea, vomiting, spicy foods, citrus fruits
and pain in your and juices, and
upper back or tomato-based foods,
side. make bladder problems
● Urethritis(urethra): worse. Changing your
This can cause a diet may help you feel
discharge and better.
burning when you
pee. Drink enough fluids,
especially water. More
Kidney Stone than half of the human
body is made up of
A kidney stone is a solid, water, so it is important
pebble-like piece of that you are drinking
material that can form in enough.
one or both of your
kidneys when high levels
of certain minerals are in
your urine. Kidney stones
rarely cause permanent
damage if treated by a
health care professional.​

Symptoms & Causes

You may have a kidney
stone if you feel a sharp
pain in your back, side,
lower abdomen, or groin;
or have blood in your
urine. If you have a small
stone that easily passes
through your urinary tract,
you may not have
symptoms at all.

Diagnosis
Health care professionals
use your medical history,
 a physical exam, and
tests to diagnose kidney
stones. The tests may
also be able to show
problems that caused a
kidney stone to form.

Treatment
Health care professionals
may treat your kidney
stones by removing the
kidney stone or breaking
it into small pieces. You
may be able to prevent
kidney stones by drinking
enough water, changing
the way you eat, or taking
medicines.

9. Urinary System ● Two ureters. Drink Enough Water –

These narrow Bladder Infection Liquids are needed to
● to maintain the tubes carry keep the urinary tract
volume and urine from the A bladder infection, also moving. Make sure you
composition of kidneys to the called cystitis, is a very get enough liquids,
body fluids bladder. common type of urinary especially water. The
within normal Muscles in the tract infection in which the average person should
limits. ureter walls urinary bladder becomes drink between six and
● To rid the body keep tightening infected by bacteria eight 8-ounce glasses
of waste and relaxing. (typically Escherichia daily.
products that This forces coli), rarely by fungi.
accumulate as urine Symptoms of bladder Limit Caffeine and
a result of downward, infections may include Alcohol Intake –
cellular away from the pain with urination, Caffeine, alcohol, and
metabolism. kidneys. If frequent urination, and sugary soda are not
urine backs up, feeling the need to urinate good for your health.
or is allowed to despite having an empty You can enjoy them
stand still, a bladder. In some cases, once in a while but do
kidney there may be blood in the so in moderation.
infection can urine. A much less
develop. About common type of urinary Eat High-Fiber Foods
every 10 to 15 tract infection is – High-fiber foods are a
seconds, small pyelonephritis, in which part of a nutritious diet.
amounts of the kidney becomes They prevent
urine are infected. If a kidney constipation, which can
emptied into infection occurs, it is cause problems with
the bladder generally because of an urinary continence and
from the untreated bladder bladder control.
ureters. infection. Bladder Manage Your Weight
● Bladder. This infections are treated – A healthy weight is
triangle-shape mainly with antibiotics. important for your
 d, hollow organ entire body. Being
is located in overweight can cause
the lower belly. hormonal imbalances,
It is held in accidental urine
place by leakage, and type 2
ligaments that diabetes.
are attached to
other organs Get Regular Exercise
and the pelvic – Getting a regular
bones. The workout can help lower
bladder's walls your risk of bladder
relax and problems as well as
Urinary Incontinence
expand to many other conditions.
store urine. Urinary incontinence is
They contract a chronic problem of Exercise Your Pelvic
and flatten to uncontrolled leakage of Floor Muscle – Make
empty urine urine. It is very common, Kegels part of your
through the especially at older ages regular routine. Doing
urethra. The and especially in women. them daily can
typical healthy Sometimes urinary strengthen muscles
adult bladder incontinence is a sign of which provide you
can store up to another health problem, better control and
2 cups of urine such as diabetes or prevent urine leakage.
for 2 to 5 obesity. Regardless of the
hours. underlying cause, the Urinate After Sex – It
● Two sphincter symptoms of urinary may not sound
muscles. incontinence alone may appealing, but always
These circular have a large impact on urinate after having
muscles help the quality of life, sex. This removes
keep urine frequently causing bacteria that entered
from leaking by inconvenience, the urethra during
closing tightly embarrassment, and intercourse.
like a rubber distress.
band around
the opening of
the bladder.
● Nerves in the
bladder. The
nerves alert a
person when it
is time to
urinate, or
empty the
bladder.
● Urethra. This
tube allows
urine to pass
outside the
body. The
brain signals
the bladder
 muscles to
tighten. This
squeezes urine
out of the
bladder. At the
same time, the
brain signals
the sphincter
muscles to
relax to let
urine exit the
bladder
through the
urethra. When
all the signals
happen in the
correct order,
normal
urination
happens.

10. Reproductive Make vaginal washing

System Polycystic Ovary a part of your daily
● The primary Syndrome (PCOS) routine
reproductive Intimate care isn’t
● To produce organs, or something you should
egg and sperm gonads, have to worry about
cells consist of the only when you start
● To transport ovaries and experiencing
and sustain testes. These discomfort. Regular
these cells organs are care and preventive
● To nurture the responsible for measures ensure you
developing producing the stay clean and healthy
fetus egg and sperm always. Care shouldn’t
● To produce cells gametes), be limited to washing
hormones and hormones. Polycystic ovary only while bathing.
syndrome happens when Women should wash
a woman’s ovaries or their intimate areas 2-3
Male Reproductive adrenal glands produce times, especially during
more male hormones monsoons and
System menstrual cycles to
than normal. One result is
The male reproductive that cysts (fluid-filled keep infections at bay.
system is mostly sacs) develop on the
located outside of the ovaries. Women who are Don't use soap
body. These external obese are more likely to Soap has a Ph factor of
organs include the have PCOS. Women with 5.5 which is the same
penis, scrotum and PCOS are at increased as your skin. However,
testicles. Internal risk of developing vaginal skin is very
organs include the vas diabetes and heart delicate and therefore
deferens, prostate and disease. Symptoms may Ph balance ranges
urethra. The male include from 3.8 to 4.5. It is
reproductive system is essential to maintain
responsible for sexual ● Infertility. the Ph balance to avoid
function, as well as ● Pelvic pain. dryness, soreness and
urination. ● Excess hair irritation of the vagina
growth on the as well as check the
The external parts of face, chest, growth of harmful
the male reproductive stomach, thumbs, bacteria.
system include: or toes.
● Baldness or Don't srub your
penis, the scrotum thinning hair. intimate area
and the testicles. ● Acne, oily skin, or Never scrub or use a
dandruff. brush on your vagina.
Penis ● Patches of Vaginal skin is very
The penis is the male thickened dark delicate and you could
organ for sexual brown or black end up with scratches
intercourse. It has skin. and in pain. Use a soft
three parts: towel to wipe the
● The root: This HIV/AIDS region.
is the part of
the penis that Clean from front to
attaches to the back
wall of your Always clean the
abdomen. intimate area from the
● The body or front to the back. In
shaft: Shaped other words, clean the
like a tube or vagina first and move
cylinder, the backwards towards the
body of the anus. This will prevent
penis is made harmful bacteria that
up of three HIV is the human reside in the anus from
internal immunodeficiency virus. infecting the vagina.
chambers. HIV affects specific cells
Inside these of the immune system Use a wash with
chambers (called CD4 cells). Over natural ingredients
there’s a time, HIV can destroy so Artificial chemicals
special, many of these cells that make the vagina dry.
sponge-like the body can’t fight off However, naturally
erectile tissue infection anymore. The occurring chemicals
that contains human body cannot get like lactic acid help
thousands of rid of HIV—that means maintain the Ph
large spaces once a person has HIV, balance and help
that fill with he or she has it for life. restore smoothness of
blood when There is no cure at this the vaginal area.
you’re sexually time, but with proper Natural oils like Tea
aroused. As medical care, the virus Tree Oil and Seabuck
the penis fills can be controlled. HIV is Thorn Oil are known for
with blood, it the virus that can lead to their soothing quality
becomes rigid acquired immune and fresh natural
and erect, deficiency syndrome, or fragrance.
which allows AIDS. AIDS is the late
 for penetration stage of HIV infection, Wear cotton
during sex. when a person’s immune underwear
The skin of the system is severely Cotton is the softest
penis is loose damaged. and most skin friendly
and elastic, fabric. It allows for air
allowing for HIV in Women circulation and absorbs
changes in moisture quickly. While
penis size Women who are infected silk and satin
during an with HIV typically get it by underwear can be worn
erection. having sex with a man on special occasions,
● The glans: who is infected or by cotton underwear can
This is the sharing needles with an be worn on a daily
cone-shaped infected person. Women basis.
end of the of minority
penis. The races/ethnicities are Wear comfortable
glans, which is especially affected, and clothing
also called the black or African American Avoid tight fitting
head of the women are the most clothes as they restrict
penis, is affected group. air circulation and
covered with a cause the vaginal area
loose layer of Pregnant Women to get compressed or
skin called creased in an unnatural
foreskin. This All pregnant women way.
skin is should know their HIV
sometimes status. Pregnant women
removed in a who are HIV-positive can
procedure work with their health
called care providers to ensure
circumcision. their babies do not
The opening of the contract HIV during
urethra — the tube pregnancy, delivery, or
that transports both after delivery (through
semen and urine out breast milk). It is possible
of the body — is for a mother to have HIV
located at the tip of and not spread it to her
the glans penis. The baby, especially if she
penis also contains knows about her HIV
many sensitive nerve status early and works
endings. with her health care
Semen, which provider to reduce the
contains sperm, is risk.
expelled (ejaculated)
through the end of the HIV and Breastfeeding
penis when a man HIV can be spread
reaches sexual climax through breast milk, so
(orgasm). When the mothers in the US who
penis is erect, the flow have HIV should not
of urine is blocked breast-feed their babies.
from the urethra,
allowing only semen
 to be ejaculated at
orgasm.

