i

Measurement Errors & Experiments

MEASUREMENT ERRORS AND EXPERIMENTS

——————————————————————————————————— 
1. ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
To get some overview of error, least count and significant figures, lets consider the example given
below. Suppose we have to measure the length of a rod. How can we!
(a) Lets use a cm scale: (a scale on which only cm marks are there)
We will measure length = 4 cm
Although the length will be a bit more than 4, but we cannot
say its length to be 4.1 cm or 4.2 cm, as the scale can
measure upto cm only, not closer than that.
* It (this scale) can measure upto cm accuracy only.
* so we’ll say that its least count is 1 cm

(b) Lets use an mm scale : (a scale on which mm marks are there)

We will measure length ""= 4.2 cm, which is a more closer measurement. Here also if we observe
closely, we’ll find that the length is a bit more than 4.2, but we cannot say its length to be 4.21, or
4.22, or 4.20 as this scale can measure upto 0.1 cms (1 mm) only, not closer than that.
* It (this scale) can measure upto 0.1 cm accuracy
Its least count is 0.1 cm
Max uncertainty in ""can be = 0.1cm
Max possible error in "" can be = 0.1cm
Measurement of length = 4.2 cm. has two significant figures ; 4 and 2, in which 4 is absolutely
correct, and 2 is reasonably correct (Doubtful) because uncertainty of 0.1 cm is there.

(c) We can use Vernier callipers : ( which can measure more closely , upto 0.01 cm )
Then we’ll measure length "" = 4.23 cm which is more closer measurement.
* It can measure upto 0.01 cm accuracy
Least count = 0.01 cm Max uncertainty in "" can be = 0.01cm
Max possible error in "" can be = 0.01cm
Measurement of length = 4.23 cm. has three significant figures ; 4 , 2 and 3, in which 4 and 2 are
absolutely correct , and 3 is reasonable correct (Doubtful) because uncertainty of 0.01 cm is there.
To get further more closer measurement :-
(d) We can use Screw Gauge : ( which can measure more closely , upto 0.001 cm )
we’ll measure length = 4.234 cm.
* Max possible uncertainty (error) in can be = 0.001 cm
* length = 4.234 cm. has four significant figures ; 4, 2, 3 and 4.
I I I I
absolutely absolutely absolutely Reasonably
correct correct correct correct
To get further more closer measurement
(e) We can Use microscope :
we’ll measure length = 4.2342 cm.
* Max possible uncertainty (error) in can be = 0.0001cm
* length = 4.2342cm. has five significant figures ; 4, 2, 3, 4 and 2

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Measurement Errors & Experiments
2. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
From the above example, we can conclude that, in a measured quantity,
Significant figures are = Figures which are absolutely correct + The first uncertain figure
2.1 Common rules of counting significant figures :
Rule 1 : All non-zero digits are significant
e.i. 123.56 has five S.F.
Rule 2 : All zeros occurring between two non-zeros digits are significant (obviously)
e.i. 1230.05 has six S.F.
Rule 3 :

So trailing zeroes after decimal place are significant (Shows the further accuracy)

Once a measurement is done, significant figures will be decided according to closeness of

measurement. Now if we want to display the measurement in some different units, the S.F. shouldn’t
change (S.F. depends only on accuracy of measurement)
Number of S.F. is always conserved, change of units cannot change S.F.
Suppose measurement was done using mm scale, and we get  = 85 mm (Two S. F.)
If we want to display it in other units.
85 mm 8.5 cm 0.085 m

85000 mm 0.000085 km
–5
= 8.5 × 104 mm = 8.5 × 10 km
All should have two S.F.
The following rules support the conservation of S.F.
Rule 4: From the previous example, we have seen that,
0.000085 km also should has two S.F.; 8 and 5, So leading Zeros are not significant.

Not significant
In the number less than one, all zeros after decimal point and to the left of first non-zero digit
are insignificant (arises only due to change of unit )
0.000305  has three S.F.
 3.05 × 10–4 has three S.F.
Rule 5 : From the previous example, we have also seen that
85000 m should also has two S.F. , 8 and 5. So the trailing zeros are also not significant.

Not significant

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Measurement Errors & Experiments
The terminal or trailing zeros in a number without a decimal point are not significant. (Also
arises only due to change of unit)
154 m = 15400 cm = 15400 mm = 154 × 109 nm
all has only three S.F. all trailing zeros are insignificant
Rule 6 : There are certain measurement, which are exact i.e.

Number of apples are = 12 (exactly) = 12.000000........... 

