Chapter 6 Student
Chapter 6 Student
Goals of networking
improve productivity, foster communication, control costs, and make
information access faster and easier
to achieve these goals, the network needs certain attributes :
Simple, Manageable, Adaptable, Reliable, Transparent
Benefits of Networking
Sharing Input, Output, Storage Devices
Sharing Modems and Internet Connections
Security
Sharing Data and Applications
Reduced Expenditure
B. TYPES OF NETWORKS
C. NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
A topology (from Greek topos meaning place) is a description of any kind of locality in terms of its
layout. In communication networks, a topology is a usually schematic description of the arrangement of a
network, including its nodes and connecting lines. There are two ways of defining network geometry: the
logical (or signal) topology and physical topology.
2. Physical Topologies
The physical topology of a network often differs from the logical topology. It describe the actual
physical layout of the network.
The following physical topologies are :
a) Bus Topology
o The bus is the simplest topology
o A physical bus topology uses a single length of cable that runs from one end of the network to
the other.
o Users are connected to the central cable by segments of cable.
Advantages
o relatively low cost, since there is a minimal amount of cabling needed and easy to set up.
Disadvantages
o requires termination at each end of the cable
o failure to terminate both ends of the cable results in signal bounce, which can disrupt or
prevent communications on the network
o one end of a bus should be grounded
o troubleshooting a bus topology can be very difficult
o if the cable breaks or fails, none of the devices located along the cable will be able to
communicate.
2. Star Topology
NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 3 of 23
Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: IM-ITECC1-1S-2020-2021
o connects all cables to a central point called “point of concentration” (such as hub or switch)
Advantages
o most popular choice, particularly for small to medium sized networks
o it is easy to design and install, and it is also scalable
o the entire network will not fail if one cable does. If a cable fails, only the device at the end of that
cable is affected. The remainder of the network continues working
o easy to diagnose problems since the fault can be quickly identified.
Disadvantage
o its reliance on the central device such as a hub, switch, or router. If this device fails, the entire
network is affected
4. Hierarchical Topology
o imposes order on the network by grouping hosts based on their physical location on the network
o this is typical of many telephone networks, where groups of extensions map to floors of
buildings, departments, or rank of personnel.
Disadvantage
o that if one cable fails, it can affect all the hosts that use it to access other parts of the network
D. TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Two types
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) – containing no shielding, it is less expensive but more
susceptible to signal noise.
Shielded twisted pair (STP) – wire pairs are coated with a foil shield, which reduces signal
noise that might interfere with data transmission.
Coaxial Cable – commonly known as “coax”, is a high-capacity communications cable consisting of
copper wire conductor, a non con-conducting insulator, a foil shield, a woven metal outer shielding,
and a plastic outer coating. Although it has excellent bandwidth, it is less durable, more expensive
and more difficult to work with than twisted-pair cable
Fiber – Optic Cable – a bundle of extremely thin tubes of glass, Each tube is called optical fiber, is
much thinner than human hair. It is technologically advanced as compared to the twisted-pair wire
and coaxial cable. Instead of transmitting frequencies, a fiber optic transmits pulsating beams of
light. It can carry a greater volume of data because light travels faster than electricity. It is also
immune from electromagnetic interference which is a problem for copper-based mediums.
Two types
Single-mode – has a narrow core, usually less than 10 microns. Light travels a single path
resulting to transmission speed that can exceed 50 gigabytes per second.
Multi-mode – has relatively wide, 50 to 100 micron core. This width gives a light beam room
to bounce around, causing signal distortion and reducing bandwidth. It is easier to install,
and new technologies keep increasing its transmission speed, making it the optical cable of
choice for most computer networks.
2. Wireless Transmission Media – generally slower than cables and susceptible to signal interference,
eavesdropping and jamming.
Radio Waves – provide wireless transmission for mobile communications, such as cellular telephones,
and for stationary communications where it is difficult or impossible to install cabling, such as remote,
geographically rugged regions.
Infrared Transmission – use frequency range just below the visible light spectrum to transport data.
Broadband Radio – it distributes radio signals through the air over long distances such as between
cities, regions, and countries and short distances such as within an office or home.
Cellular Radio – form of broadcast radio that is used widely for mobile communications, specifically
wireless modems and cellular telephones.