Scrotum

11. Nervous System Cerebral Palsy Drink plenty of water as

dehydration is not good
to coordinate the for the nervous system
body’s response to
changes in its internal Put your body to
and external exercise in order to
environment maintain good nerve
activities and function
The nervous system is
the major controlling, Excess consumption of
regulatory, and Cerebral palsy is a alcohol and smoking
communicating condition that affects are harmful for the
system in the body. body movements due to nervous system
brain injury. The injury
It is the center of all can happen before, Get your blood
mental activity during or after birth and pressure checked
including thought, does not get worse over regularly
learning, and memory. time.
It is the center of all Learn new ways to
mental activity The brain damage affects increase your attention
including thought, body movement and
learning, and memory. posture. It often shows up Make certain you
as either floppy or stiff intake adequate
muscles, or involuntary amount of healthy fats
muscle movements.
Keep your weight in
Cerebral palsy can affect check and reduce in
movement, coordination, case you’re obese
muscle tone and posture.
It can also be associated Use prescribed
with impaired vision, medicines
hearing, speech, eating
and learning. Taking up some healthy
breathing exercise is
The damage to the brain also beneficial in
is permanent. There is no maintaining the health
cure. Life expectancy is of the nervous system.
normal or near normal in
mild cerebral palsy, but Protect yourself from
the effects of cerebral traumatic situations
palsy can cause stress to
the body and premature Get plenty of sleep
ageing. every day
What are the symptoms Eat small meals at
of cerebral palsy? regular intervals
Cerebral palsy causes a Consume adaptogenic
range of symptoms. The herbs
most common ones are:
Decrease the intake of
● being stiff or caffeine rich drinks
floppy
● having
exaggerated
reflexes
● muscle weakness
● lack of muscle
coordination
● uncontrolled body
movements
● problems with
balance and
coordination
● problems with
swallowing,
sucking or eating
● using one side of
the body to reach
for things
● delay in learning
to speak

Epilepsy

Epilepsy is a long-term
brain condition where a
person has repeated
seizures. It is thought to
affect about 3 in every
100 Australians.

Having just one seizure is

not considered to be
epilepsy — about half the
people who have one
seizure never have
another seizure. Other
conditions such as fever,
diabetes, heart conditions
and alcohol withdrawal
can also cause seizures.

Epilepsy is not one single

condition; rather it is a
range of different
conditions that can cause
seizures.

If you witness a seizure,

you can go to Epilepsy
Action Australia's seizure
first aid resources.
Seizures usually last 1 to
3 minutes. If someone
has a seizure that lasts
for more than 5 minutes,
call an ambulance on
triple zero.

What are the symptoms

of epilepsy?
The symptom of epilepsy
is seizures. These are
episodes of disrupted
electrical activity in the
brain and can vary greatly
depending on the part of
the brain involved.

Seizures can cause

symptoms such as a loss
of consciousness,
unusual jerking
movements (convulsions)
as well as other unusual
feelings, sensations and
behaviours.

There are many different

types of seizures.
Generalised seizures
involve the whole brain
and therefore the whole
body is affected. Focal
seizures involve only part
of the brain.
12. Endocrine Diabetes
System

to control growth,
development, Get plenty of exercise.
metabolism and
reproduction through Eat a nutritious diet.
the production and
secretion of hormones Go for regular medical
checkups.
Sends Hormones into Diabetes mellitus,
Your Bloodstream. Talk to the doctor
commonly known as before taking any
diabetes, is a metabolic supplements or herbal
Regulates the Release disease that causes high
of Hormones. treatments.
blood sugar. The
hormone insulin moves Let the doctor know
sugar from the blood into about any family history
your cells to be stored or of endocrine problems,
used for energy. With such as diabetes or
diabetes, your body either thyroid problems.
doesn’t make enough
insulin or can’t effectively
When Should I Call
use the insulin it does
the Doctor?
make.
Let the doctor know if
you:
Untreated high blood
sugar from diabetes can drink a lot of water but
damage your nerves, are still thirsty
eyes, kidneys, and other
organs. have to pee often

There are a few different have frequent belly

types of diabetes:
pain or nausea

Type 1 diabetes is are very tired or weak

an autoimmune
disease. The are gaining or losing a
immune system lot of weight
attacks and
destroys cells in have tremors or sweat
the pancreas, a lot
where insulin is
made. It’s unclear are constipated
what causes this
attack. About 10
 percent of people are not growing or
with diabetes have developing as
this type. expected
Type 2 diabetes
occurs when your
body becomes
resistant to insulin,
and sugar builds
up in your blood.
Prediabetes
occurs when your
blood sugar is
higher than
normal, but it’s not
high enough for a
diagnosis of type
2 diabetes.
Gestational
diabetes is high
blood sugar during
pregnancy.
Insulin-blocking
hormones
produced by the
placenta cause
this type of
diabetes.

A rare condition called

diabetes insipidus is not
related to diabetes
mellitus, although it has a
similar name. It’s a
different condition in
which your kidneys
remove too much fluid
from your body.

Hyperthyroidism
(overactive thyroid)
occurs when your thyroid
gland produces too much
of the hormone thyroxine.
Hyperthyroidism can
accelerate your body's
metabolism, causing
unintentional weight loss
and a rapid or irregular
heartbeat.

Symptoms
Hyperthyroidism can
mimic other health
problems, which can
make it difficult for your
doctor to diagnose. It can
also cause a wide variety
of signs and symptoms,
including:
● Unintentional
weight loss, even
when your
appetite and food
intake stay the
same or increase
● Rapid heartbeat
(tachycardia) —
commonly more
than 100 beats a
minute
● Irregular heartbeat
(arrhythmia)
● Pounding of your
heart (palpitations)
● Increased appetite
● Nervousness,
anxiety and
irritability
● Tremor — usually
a fine trembling in
your hands and
fingers
 ● Sweating
● Changes in
menstrual patterns
● Increased
sensitivity to heat
● Changes in bowel
patterns,
especially more
frequent bowel
movements
● An enlarged
thyroid gland
(goiter), which
may appear as a
swelling at the
base of your neck
● Fatigue, muscle
weakness
● Difficulty sleeping
● Skin thinning
● Fine, brittle hair

5.2. Discuss the recent inventions that have improved the health and longevity of life.

Vaccines

● A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular infectious
disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism and
is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins, or one of its surface proteins.
● Vaccines mimic the virus or bacteria that causes disease and triggers the body’s creation of
antibodies. These antibodies will provide protection once a person is infected with the actual
disease-causing virus or bacteria. An immunization(vaccine) is a way to build your body’s natural
immunity to a disease before you get sick. This keeps you from getting and spreading the disease.

How does immunity work?