This type of measurement is infinitely accurate so, it has  S.F.
* Numbers of students in class = 125 (exact)
* Speed of light in the vacuum = 299,792,458 m/s (exact)

Example 1. Count total number of S.F. in 3.0800

Solution : S.F. = Five , as trailing zeros after decimal place are significant.
Example 2. Count total number of S.F. in 0.00418
Solution : S.F. = Three, as leading zeros are not significant.

Example 3. Count total number of S.F. in 3500

Solution : S.F. = Two, the trailing zeros are not significant.
Example 4. Count total number of S.F. in 300.00
Solution : S.F. = Five, trailing zeros after decimal point are significant.
Example 5. Count total number of S.F. in 5.003020
Solution : S.F. = Seven, the trailing zeros after decimal place are significant.
Example 6. Count total number of S.F. in 6.020 × 1023
Solution : S.F. = Four ; 6, 0, 2, 0 ; remaining 23 zeros are not significant.

Example 7. Count total number of S.F. in 1.60 × 10–19

Solution : S.F. = Three ; 1, 6, 0 ; remaining 19 zeros are not significant.

———————————————————————————————————
2.2 Operations according to significant figures:
Now lets see how to do arithmetic operations ie. addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division according to significant figures
(a) Addition  subtraction
For this, lets consider the example given below. In a simple
pendulum, length of the thread is measured (from mm
 = 75.4 cm
scale) as 75.4 cm. and the radius of the bob is measured = 75.4? cm
(from vernier) as 2.53 cm.
Find eq =  + r
r = 2.53 cm
is known upto 0.1 cm (first decimal place) only. We don’t
know what is at the next decimal place. So we can write
 =75.4 cm = 75.4? cm and the radius r = 2.53 cm.
If we add and r, we don’t know which number will be added with 3. So we have to leave that
position.
  eq = 75.4? + 2.53 = 77.9? cm = 77.9 cm

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Measurement Errors & Experiments
Rules for Addition  subtraction : (based on the previous example)
* First do the addition/subtraction in normal manner.
* Then round off all quantities to the decimal place of least accurate quantity.

423 5
i.e. 20 25

Rules for Multiply  Division

Suppose we have to multiply
O
2.11 x 1.2 = 2.11 ? x 1.2 ?
ut
37
2 . 11 ?
x 1.2 ?
? ??? Leastnd uu
4 2 2?x
211 ?x x peace
2.5 ? ? ? ? = 2.5
So answer will come in least significant figures out of the two numbers.
 Multiply divide in normal manner. 2 IT
 Round off the answer to the weakest link (number having least S.F.)

I I 2
2 l TO
Example 8. A cube has a side  = 1.2 × 10–2 m. Calculate its volume
Solution :  = 1.2 × 10–2
2 5 3 I
V = 3 = (1.2 × 10–2) (1.2 × 10–2) (1.2 × 10–2)

2.5g
Two S.F. Two S.F. Two S.F.
= 1.728 × 10–6 m3

Round off to 2 S.F.

= 1.7 × 10–6 m3 Ans.

Least
significant
Rules of Rounding off
 If removable digit is less than 5 (50%) ; drop it.
Round off
figures
47.833 47.8
till one decimal place
 If removable digit is greater than 5(50%), increase the last digit by 1.
Round off
47.862 47.9
till one decimal place

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Measurement Errors & Experiments

Example 9. In ohm’s law exp., reading of voltmeter across the resistor is 12.5 V and reading of current
i = 0.20 Amp. Estimate the resistance in correct S.F.
V 12.5 3 SF
R= = = 62.5  62 
Solution : i 0.20 2 SF round off
to 2 S.F.

Example 10. Using screw gauge radius of wire was found to be 2.50 mm. The length of wire found by mm.
scale is 50.0 cm. If mass of wire was measured as 25 gm, the density of the wire in correct S.F.
will be (use = 3.14 exactly)

m
Solution : = = = 2.5465
r 2

———————————————————————————————————
3. LEAST COUNT
We have studied (from page 1) that no measurement is perfect. Every instrument can measure upto a
certain accuracy; called least count.