Microwave – an electromagnetic wave with a frequency of at least 1 gigahertz. Microwave
transmission sends a high-frequency signal from a transmitting station to a receiving station. Distance
must not be 25 to 30 miles apart because at farther distances, the curve of the earth blocks the line-of-
sight transmission path.
Satellites – must receive and transmit via line-of-sight but high altitudes overcomes the limitations of
microwave data relay stations.
Three types of orbits
E. INTERNET
Definition:
is a set of computers, ocean, place of fun, entertainment, reunion of families, to do research, commercial
opportunity, support group, gold mine, hundreds of libraries, technology of the future. It is a collection of
computers, World’s largest computer networks or network of networks it is a world-wide collection of
computer networks
sometimes called simply "the Net," is a worldwide system of computer networks - a network of networks in
which users at any one computer can, if they have permission, get information from any other computer
it is the world’s largest computer network, the networks scattered all over the word
individuals and organizations on a network connected to the Internet can communicate with and find
information on other computer networks that are also connected to the Internet
In 1992 the Philippines had one of the lowest levels of telephone penetration in Asia: slightly
more than 1 per 100 inhabitants. By 1995 there were about 60 telephone companies, but most were
operating only in urban areas and the long-distance traffic was controlled by a single company, the
Philippine Long-Distance Telephone Company. In 1995 a new telecommunications policy act was
passed which, although still favoring the dominant carrier, acted to both deregulate
telecommunications and increase coverage in more rural areas. One result was an increase in the
number of phone lines to almost 4 per 100 inhabitants by the end of 1999. However, the cost of a
NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 7 of 23
Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: IM-ITECC1-1S-2020-2021
phone call to the United States is more than 120 times the cost of a flat rate local call. In June 1999
the Philippine League for Democratic Telecommunications called for a boycott of both local and
long-distance telephone services to protest the high rates being charged and the threat of incipient
call metering.
In the Philippines the Internet is growing. Although there are almost 100 Internet Service
Providers in the Philippines, most of them have connections through backbones located in the
United States. Internet dial-up connection charges are approximately 2 dollars hourly (or 33 dollars
for up to 60 hours monthly). This fee is approximately 80% higher than similar charges in the United
States. Since GNP per capita in the Philippines is only 12% of that in the United States, it is clear
that access to the e-world is currently limited to the wealthier citizens and companies. In 2000
Internet users were approximately 2,000,000. In 2003 this number had
increased to 3,500,000 Internet surfers.
According to the research group BSBC Hook UAI, there were 1,925,649 Internet users in 2004
in Metro Manila belonging to the A, B and C classes, ages ranging from 13 to 30 years old, as
compared to 1,885,465 in 2002, indicating a 21.3-percent increase.
The Internet café has been the growth driver of online gaming with a 38-percent share from
January to June 2004, with Metro Manila registering the highest share with 41 percent, followed by
Central Luzon with 17 percent. Since the Philippines has a low personal computer (PC) penetration
rate estimated at less than 10 percent of the total population, the Internet café has provided access
to online gaming and the Web to many Filipinos.
3. Cable Internet Service - means of distributing always-on broadband Internet access over the
same infrastructure that offers cable television service.
4. Satellite Internet Service - means of distributing
always-on, high speed asymmetric Internet access
by broadcasting signals to and from a personal
satellite dish.
5. WIMAX – Worldwide Interoperability for
Microwave Access - an Ethernet- compatible
network standard designated as IEEE 802.16.
Its popularity is growing because it offers an
alternative to wired technologies, such as DSL and cable Internet service.
Download speed (max.) 56 Kbps 384 Kbps-6 5-50 Mbps 1-1.5 Mbps 70 Mbps
Upload speed (max) 33 Kbps 128 Kbps- 256 Kbps-10 Kbps 100-256-Kbps 70 Mbps
Download speed
44 Kbps 2-5 Mbps 3-10 Mbps 400-800 Kbps 70 Mbps
(actual)
Monthly Fee $ $$ $$ $$
Installation cost $0 $ $ $$
Always-on N Y Y Y
F. INTERNET PROTOCOLS
INTERNET ADDRESSES
MAC Address - Media Access Control
Unique number assigned to a network interface card when it is manufactured.
Used for some low-level network functions and an also be employed to establish network security
the Domain name System makes easier to remember an address based on a user and
company name, rather than a series of numbers
A domain name, such as travelocity.com, must be converted into an IP address before
packets can be routed to it.