● Our body builds a defense system to fight foreign germs that could make you sick or hurt you. It’s
called your immune system.
● To build up your immune system, your body must be exposed to different germs. When your body is
exposed to a germ for the first time, it produces antibodies to fight it. But that takes time, and you
usually get sick before the antibodies have built up. But once you have antibodies, they stay in your
body.
● The next time you’re exposed to that germ, the antibodies will attack it, and you won’t get sick.

Importance
 1. Vaccines help reduce the risk of certain illnesses by introducing dead or weakened versions of
disease-causing germs (bacteria or viruses) to the immune system which stimulate the production of
antibodies to provide immunity against one or several diseases.
2. Vaccines protect vulnerable people in our community – such as very young children, the elderly, or
those who are too sick to be immunized.
3. Some vaccines offer lifelong immunity.
4. Immunization greatly reduces the risk of catching a disease, which in turn reduces the risk of
complications.

Improvement of drugs and medicines

A significant turning point in the way diseases are diagnosed, treated, or prevented has the potential to
extend and save lives. Medical advancements are also vital to society, progression in science reduces the
financial burden of disease and protects healthcare systems.

● There are many reasons why new drugs are important, such as new diseases, the development of
drug resistance, and our increasing understanding of health conditions allowing treatment of
previously untreatable conditions.
● Antibiotics are one of the most commonly used and well-known drugs for fighting bacterial and fungal
infections. Since 1990 only three new classes of antibiotics have been established, although many
derivatives of existing drugs have been developed.
● Advances in medical treatment have helped people avoid disability and death caused by disease,
lowered overall treatment costs, and has lowered death rates for heart disease, stroke, cancer, and
other deadly diseases for several decades. Innovation in drug discovery, biotechnology, digital health
and medical devices has the potential to provide new and improved treatments for some of the
leading causes of death such as heart disease, strokes and cancer. They also have the power to
eradicate diseases and prevent patients from developing conditions at all.

Why are new drugs and medicine required?

● The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the possibility of new diseases occurring. New drugs are
required to treat the symptoms of new diseases but also to prevent the spread of new diseases by
vaccination. The continued incidence of new diseases is likely to continue as humans interact more
and more with other species. Many new diseases, like SARS-CoV-2, originate in animals.
● There are many examples of recent diseases that have crossed from an animal host to humans.
Examples of virus transmission are HIV/AIDS, Ebola, flu, and even the common cold. In addition to
virus transmission, diseases can also be caused by bacterial or fungal infections or by animal-borne
parasites such as malaria.

Importance of New Drugs and Medicine

● Outlined above are some reasons why new drugs are required. New drugs must be developed so that
we can continue our chosen lifestyles and prevent the misery and death caused by diseases.
Disease-causing vectors continue to evolve, throwing up new challenges and in general, humans are
living longer so they have more time to be exposed to diseases.
● To maintain our health, we need to be able to fight against well-known and increasing health
conditions, such as cardiovascular disease which kills seventeen million people a year, and new
diseases such as COVID-19 which can massively disrupt the world and kill millions of people in the
first year it occurs.

Improvement of technological devices and equipment for health diagnosis

 ● Medical technologies enable the early and accurate diagnosis of health problems,
facilitating timely intervention and improving outcomes. Innovative products can replace,
repair and sustain failing body functions, while telemedicine and connected devices allow
remote monitoring of patient's conditions.
● The use of medical technology tools safeguards patient safety. First, there are alerts on
medication, flags and reminders, consultation and diagnosis reports, and the easier
availability of patient data. Particularly, alerts can help someone adhere to specific treatments
and schedules of treatment.
● Health information technology presents numerous opportunities for improving and
transforming healthcare which includes; reducing human errors, improving clinical
outcomes, facilitating care coordination, improving practice efficiencies, and tracking
data over time.

Timeline of improvement

● 1924: The Electroencephalogram

Hans Berger recorded the first human electroencephalogram (EEG), charting electrical
activity of his son’s brain. He also invented the first electroencephalogram device.

● 1928: The Iron Lung

The negative pressure ventilator, or iron lung, was a mechanical respirator. Although there
were prior prototypes, the Drinker respirator, which was first used in 1928 to treat a girl with
polio, went into production after her recovery. Negative pressure ventilation has been
replaced almost completely by positive pressure ventilation through an endotracheal or
tracheostomy tube. Sure, now it’s virtually obsolete, but during its heyday, the iron lung saved
lives. It’s also a good reminder that continued innovation is an integral part of MedTech.

● 1931: Minimally Invasive Surgery

The first minimally invasive surgery involved using a cystoscope to treat bladder lesions.
Other techniques followed, such as a balloon embolectomy catheter for removing blood clots.

● 1936: The Pacemaker

Researchers had applied electrical impulses to stimulate the heart for a number of years, but
in 1932, Dr. Albert Hyman devised a spring-wound, hand-cranked electro-mechanical
instrument he called the “artificial pacemaker.” In 1958, the first patient received an
implantable pacemaker.

● 1943: Dialysis

Dr. Willem Johan Kolff is credited with the first working dialyzer. He constructed it during Nazi
occupation in the Netherlands, when resources were scarce, building it from beverage cans,
washing machine parts, and other available materials. Another important lesson here: when
there’s a will…

● 1944: The Disposable Catheter

 David S. Sheridan, who Forbes magazine called the “Catheter King,” invented the modern
disposable catheter, as well as the disposable plastic endotracheal tube. Simple as far as
medical technology advances go? Maybe. But prior to his invention, tubes were sterilized and
reused, creating a high infection risk. He solved a problem and saved countless lives.

● 1947: Cardiac Defibrillation

A 14-year-old boy’s heart stopped during surgery, and Dr. Claude Beck at the University
Hospital of Cleveland ordered his research unit that he had used to deliver AC to the
exposed hearts of animals be brought up to save him. The unit had two metal tablespoons
attached to wooden handles to deliver the shock. In 1965, Frank Pantridge installed the first
portable defibrillator — weighing 150 pounds and powered by car batteries — in an
ambulance in Belfast, Northern Ireland.

● 1952: Magnetic Resonance

The Nobel Prize in Physics that year went to Felix Bloch and Edward Mills Purcell for
developing nuclear magnetic resonance. The first MRI exam on a patient took place in 1977,
beginning an era of non-invasive diagnosis.

● 1953: The Heart-Lung Bypass Machine

Heart-lung bypass, supporting a patient’s heart and lung functions during open-heart surgery,
was invented by Dr. John Heysham Gibbon, and used successfully for the first time in 1953.

● 1953: Cochlear Prosthesis

1953 also marked the first cochlear prosthesis, which stimulated the cochlear nerve to
facilitate hearing. Innovator André Djourno also performed the first cochlear implantation in
1957.

● 1958: Fetal Ultrasound

​ lthough Doppler ultrasound had been used in a variety of applications prior, in 1958, Dr.
A
Edward H. Hon of Yale used it to detect a fetal heartbeat. It has since become a standard in
prenatal care. (Sending results to bakeries for pink or blue icing inside cakes falls much later
on the timeline.)

● 1963: The Insulin Pump

Insulin pumps, which eliminate the need for multiple insulin injections each day and make
controlling blood glucose levels more possible, were invented by Dr. Arnold Kadish. In 1973,
Dean Kamen (also inventor of the Segway) invented the first wearable infusion pump.

● 1971: CT Scanner

Dr. Godfrey Hounsfield is credited with developing the first commercial CT scanner. The first
CT scan occurred in London, on a patient suspected of having a frontal lobe tumor. The
surgeon who operated on the patient remarked, “It looks exactly like the picture.”
 ● 1982: First Successful Implantation of an Artificial Heart

Dr. William DeVries implanted the Jarvik 7, named after the device’s inventor, Dr. Robert
Jarvik, giving Dr. Barney Clark the first permanent artificial heart. Today, artificial implants are
used as a bridge until a heart is secured for transplant.

● 1987: Robots & Lasers

​ his was the year science fiction seemed to meet healthcare when robots became part of
T
laparoscopic surgery procedures and lasers were used to correct vision.

● 1993: First Bionic Limb

A patient with muscular cancer received the “Edinburgh Modular Arm System,” the first bionic
limb. The patient wore a cap that contained micro-sensors which detected brain impulses
sent to his missing limb and used them to control the arm. Today, computer chips sync joints
to Bluetooth devices that coordinate movement.