4. PERMISSIBLE ERROR
Error in measurement due to the limitation (least count) of the instrument, is called permissible error.
From mm scale  we can measure upto 1 mm accuracy (least count = 1mm). From this we will get
measurement like  = 34 mm

Max uncertainty can be 1 mm.

i
Max permissible error () = 1 mm.
But if from any other instrument, we get  = 34.5 mm then max permissible error () = 0.1 mm
and if from a more accurate instrument, we get  = 34.527 mm then max permissible error () = 0.001 mm
= place value of last number
Max permissible error in a measured quantity = least count of the measuring instrument and if
nothing is given about least count then Max permissible error = place value of the last number

5. MAX. PERMISSIBLE ERROR IN RESULT DUE TO ERROR IN EACH

MEASURABLE QUANTITY :
Let Result f(x, y) contains two measurable quantity x and y
Let error in x = ± x i.e. x  (x – x, x + x)
error in y = ± y i.e. y  (y – y, y + y)
Case - () : If f(x, y) = x + y
df = dx + dy
error in f = f = ± x ± y
max possible error in f = (f)max = max of (± x ± y)
(f)max = x + y

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Measurement Errors & Experiments
Case - () : If f = x – y
df = dx – dy
(f) = ± x  y
max possible error in f = (f)max = max of (± x  y)
 (f)max = x + y
For getting maximum permissible error, sign should be adjusted, so that errors get
added up to give maximum effect
i.e. f = 2x – 3y - z
(f)max = 2x + 3y + z

Example 11. In resonance tube exp. we find 1 = 25.0 cm and 2 = 75.0 cm. The least count of of the scale
used to measure  is 0.1 cm. If there is no error in frequency. What will be max permissible
error in speed of sound (take f0 = 325 Hz.)
Solution : V = 2f0 (2 – 1)
(dV) = 2f0 (d2 – d1)
(V)max = max of [2f0(± 2  2] = 2f0 (2 + 1)
1 = least count of the scale = 0.1 cm
2 = least count of the scale = 0.1 cm
So max permissible error in speed of sound (V)max = 2(325Hz) (0.1 cm + 0.1 cm) = 1.3 m/s
Value of V = 2f0 (2 – 1) = 2(325Hz) (75.0 cm - 25.0 cm) = 325 m/s
so V = ( 325 ± 1.3 ) m/s
———————————————————————————————————
Case-() : If f(x, y, z) = (constant) xaybzc to scatter all the terms, Lets take log on both sides
n f = n(constant) + a n x + b n y + c n z
Differentiating both sides
df dx dy dz
=0+a +b +c
f x y z
f x y z
=±a ±b ±c
f x y z
 f  x y z
 f  = max of (± a ±b ±c )
 max x y z
i.e. f = 15 x2 y–3/2 z–5
df dx 3 dy dz
=0+2 – –5
f x 2 y z
f x 3 y z
=±2  5
f x 2 y z
 f  x 3 y z
 f  = max of (± 2  5 )
 max x 2 y z
 f  x 3 y z
 f  =2 + +5
 max x 2 y z
 sign should be adjusted, so that errors get added up

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Measurement Errors & Experiments

Example 12. If measured value of resistance R = 1.05 , wire diameter d = 0.60 mm, and length  = 75.3 cm.
If maximum error in resistance measurment is 0.01  and least count of diameter and length
measuring device are 0.01 mm and 0.1 cm respectively, then find max. permissible error in
 d2 
R
 4 
resistivity =  

   R d 
Solution :   = +2 +
  max R d
R = 0.01 
d = 0.01 mm (least count)
 = 0.1 cm (least count)
    0.01  0.01mm 0.1cm 
  =  1.05  + 2 0.60mm + 75.3cm  × 100 = 4.3 %.
  max  

Example 13. In ohm’s law experiment, potential drop across a resistance was measured as v = 5.0 volt and
current was measured as i = 2.0 amp. If least count of the voltmeter and ammeter are 0.1 V
and 0.01A respectively then find the maximum permissible error in resistance.
v
Solution : R= = v × i–1
i
 R  v i
 R  = +
 max v i

v = 0.1 volt (least count)

i = 0.01 amp (least count)

 R   0.1 0.01 
%   =    × 100 % = 2.5 %
 R max  5.0 2.00 

Example 14. In Searle’s exp to find Young’s modulus, the diameter of wire is measured as D = 0.050 cm,
length of wire is L = 125 cm, and when a weight, m = 20.0 kg is put, extension in the length of
the wire was found to be 0.100 cm. Find maximum permissible error in young’s modulus (Y).
mg x mg
Solution : =Y( )  Y=
d2 / 4 ( / 4) d2 x

 Y  m  d x
 Y  = + +2 +
 max m d x

here no information of least count is given so maximum permissible error in  = place value of
last number.
m = 20.0 kg  m = 0.1 kg (place value of last number)
 = 125 cm   = 1 cm (place value of last number)

d = 0.050 cm  d = 0.001 cm (place value of last number)

x = 0.100 cm  x = 0.001 cm (place value of last number)