● 2004: The Adaptive Artificial Knee

Prosthetics had been around for years, but in 2004, the Ossur Corporation produced a
microprocessor controlled knee that adapts to terrain and permits activities such as cycling,
walk-to-run, and climbing stairs.

● 2013: 3D-Printed Body Parts

​ D printing technology has enabled researchers to print body parts, not just with synthetic
3
materials, but using bioprinting, growing cells from a patient’s stem cells to, for example, print
skin to encourage faster burn or wound healing.

Advancement of genetics and other biotechnology for the discovery of gene therapy, genetic
engineering, stem cell technology, hybridoma cell technology

● Taking time to learn about genetics can help you understand your own health and make healthy
choices. Genes that do not work correctly can cause problems. A group of rare diseases are caused
when a single gene stops working normally.
● Genetics research studies how individual genes or groups of genes are involved in health
and disease. Understanding genetic factors and genetic disorders is important in learning
more about promoting health and preventing disease.
● Gene therapy involves altering the genes inside your body's cells in an effort to treat or stop
disease. Genes contain your DNA — the code that controls much of your body's form and
function, from making you grow taller to regulating your body systems. Genes that don't work
properly can cause disease.Gene therapy replaces a faulty gene or adds a new gene in an
attempt to cure disease or improve your body's ability to fight disease. Gene therapy holds
promise for treating a wide range of diseases, such as cancer, cystic fibrosis, heart disease,
diabetes, hemophilia and AIDS.
● Stem cell therapy, also known as regenerative medicine, promotes the repair response of
diseased, dysfunctional or injured tissue using stem cells or their derivatives. It is the next
 chapter in organ transplantation and uses cells instead of donor organs, which are limited in
supply. Studies have discovered that stem cell therapy can help enhance the growth of new
healthy skin tissue, enhance collagen production, stimulate hair development after incisions
or loss, and help substitute scar tissue with newly developed healthy tissue.
● Hybridoma technology is one of the most common methods used to produce monoclonal
antibodies. In this process, antibody-producing B lymphocytes are isolated from mice after
immunizing the mice with specific antigen and are fused with immortal myeloma cell lines to
form hybrid cells, called hybridoma cell lines. Hybridoma technology produces highly pure
and specific antibodies (monoclonal antibodies). This method is highly reproducible and
scalable. This method provides an unlimited production of monoclonal antibodies. It can be
used to perform highly sensitive and specific assays.

AREA 2: CHEMISTRY
1. Inorganic Chemistry (BARQUILLA)
1.1. Distinguish the three states of matter and the types of mixture
● The three states of matter are:
❖ Solid
➔ Highly Strong intermolecular forces between the molecules, leads to a definite
volume in Solids.
➔ Has a definite shape
➔ The intermolecular space between solids is absent.
➔ The force of attraction between the molecules is incredibly high.

❖ Liquid
➔ The intermolecular forces are stronger than gases but weaker than solids.
➔ Has no definite shape
➔ The intermolecular space is moderate but present.
➔ The force of attraction between molecules is moderate.
❖ Gas
➔ The intermolecular forces are practically non-existent. Thus, there is no definite
volume.
➔ Has no definite shape
➔ The intermolecular space is free-flowing and plenty.
➔ There is no intermolecular force of attraction between the molecules.

● The types of mixtures:

❖ Heterogenous
➢ comprises two or more substances that are not uniformly distributed
➢ Substances can be distinctly observed, and even separated relatively easily.
➢ Examples: oil and water, cereal in milk and salad.

❖ Homogenous
➢ has a uniform composition and appearance
➢ Individual substances cannot be visually differentiated.
➢ Example: sugar in coffee, alcohol in water and milkshakes.

1.2. Manifest understanding of chemical formula and chemical notations

● Three main types of chemical formula:
❖ Empirical Formula: tells the simplest or most reduced ratio of elements in a compound.
 Example: NO2 = The ratio of nitrogen to oxygen atoms is 1:2

❖ Molecular Formula: gives the total number of atoms of each element in each molecule of a
substance.
Example: N2O4 = There are two nitrogen atoms and 4 oxygen atoms.

❖ Structural Formula: identify the location of chemical bonds between the atoms of a molecule.
Example: H-O-H or water (H2O)

● Chemical Notations:
➔ All atoms of a particular element have the same number of protons in their nucleus.
➔ Atomic number refers to the number of protons found in the nucleus in any given atom of an element.
➔ Atomic Mass= No. of Protons + No. of Neutrons

❖ Subscript
-are used to denote the exact number of atoms present.
-are always written to the bottom right of the element it is referring to.
-are used when more than one atom of an element is present. If no subscript is written, it is
assumed only one atom of that element is present.

Example: A molecule of methane has one atom of carbon and four atoms of hydrogen. The
chemical formula is = CH4
. (subscript "4" to the right of the H, indicating that there are four atoms of hydrogen in
this molecule.)

❖ Superscript
-appear on the top right of the symbol or formula.
-appear either as an "+" or "-" sign with an associated number. Together, these refer to the
number and kind of charge present on the ion.
-represents the mass number of the element.

2. Organic Chemistry (VILLANUEVA)

2.1. Relate the structural characteristics and properties of organic compounds

❖ Organic compounds include complex structures and high molecular weights..

❖ These are soluble in organic solvents and mostly insoluble in water.
❖ Mostly depend on only three elements: Carbon, Hydrogen and nitrogen.
➢ Main characteristics of Carbon
■ Carbon atoms can form single, double, or triple bonds with other carbon atoms.
■ Carbon can form up to 4 bonds.
■ This allows carbon atoms to form long chains, almost unlimited in length.
■ Carbon can bond with other carbons, form straight chains, branched chains and rings.
❖ These compounds are combustible in nature.
❖ Most properties of the compounds are decided by the functional group attached to them.
➢ Hydrocarbons
■ Alkanes - carbon to carbon single bonds

■ Alkenes - carbon to carbon double bonds

■ Alkynes - carbon to carbon triple bonds
 ■ Aromatic Hydrocarbon/ Arene - carbon ring

➢ Hydroxyl group - a alkyl group bonded a single bond to oxygen and hydrogen bond
 ■ Alcohols - A class of organic compounds characterized by one or more hydroxyl
groups(-OH)

■ Ethers - A class of organic compounds characterized by an oxygen atom bonded to

two alkyl or aryl groups.

➢ Carbonyl group - Carbon double bonded to a oxygen atom

■ Aldehydes - is an organic compound in which the carbonyl group is attached to a
carbon atom at the end of a carbon chain.
■ Ketones - is an organic compound in which the carbonyl group is attached to a carbon
atom within the carbon chain.
 ■ Esters - a pair of alkyl or aromatic groups attached to a carbonyl + linking oxygen
function derived from acetic acid.

■ Amides - containing a carbonyl group linked to a nitrogen atom or any compound

containing the amide functional group.

➢ Carboxyl group - a functional group that consists of hydroxyl group (OH) and carbonyl
group (=O).
■ Formic acid - is the simplest carboxylic acid containing a single carbon.

■ Acetic acid - is a byproduct of fermentation, and gives vinegar its characteristic odor.
Vinegar is about 4-6% acetic acid in water.
2.2. Describe the basic reactions of organic compounds
❖ Addition Reaction - is an organic reaction in which two or more molecules combine to
generate a bigger one. This reaction is common in alkene.
➢ Halogenation - a chemical reaction that involves the reaction of a compound with a
halogen and results in the halogen being added to the compound.

➢ Hydration - a chemical reaction in which a substance combines with water. In organic

chemistry, water is added to an unsaturated substrate, which is usually an alkene or an
alkyne.

➢ Hydrogenation - The reaction of hydrogen and nitrogen to form ammonia and the
reaction of hydrogen and carbon monoxide to form methanol or hydrocarbons,
depending on the choice of catalyst.

➢ Polymerization - any process in which relatively small molecules, called monomers,

combine chemically to produce a very large chainlike or network molecule, called a
polymer.

❖ Elimination Reaction - is an organic chemical reaction in which a pair of atoms or groups of

atoms are removed from a molecule, usually through the action of acids, bases, or metals
and, in some cases, by heating to a high temperature.

❖ Substitution Reaction - is a chemical reaction during which one functional group in a

chemical compound is replaced by another functional group.
 ❖ Rearrangement Reaction - a large class of organic reactions, in which a molecule's carbon
skeleton is rearranged to give the original molecule a structural isomer.

Source: Simply.Science, PubChem, https://www.chem.fsu.edu/

3. Biochemistry (VILLANUEVA)
3.1. Show understanding of the structure, functions and reactions of macromolecules
❖ Carbohydrates - are large macromolecules made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O)
with the general formula Cx(H2O)y. The primary function of carbohydrates is that they are the primary
source of energy and preferred energy of the brain.
➢ Types of Carbohydrates
■ Monosaccharides - The simplest forms of sugar and the most basic units (monomers)
from which all carbohydrates are built are known as simple sugars. They are typically
colorless, crystalline solids that are water soluble. ( fructose ”fruit sugar”, galactose
and glucose)

■ Disaccharides - Any substance made up of two molecules of simple sugars

(monosaccharides) linked together, also known as double sugar. Disaccharides are
water-soluble crystalline compounds. (lactose”milk sugar”, maltose, and sucrose”table
sugar”)

■ Polysaccharides - are the most prevalent carbohydrates in food. They are polymeric
long-chain carbohydrates made up of monosaccharide units linked together by
glycosidic linkages. (cellulose, starch, and glycogen)
❖ Lipids - a substance that is insoluble in water and soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform. Lipids are
an important component of living cells. The structure of lipids is typically made of a glycerol backbone,
2 fatty acid tails (hydrophobic), and a phosphate group (hydrophilic).
➢ Unsaturated - Unsaturated fatty acid is indicated when a fatty acid has more than one double
bond. “Often, naturally occurring fatty acids possess an even number of carbon atoms and are
unbranched.” On the other hand, unsaturated fatty acids contain a cis-double bond(s) which
create a structural kink that disables them to group their molecules in straight rod-like shape.
➢ Saturated - Lack of carbon-carbon double bonds indicate that the fatty acid is saturated. The
saturated fatty acids have higher melting points compared to unsaturated acids of the
corresponding size due to their ability to pack their molecules together thus leading to a
straight rod-like shape.

❖ Proteins - Protein is an essential component of a healthy diet. Proteins are composed of chemical
'building blocks' known as amino acids. Amino acids are used by the body to build and repair muscles
and bones, as well as to produce hormones and enzymes. They can also be used as a source of
energy.
❖ Nucleic acid - are large biomolecules that are required by all cells and viruses. Nucleic acids play an
important role in the storage and expression of genomic information. DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid,
encodes the information that cells require to produce proteins.
➢ Types of Nucleic Acid
■ Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) - An
organic chemical that contains
genetic information as well as
protein synthesis instructions. It can
be found in the majority of cells in all
organisms. DNA is an important
component of reproduction in which
genetic heredity is passed down from
parent to offspring.
■ Ribonucleic acid (RNA) - a
nucleic acid found in all living cells that
resembles DNA in structure. RNA, unlike
DNA, is typically single-stranded.
Instead of the deoxyribose found in
DNA, the backbone of an RNA
molecule is made of alternating
phosphate groups and the sugar
ribose.
● mRNA - serves as
intermediary between DNA and protein; used by ribosomes to direct synthesis
of protein it encodes.
● rRNA - Ensures the proper alignment of mRNA, tRNA, and ribosome during
protein synthesis; catalyzes peptide bond formation between amino acids
● tRNA - Carries the correct amino acid to the site of protein synthesis in the
ribosome

3.2 Discuss how bacteria, viruses and chemicals affect human health
 ❖ Bacteria - can cause a variety of diseases in humans, including cholera, diphtheria, dysentery,
bubonic plague, pneumonia, tuberculosis (TB), typhoid, and many others. When the human body is
exposed to bacteria that it does not recognize as beneficial, the immune system attacks them. While
the bacteria which help in human health are called probiotics like Lactobacillus acidophilus or
L.acidophilus which help digestion food. Some bacteria are being used to produce some chemical
that is beneficial to the health like E.coli to produce Insulin through Gene editing (CRISPR).

❖ Viruses - Some viruses that infect humans can cause severe and often fatal diseases, but other
viruses can be manipulated to be beneficial to human health. These viruses hold the promise of
curing cancer, correcting genetic disorders, and combating pathogenic viral infections. An example of
a good virus that is beneficial to humans is the latent (non-symptomatic) herpes viruses that can
help human natural killer cells (a specific type of white blood cell) identify cancer cells and cells
infected by other pathogenic viruses.

❖ Chemicals - the common misconception that all chemicals can be hazardous or toxic since some
Chemicals can be toxic because they can harm us when they enter or contact the body and some are
volatile. But some of the chemicals that we are using are very beneficial to human health it being
used for sanitation, hygiene, sterilization, disinfectants, antiseptics, in pharmaceutical manufacturing
of medicines for example the amides that being used to make “paracetamol”, etc. to improve human
health.

C. PHYSICS

1. Classical Physics: Thermodynamics, Electricity, Magnetism, Waves and Optics

1.1. Demonstrate the relation of heat, work and temperature to energy, radiation and physical properties of
matter (CASING)
● Thermodynamics explain how thermal energy is converted to or from other forms of energy and how
matter is affected by this process. Thermal energy is the energy that comes from heat. This heat is
generated by the movement of tiny particles within an object, and the faster these particles move, the
more heat is generated.
● The relationship between heat, work and temperature to energy
ΔE = w + q
-ΔE is a change of internal energy of a system
-q is heat supplied to the system
-w is work done on the system
● In classical thermodynamics, the behavior of matter is analyzed with a macroscopic approach. Units
such as temperature and pressure are taken into consideration, which helps the individuals calculate
other properties and predict the characteristics of the matter undergoing the process.
● Thermal radiation, the process by which energy, in the form of electromagnetic radiation, is emitted
by a heated surface in all directions and travels directly to its point of absorption at the speed of light.
● Physical property is any property that is measurable, and whose value describes a state of a
physical system.
● Thermodynamic properties are defined as characteristic features of a system, capable of specifying
the system's state.
● There are several types of thermodynamic processes, including
(a) isothermal, where the system's temperature is constant;
(b) adiabatic, where no heat is exchanged by the system;
(c) isobaric, where the system's pressure is constant; and
(d) isochoric, where the system's volume is constant.
 ● The first law of thermodynamics relates the change in internal energy of a system to total
heat and work done (hence pressure and change in volume), whereas the Ideal gas law
relates temperature to pressure and volume (and by extension, to internal energy too).
(a) Boyle’s Law - if the temperature is constant. This situation is represented in the
isothermal thermodynamic process.
(b) Charles's Law- if the pressure is constant. This situation is represented in the
isobaric thermodynamic process.
(c)Gay Lussac’s Law- if the volume is constant. This situation is represented in the
isochoric thermodynamic process.

1.2. Illustrate the transfer of energy from one place to another and from one form to another (VILLAGORDA)
Energy can be transferred from one place to another and from one form to another;

● Energy Transfers
- Energy can be transferred from one place to another

Example:
1. Think of the electricity that flows from your wall socket, then moves through a
charger and into a battery. The energy is being transferred from the wall socket
to the battery.

2. Heat energy is transferred from the element in stove to the pot when you are
cooking

3. When you kick a soccer ball down the field with your moving leg (transferring
energy from your leg to the ball)
 ● Energy Transformations
- Energy can be transformed from one form to another, which makes things in our world
happen. When something or somebody moves or jumps or falls or explodes or
breathes or thinks or dances or does anything, it's because energy is being
transformed.

Example:
1. Chemicals in food give us mechanical energy

2. The sunlight provides light energy for the tree to make its own food (chemical)

3. Chemical gasoline provides energy for the motion of the car

4. The electrical energy plug creates the heat to run the stove

Resources:
https://www.google.com/amp/s/slideplayer.com/amp/9369460/
https://www.solarschools.net/knowledge-bank/energy/conversion
https://mskuksclass.weebly.com/lesson-3-energy-transformations.html

1.3. Discuss the uses of electromagnetism for motors, generators, transformers, x – ray, etc.
(PAGULONG). Add Ohm’s Law (Resistance, Current, and Voltage)

Devices Function

Motors An electric motor is a device that uses an electromagnet to

change electrical energy to kinetic energy. When current flows
through the motor, the electromagnet rotates, causing a shaft
to rotate as well. The rotating shaft moves other parts of the
device.