 Y   0.1kg 1cm 0.001cm 0.001cm 

 Y  =    2   100% = 6.3%
 max  20.0kg 125cm 0.05cm 0.100cm 
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 Measurement Errors & Experiments
Example 15. To find the value of ‘g’ using simple pendulum T = 2.00 sec; = 1.00 m was measured.
2
Estimate maximum permissible error in ‘g’. Also find the value of ‘g’. (Use  = 10)
42
Solution : T = 2  g=
g T2
 g   T  0.01 0.01 

g
 = +2
T
=  1.00  2 2.00  × 100 % = 2 %
 max  
42 4  10  1.00
value of g = = = 10.0 m/s2
T 2
(2.00) 2
 g  gmax 2
  = 2/100 so  so (g)max = 0.2 = max error in ‘g’
 g max 10.0 100
so ‘g’ = (10.0 ± 0.2 ) m/s2

———————————————————————————————————
OTHER TYPES OF ERRORS :
1. Error due to external Causes :
These are the errors which arise due to reasons beyond the control of the experimentalist, e.g., change
in room temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, variation of the acclectrion due to gravity etc. A
suitable correction can, however, be applied for these errors if the factors affecting the result are also
recorded.
2. Instrumental errors :
Every instrument, however cautiously manufactured, possesses imperfection to some eaxtent. As a
result of this imperfection, the measurements with the instrument cannot be free from errors. Errors,
however small, do occur owing to the inherent manufacturing defects in the measuring instruments are
called instrumental errors. These errors are of constant magnitude and suitable corrections can be
applied for these errors. e.i.. Zero errors in vernier callipers, and screw gauge, backlash errors in screw
gauge etc
3. Personal or chance error :
Two observers using the same experiment set up, do not obtain exactly the same result. Even the
observations of a single experimentalist differ when it is repeated several times by him or her. Such
errors always occur inspire of the best and honest efforts on the part of the experimentalist and are
known as personal errors. These errors are also called chance errors as they depend upon chance.
The effect of the chance error on the result can be considerably reduced by taking a large number of
observations and then taking their mean. How to take mean, is described in next point.
4. Errors in averaging :
Suppose to measure some quantity, we take several observations, a1, a2, a3…. an .To find the
absolute error in each measurement and percentage error , we have to follow these steps
(a) First of all mean of all the observations is calculated : a mean= (a1+ a2 +a3 +…+ an) / n. The mean of
these values is taken as the best possible value of the quantity under the given conditions of
measurements..
(b) Absolute Error : The magnitude of the difference between the best possible or mean value of the
quantity and the individual measurement value is called the absolute error of the measurement.
The absolute error in an individual measured value is:
  an = | amean  an |
The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is taken as the final or mean absolute error.
   amean = (|a1| + |a2| + |a3|+...........+|an|)/n
 n 
   
amean =  | ai |  n
i  1 
 
we can say amean  amean  a  amean + amean
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Measurement Errors & Experiments
(c) Relative and Percentage Error i
Relative error is the ratio of the mean absolute error and arithmetic mean.
amean
Relative error =
amean
When the relative error is expressed in percent, it is called the percentage error.
amean
Thus, Percentage error = × 100%
amean

Example 16. In some observations, value of ‘g’ are coming as 9.81, 9.80, 9.82, 9.79, 9.78, 9.84, 9.79, 9.78,
9.79 and 9.80 m/s2. Calculate absolute errors and percentage error in g.
Solution :
S.N. Value of g Absolute error g = |gi – g |
1 9.81 0.01
2 9.80 0.00
3 9.82 0.02
4 9.79 0.01
5 9.78 0.02
6 9.84 0.04
7 9.79 0.01
8 9.78 0.02
9 9.79 0.01
10 9.80 0.00

gmean =  gi
10
gmean = 9.80
0.14
= = 0.014
10
gmean 0.014
percentage error =  100 = × 100 % = 0.14 %
gmean 9.80
so ‘g’ = ( 9.80 ± 0.014 ) m/s2
———————————————————————————————————
EXPERIMENT - 1
Screw gauge (Micrometer)

sm

7mm thattoo
II
 1 mm 
7 47 mm

Screw gauge is used to measure closely upto   . How can it divide 1 mm in 100 parts !
 100 
To divide 1 mm in 100 parts, a screw is used. In one rotation, the screw (spindle) moves forward by
1 mm. (Called pitch of the screw)
The rotation of the screw (spindle) is divided in 100 parts (called circular scale), hence 1 mm is divided
in 100 parts

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