Generators Generators typically use an electromagnet, which is created

by electricity and a rapidly spinning turbine to produce
massive amounts of current. The standard generator contains
a group of insulated wire coils in the shape of a cylinder.
Within the cylinder is a rotary electromagnet. When the
magnet spins, it induces a tiny current in each part of the wire
coil. Each part of the wire coil then turns into a small,
individual electric conductor and the tiny currents of individual
sections merge to create a single large current. Resulting
electricity is then sent through power lines to consumers.

Transformer Electric transformer is a device that uses electromagnetic

induction to change the voltage of electric current.
Electromagnetic induction is the process of generating current
with a magnetic field. It occurs when a magnetic field and
electric conductor, such as a coil of wire, move relative to one
another. A transformer may either increase or decrease
voltage. The transformer in the diagram consists of two wire
coils wrapped around an iron core. Each coil is part of a
different circuit. When alternating current passes through coil
P, it magnetizes the iron core. Because the current is
alternating, the magnetic field of the iron core keeps
reversing. This is where electromagnetic induction comes in.
The changing magnetic field induces alternating current in coil
S of the other circuit.

X-Ray X-rays are types of electromagnetic radiation probably most

well-known for their ability to see through a person's skin and
reveal images of the bones beneath it. Advances in
technology have led to more powerful and focused X-ray
beams as well as ever greater applications of these light
waves, from imaging teensy biological cells and structural
components of materials like cement to killing cancer cells.
 Magnetic Resonance MRIs employ powerful magnets which produce a strong
Imaging (MRI) Machine magnetic field that forces protons in the body to align with that
field. When a radiofrequency current is then pulsed through
the patient, the protons are stimulated, and spin out of
equilibrium, straining against the pull of the magnetic field.
When the radiofrequency field is turned off, the MRI sensors
are able to detect the energy released as the protons realign
with the magnetic field. The time it takes for the protons to
realign with the magnetic field, as well as the amount of
energy released, changes depending on the environment and
the chemical nature of the molecules. Physicians are able to
tell the difference between various types of tissues based on
these magnetic properties.

Loudspeaker Most loudspeakers are of the electromagnetic, or dynamic,

variety, in which a voice coil moves in the gap of a permanent
magnet when a time-varying current flows through the coil.
The magnet is generally in the shape of a “W” or a ring. The
diaphragm, or cone, of such a loudspeaker moves with the
coil, converting the electric current in the coil into a pressure
wave. A lit candle placed in front of a loudspeaker cone that is
oscillating at about 10 hertz can render the sound wave
“visible,” as the flame vibrates back and forth longitudinally
with the air.

Hard disk drive A hard disk drive (HDD), hard disk, hard drive, or fixed disk is
an electro-mechanical data storage device that stores and
retrieves digital data using magnetic storage and one or more
rigid rapidly rotating platters coated with magnetic material.
The platters are paired with magnetic heads, usually arranged
on a moving actuator arm, which read and write data to the
platter surfaces. Data is accessed in a random-access
manner, meaning that individual blocks of data can be stored
and retrieved in any order. HDDs are a type of non-volatile
storage, retaining stored data even when powered off.
Modern HDDs are typically in the form of a small rectangular
box.

❖ Ohm’s Law - Voltage, Current, and Resistance

Current, voltage, and resistance is called Ohm’s Law, discovered by Georg Simon Ohm and published in his
1827 paper, The Galvanic Circuit Investigated Mathematically.

❖ Voltage, Current, and Resistance

➢ An electric circuit is formed when a conductive path is created to allow electric charge to continuously
move. This continuous movement of electric charge through the conductors of a circuit is called a
current, and it is often referred to in terms of “flow,” just like the flow of a liquid through a hollow pipe.
➢ The force motivating charge carriers to “flow” in a circuit is called voltage. Voltage is a specific
measure of potential energy that is always relative between two points.
➢ Current tends to move through the conductors with some degree of friction, or opposition to motion.
This opposition to motion is more properly called resistance.
 ➢ The amount of current in a circuit depends on the amount of voltage and the amount of resistance in
the circuit to oppose current flow.

● Units of Measurement: Volt, Amp, and Ohm

To be able to make meaningful statements about these quantities in circuits, we need to be able to describe
their quantities in the same way that we might quantify mass, temperature, volume, length, or any other kind
of physical quantity. For mass, we might use the units of “kilogram” or “gram.”
For temperature, we might use degrees Fahrenheit or degrees Celsius. Here are the standard units of
measurement for electrical current, voltage, and resistance:

● The Ohm’s Law Equation

Ohm’s principal discovery was that the amount of electric current through a metal conductor in a circuit is
directly proportional to the voltage impressed across it, for any given temperature. Ohm expressed his
discovery in the form of a simple equation, describing how voltage, current, and resistance interrelate:

In this algebraic expression, voltage (E) is equal to current (I) multiplied by resistance (R). Using algebra
techniques, we can manipulate this equation into two variations, solving for I and R, respectively:

1.4. Distinguish the characteristics and functions of waves and optics (VILLAGORDA)
 ● Crest is the highest part of a wave
● Wavelength is the distance two crests or two troughs
● Amplitude is the wave's height from the origin to a crest or to a trough
● Trough is the lowest part of a wave
● Frequency is the number of waves that pass a given point in one second

Resources:
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/721561171523288874/
https://www.blendspace.com/lessons/MrPGJK2PUhiY4A/characteristics-of-waves

2. Modern Physics (LAMOC)

2.1. Characterize the basic features of Modern Physics: Planck’s quantum theory and Einstein’s theory of
relativity.

Plank’s Theory
1. Different atoms and molecules can emit or absorb energy in discrete quantities only. The smallest
amount of energy that can be emitted or absorbed in the form of electromagnetic radiation is known
as quantum.
2. The energy of the radiation absorbed or emitted is directly proportional to the frequency of the
radiation.
3. It is named after Max Plank.
Formula: E = h ν
Where,
E = Energy of the radiation
h = Planck’s constant (6.626×10–34 J.s)
ν= Frequency of radiation

Einstein’s Theory of Relativity

General Relativity- the observed gravitational effect between masses results from their warping of
spacetime.
● It is also called the theory of gravity wherein the basic idea is that instead of being an invisible force
that attracts objects to one another, gravity is a curving or warping of space. The more massive an
object, the more it warps the space around it.
Special Relativity-Is an explanation of how speed affects mass, time and space.
Formula: E = mc^2 or E= mass x (speed of light)^2
Where.
E= Amount of energy
m= mass
c= constant speed

2.2. Distinguish between Classical Physics and Modern Physics

Classical Physics- It is mainly concerned with matter and energy.
Main branches of classical physics
● Mechanics is the branch of physics which deals with the motion of an object without or with the
reference of force. Mechanics is divided into two, quantum mechanics and classical mechanics.
Quantum Mechanics deals with the behavior of smallest particles like neutrons, protons, and
electrons, while Classical mechanics is the branch that deals with laws of motion of forces and
physical objects.
● Optics deal with the behavior, propagation, and properties of light. In other terms it is the study of the
behavior of infrared light, visible light, and ultraviolet light.
● Thermodynamics deals with the study of heat and its relation with work and energy. It also deals with
the transmission of heat energy by means of convection, conduction, and radiation.
● Electromagnetism deals with the study of electromagnetic force like electric fields, light, magnetic
fields, etc.
● Relativity states that space and time are relative and all the motion must be relative to a frame of
reference.
● Acoustic deals with the study of sound and its transmission, production, and effects. It mainly deals
with the mechanical waves in gases , liquids, and solids which includes vibration, sound, ultrasound,
and infrasound.

Modern Physics- it deals with the post newtonian concepts. It involves an advanced description of nature
through new theories which were different from the classical descriptions and involves elements of quantum
mechanics and Einsteinian relativity. For instance, quantum effects typically involve distances related to
atoms. On the other hand, relativistic effects typically involve velocities compared to the speed of light.

D. EARTH SCIENCE
1. Meteorology and Astronomy (ABES)
1.1. Explain the interconnections of land, ocean and atmosphere to human life on Earth
● The components of the system: the land, ocean, atmosphere and humans are inextricably
intertwined. Without the atmosphere , earth’s surface would be frozen and life would not not be
possible. Atmosphere does not only contain the oxygen we need to live but it also protects us from
ultraviolet solar radiation and keeps temperature habitable for our living earth. The oceans are the
 atmosphere’s partner in the physical climate system.Oceans help in creating rains and typhoons by
evaporation of ocean to atmosphere. However, land provides vital socioeconomic resources to
humans.

1.2. Illustrate the cycles of water, carbon, rock and other materials that sustain the inhabitants of
planet Earth

The water cycle describes how water evaporates from the atmosphere, cools and condenses into
rain and falls again to the surface as precipitation.

The rock cycle is the process in which rocks are continuously transformed between the three rock
types: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic .
The carbon cycle is nature's way of reusing the carbon atoms which travel from the atmosphere into
organisms in the earth and then back into the atmosphere.

1.3. Demonstrate the characteristics of non – Earth bodies and phenomena such as the sun, moon,
stars, planets, etc.
-Stars can be defined by five basic characteristics : brightness,color, surface temperature,size and
mass.
-The moon is Earth’s only natural satellite. It is a spherical rocky body, probably with a small metallic
core.

- Just like the other stars, the sun is made up mostly of hydrogen and helium.
1.4. Describe the benefits derived from space exploration
- Space exploration thus supports innovation and economic prosperity by stimulating advances in
science and technology.

2. Environmental Science (CAPINIG)

2.1. Illustrate the inter – dependence of living organisms with each other and with their natural
environment.
● All living things depend on their environment to supply them with what they need, including food,
water, and shelter. Their environment consists of physical factors—such as soil, air, and
temperature—and also of other organisms. An organism is an individual living thing. Many living
things interact with other organisms in their environment. In fact, they may need other organisms in
order to survive. This is known as interdependence. For example, living things that cannot make
their own food must eat other organisms for food. Other interactions between living things include
symbiotic relationships and competition for resources.

● It is important to understand the interdependence of organisms, specifically living organisms, within

an ecosystem in order to obtain a clearer understanding of the succession of biological life and
symbiotic relationships.

Individuals live together in populations. Different populations together make up a community. Communities
together with the non-living things in their surroundings make up an ecosystem. All the ecosystems on Earth
make up the biosphere.
2.2. Deliberate the food chain links which show how the organisms are related in utilizing energy and
nutrient
● A food chain shows how energy is transferred from one living organism to another via food. It
is important for us to understand how the food chain works so that we know what are the important
living organisms that make up the food chain and how the ecology is balanced.
● Photosynthesis is only the beginning of the food chain. There are many types of animals that will
eat the products of the photosynthesis process. Examples are deer eating shrub leaves, rabbits
eating carrots, or worms eating grass. When these animals eat these plant products, food energy
and organic compounds are transferred from the plants to the animals.
● A food chain describes how energy and nutrients move through an ecosystem. At the basic
level there are plants that produce the energy, then it moves up to higher-level organisms like
herbivores. After that when carnivores eat the herbivores, energy is transferred from one to the
other.
● In the food chain, energy is transferred from one living organism through another in the form
of food. There are primary producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers and
decomposers- all part of the food chain.
E. SCIENCE INSTRUCTION

1. Methods and Technology for Teaching Science (SAPA)

1.1. Lead in the exploration of challenging activities to motivate interest in science
● Problem-solving skills
- Expert-novice differences
★ Problem classification
★ Metacognition
★ Automaticity
★ Self-efficacy
- Strategies for teaching problem-solving
★ Teach students to classify problems
★ Show the full problem-solving process, including metacognition
★ Use problem chunking and thinking-aloud pair problem solving (TAPPS) to promote
metacognition
★ Use repetition to promote automaticity
★ Use interleaving and overlearning to provide repetition
★ Promote your students’ self-efficacy in the methods and skills you are teaching
- A structure for complex problem solving
★ McMaster Problem-solving Structure (Define, Explore, Plan, Implement, Reflect)
- Problem-based learning (PBL)
★ Powerful, and there is extensive evidence that it promotes long-term retention of
knowledge and a broad range of thinking and problem-solving skills in the subject
being taught.
 ● Professional skills
- Communications
- Creative thinking
- Critical thinking
- Self-directed learning
★ A—Diagnose learning needs.
★ B—Formulate learning goals.
★ C—Identify and assemble learning resources.
★ D—Choose and implement learning strategies.
★ E—Evaluate learning outcomes.
- Project-based learning
- Creating a supportive environment

● Teamwork skills
- Cooperative learning
- Forming teams
- Cooperative learning structures
- Turning groups into high-performance teams
- Dealing difficulties

● Learner-centered teaching revisited

- Aspects of student diversity
★ Demographic diversity
★ Approaches to learning
★ Levels of intellectual development
★ Learning styles
★ Teaching to address diversity
- Inductive teaching and learning
★ Questions or problems provide context for learning.
★ Complex, ill-structured, open-ended real-world problems provide context for learning.
★ Major projects provide context for learning.
★ Case studies provide context for learning.
★ Students discover course content for themselves.
★ Students complete and submit conceptual exercises electronically; instructor adjusts
lessons according to their responses.
★ Primarily self-directed learning
★ Active learning
★ Collaborative and cooperative (team-based) learning
- Learner-centered teaching strategies
★ Engages students in the hard, messy work of learning
★ Motivates and empowers students by giving them some control over their education
★ Encourages collaboration among students
★ Promotes students’ reflection about what and how they are learning
★ Includes explicit skills instruction
★ Clearly conveys a sense of caring about students and their learning
Reference: Felder, Richard M., and Rebecca Brent. Teaching and Learning STEM (A Practical Guide). First ed., San Francisco, Jossey-Bass, 2016.

1.2. Illustrate assessment tools to measure the outcomes of learning in science

● Brainstorming. (Brainstorming elicits responses from a large audience and aggregates them into a
single list. It provides the instructor and students with an overview of the group’s collective
knowledge. By separating the brainstorm list into two or more categories, students evaluate how well
they understand the role of each response in a specific context.)
 ● Case study and decision making. (Cases engage students in solving a problem in a real-life context.
To solve them, students need to evaluate what they know about infectious disease, causal agents,
and antibiotic resistance; apply that knowledge to the case; and determine what additional information
is needed to make a recommendation.)
● “Clicker” questions. (Clicker questions require students to gauge whether they understand a concept
or topic, thereby engaging students in the ensuing activities (e.g., lecture) about that topic.
● Group exams. (Group exams engage students in working collaboratively to identify creative solutions
to a problem. Writing individual answers requires students to evaluate how well they understand the
topic and its underlying concepts.)
● Mini-map. (Mini-maps engage students in developing a non-verbal representation of a concept. The
process of developing a visual arrangement requires students to evaluate different ways that terms
can relate to each other and to appreciate that biological processes may not be unidirectional or
linear.)
● One-minute paper. (One-minute papers engage students in articulating their knowledge about a topic
or applying their knowledge to another situation. By writing their answer in one minute, students need
to evaluate the most important and relevant components of their argument.)
● Pre/post questions. (Pre/post questions can take many forms, including one-minute papers or clicker
questions. They engage students in thinking critically about a specific question or problem. By
comparing pre/post responses, students evaluate whether and why their answers changed during the
class period.)
● Strip sequence. (Strip sequences engage students in recognizing cause and effect and in determining
the logical sequence of events. When students derive their own strip sequence, they need to evaluate
the critical steps in the process.)
● Statement correction. (Statement corrections engage students in evaluating what concepts are
misrepresented and in determining what information they need to correct it.)
SOURCE: From Scientific Teaching by Handelsman, Miller, and Pfund. Copyright © 2007 by W.H. Freeman and Company. Used with permission.

1.3. Identify the uses of technology for effective outcomes in learning

● Overview course content and applications. (Show an online graphic organizer or concept map that
depicts the topics and organization of your course. Include hyperlinks to important applications of
each topic that can stimulate students’ interest in the course.)
● Enable a wide variety of presentation formats. (Show screencasts, photos, videos, and animations of
course-related phenomena and events [ the crystals growing, the bacteria multiplying, the bridge
collapsing, etc.].)
● Facilitate active student engagement. (Use personal response systems to add active engagement to
otherwise traditional lectures. Use system simulations that let students adjust system variables and
observe and interpret responses. Use interactive online tutorials that provide students with
information about methods, practice in applying them, and feedback on their efforts.)
● Enhance student-faculty and student-student interactions. (Create interactive message boards and
threaded discussions. Communicate with students via posted messages, virtual office hours, and
teleconferencing. In online courses, form virtual student groups and learning communities and involve
them in active learning exercises and collaborative assignments and projects.)
● Assess knowledge and skills. (Give and grade quizzes online. These assessments may be formative
(providing students with feedback on what they know and what they need to work on), summative
(counting toward the course grade), or both. Conduct peer assessment, in which students provide
formative feedback on each other’s products and on their performance as team members.)
● Provide adaptive, individualized, self-paced instruction. (Different students have different
backgrounds, interests, strengths, and weaknesses, and therefore different learning needs. An
emerging industry has begun to develop instructional modules that assess students’ needs and adjust
instruction to accommodate those needs (Kolowich, 2013).)
Reference: Felder, Richard M., and Rebecca Brent. Teaching and Learning STEM (A Practical Guide). First
ed., San Francisco, Jossey-Bass, 2016.

1.4. Demonstrate the procedure in improvising materials for basic biotechniques

● May be a replacement for burette when used for filtration
- Disposable syringe. (Medical disposable syringes may be used as a replacement for pipettes
and burettes in a microscale titration. The disposable syringe has a transparent cylinder with
well-read graduation, which is smudge-proof. When using disposable syringes as burette
replacements, liquids must be filled in the syringe without any air bubbles. For this purpose,
first some liquid is taken up with the syringe and then abruptly forced out again. If this process
is repeated several times, the bubble-free filling of the syringe can be managed. Slow
charging and discharging is possible with these syringes.
● Can serve as alternative for petri dishes and spot plates
- Tin, Plastic cup, Empty pill package, container of cosmetic product. (Empty package material,
which is produced in many households as waste products, can also be used as reaction
chambers for chemical and physical experiments. For instance, the use of empty pill
packages, glass, tin cans, plastic cups or containers of cosmetic products are very well suited.
These empty pill packages also have the same benefits as the multiwell plates. Once the
aluminum foil is removed from the drug packages, all the experiments, which can be
conducted in spot plates, can also be conducted in an empty pill package. If a larger capacity
than the capacity provided by the empty drug package is required, glass (e.g., cleaned jam or
honey jar), or plastic cups can alternatively be used as reaction vessels.)
● Can serve as substitute for test tube rack
- A wide glass jar can be used if a single test tube will stand upright with enough tube above the
jar so that you can grab it easily with your holder, and still not spill.
● Can serve as substitute for test tube clamp and stand
- Anything which will hold a tube tightly so that the bottom of the tube clears your heat source.
● Can serve as substitute for test tube holder
- Make a holder out of heavy wire (like a coat hanger). Be sure whatever you use holds the test
tube firmly and will not melt in heat. You will need to use it when heating chemicals in the test
tube over a flame.
● Can serve as alternative for 50 and 200 ml beakers
- Canning jars or Pyrex which can be safely heated on a hot plate; calibrate in convenient units
and mark. Baby food jars are good for 50-100 ml.

Reference: Corpuz, Brenda B. LET Comprehensive Reviewer Based on the NCBTS and Table of Specifications (TOS): Specialization Biological
Science. Lorimar Publishing Incorporated, 2018.

2. Research (GUEVARA)
2.1. Manifest familiarity with the basic investigative research in science

● Scientific investigation
○ Asking a Question
○ Forming a Hypothesis
○ Testing the Hypothesis
○ Drawing Conclusions
○ Communicating Results
 ● Steps of the Scientific Method
1) Describe what it means to "Ask a Question."
2) Describe what it means to "Construct a Hypothesis."
3) How does a scientist conduct a fair test?
4) What does a scientist do if the hypothesis is not supported?
● General format of a research paper
○ Chapter 1: Problem & its background
■ Introduction
■ Conceptual and/or theoretical framework
■ Statement of the problems
■ Research hypothesis
■ Significance of the study
■ Scope and delimitation
■ Definition of Terms
○ Chapter 2: Review of related literature and studies
■ Related Literature (Local and Foreign)
■ Related Studies (Local and Foreign)
○ Chapter 3: Methodology
■ Research design
■ Material development
■ Research locale and participants
■ Research instruments
■ Research procedure and ethics
■ Statistical tools and data analysis
○ Chapter 4: Results and discussion
○ Chapter 5: Summary, conclusion and recommendation
■ Summary of the study
■ Summary of findings
■ Conclusions
■ Recommendations

Resources:
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_Introductory_Biology_(CK-12)/01%3A_Introduction_to_Biology/1.
01%3A_Scientific_Investigation
[Lawsin, N. (2021). Research Writing: Designs, Tools, Analysis, and Reports. Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Muntinlupa]
2.2 Demonstrate proficiency in interpreting graphical presentations of data and conclusions drawn
from inferential analysis of results

● Inferential Analysis - Collects data from a sample and draws conclusions about the population and
from the sample
● Types of inferential analysis tests

Linear regression analysis: used to

understand the relationship between two
variables (X and Y) in a data set as a way to
estimate the unknown variable to make
future projections on events and goals.

Correlation analysis: used to understand

the extent to which two variables are
dependent on one another. This analysis
essentially tests the strength of the
relationship between two variables, and if
their correlation is strong or weak.

Analysis of variance (ANOVA): used to One-way: Only one independent variable

test and analyze the differences between with two levels. An example would be a
two or more means from a data set. This is brand of peanut butter. Two-way: Two
done by examining the amount of variation independent variables that can have multiple
between the samples. levels. An example would be a brand of
peanut butter and the calories.

Chi-square test (x2 test): used to identify Questions that the chi-square test could
the difference between groups when all of answer might be:
the variables are nominal (also known as, a ● Are education level and marital
variable with values that don’t have a status related for all people in the
numerical value), like gender, salary gap, United States?
political affiliation, and so on. ● Is there a relationship between voter
intent and political party
membership?
● Does gender affect which holiday
people favor?

Data Analysis
1. Descriptive Statistics = “to describe the sample or population”
 ❖ Common Questions, “What is the level…?”, “How can the sample be described in terms of
their academic performance?”
❖ Frequency, percentages, mean (scores are normally distributed), median (scores are
skewed).’
❖ It can be presented through graphs to see the trends of data.

2. Inferential Statistics = “to infer conclusions based on the selected samples”

❖ Common Question, “Is there a significant difference…?” “Is there a significant relationship
between …?”
❖ Significant differences: (Normal Distribution = homogeneity of variance, normally distributed
scores or normal)
➢ Normal Distribution
■ Nominal Data = Chi-square test of distribution; Ordinal = Kendall’s Tau, Interval
Ratio = T-test (2 groups); F-test (3 or more)

➢ Skewed Distribution
■ Interval-Ratio = Kruskall-Wallis (2 groups); Welch F-test (3 or more)

★ F-test is a statistical tool; ANOVA or Analysis of Variance is a statistical procedure.

★ p-value; commonly p=0.05 level of significance; 95% confidence interval.
★ p=0.001; 99.9%
★ p>0.05 - not statistically significant. E.g p=0.07; 93% confidence interval

❖ Significant relationship:
➢ By pair of variables (A vs B) or if you have 3 variables (A vs B), (B vs C), and (A vs C)
➢ Nominal = chi-square test of independence; Ordinal = Spearman Rank Order
Correlation Coefficient or Spearman rho; Interval-Ratio = Pearson Product Moment
Correlation Coefficient or Pearson R.

★ p-value; commonly p=0.05 level of significance; 95% confidence interval.

★ p=0.001; 99.9%
★ p>0.05 - not statistically significant. E.g p=0.07; 93% confidence interval
 Resources: https://learn.g2.com/inferential-analysis#correlation

REFERENCES
● R.A. 7836: Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act, s. 1994, Sec. 14. Scope of Examination: The examination for the elementary and
secondary school teachers shall be separate. The examination in the elementary level shall consist of two (2) parts, namely: professional
education and general education. The examination for teachers in the secondary level shall consist of three (3) parts, namely: professional
education, general education, and field of specialization CHED Memorandum OrderNo. 75, s. 2017: Policies, Standards and Guidelines for
Bachelor of Secondary Education (BSEd)
● DepEd Order No. 42, s. 2017: National Adoption and Implementation of the Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers (PPST) by
integrating the 7 Domains of Quality Teaching
● R.A. 10968: The Philippine Qualifications Framework (PQF) Act of 2018