Example:
Example of country-codes
IP Address - 128.105.232.1
Domain name - http.nvsu.edu.ph Code Country
.ph Philippines
TOP LEVEL DOMAIN NAMES .fr France
.de Germany
.it Lithuania
.au Australia
.mx Mexico
E-mail Addresses
An email address is made up of:
G. IPv4 OVERVIEW
Below is a brief description of the components involved in computer network:
Hosts − Hosts are said to be situated at ultimate end of the network, i.e. a host is a source of
information and another host will be the destination. Information flows end to end between hosts. A
host can be a user’s PC, an internet Server, a database server etc.
Media − If wired, then it can be copper cable, fiber optic cable, and coaxial cable. If wireless, it can be
free-to-air radio frequency or some special wireless band. Wireless frequencies can be used to
interconnect remote sites too.
Hub − A hub is a multiport repeater and it is used to connect hosts in a LAN segment. Because of low
throughputs hubs are now rarely used. Hub works on Layer-1 (Physical Layer) of OSI Model.
Switch − A Switch is a multiport bridge and is used to connect hosts in a LAN segment. Switches are
much faster than Hubs and operate on wire speed. Switch works on Layer-2 (Data Link Layer), but
Layer-3 (Network Layer) switches are also available.
Router − A router is Layer-3 (Network Layer) device which makes routing decisions for the
data/information sent for some remote destination. Routers make the core of any interconnected
network and the Internet.
Gateways − A software or combination of software and hardware put together, works for exchanging
data among networks which are using different protocols for sharing data.
NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 14 of 23
Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: IM-ITECC1-1S-2020-2021
Firewall − Software or combination of software and hardware, used to protect users data from
unintended recipients on the network/internet.
Host Addressing
Communication between hosts can happen only if they can identify each other on the network. In a single
collision domain (where every packet sent on the segment by one host is heard by every other host) hosts
can communicate directly via MAC address.
MAC address is a factory coded 48-bits hardware address which can also uniquely identify a host. But if a
host wants to communicate with a remote host, i.e. not in the same segment or logically not connected, then
some means of addressing is required to identify the remote host uniquely. A logical address is given to all
hosts connected to Internet and this logical address is called Internet Protocol Address.
IPv4 – Addressing
IPv4 supports three different types of addressing modes. −
Unicast Addressing Mode
In this mode, data is sent only to one destined host. The Destination
Address field contains 32- bit IP address of the destination host. Here
the client sends data to the targeted server −
When calculating hosts' IP addresses, 2 IP addresses are decreased because they cannot be assigned to
hosts, i.e. the first IP of a network is network number and the last IP is reserved for Broadcast IP.
Class A Address
The first bit of the first octet is always set to 0 (zero). Thus the first octet ranges from 1 – 127, i.e.
Class A addresses only include IP starting from 1.x.x.x to
126.x.x.x only. The IP range 127.x.x.x is reserved for
loopback IP addresses.
The default subnet mask for Class A IP address is 255.0.0.0 which implies that Class A addressing can
have 126 networks (27-2) and 16777214 hosts (224-2).
Class A IP address format is thus: 0NNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH
Class B Address
An IP address which belongs to class B has the first two bits in the first octet set to 10, i.e.
Class B IP Addresses range from 128.0.x.x to 191.255.x.x. The
default subnet mask for Class B is 255.255.x.x.
Class B has 16384 (214) Network addresses and 65534 (216-2) Host
addresses.
Class B IP address format is: 10NNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH
Class C Address
The first octet of Class C IP address has its first 3 bits set to 110, that is −
Class C IP addresses range from 192.0.0.x to 223.255.255.x. The
default subnet mask for Class C is 255.255.255.x.
Class C gives 2097152 (221) Network addresses and 254 (28-2) Host addresses.
Class C IP address format is: 110NNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH
Class D Address
Very first four bits of the first octet in Class D IP addresses are set to 1110, giving a range of −
NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 18 of 23
Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: IM-ITECC1-1S-2020-2021
Class D has IP address range from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255.
Class D is reserved for Multicasting. In multicasting data is not
destined for a particular host, that is why there is no need to extract host address from the IP address,
and Class D does not have any subnet mask.
Class E Address
This IP Class is reserved for experimental purposes only for R&D or Study. IP addresses in this class
ranges from 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.254. Like Class D, this class too is not equipped with any subnet
mask.
IPv4 - Subnetting
Each IP class is equipped with its own default subnet mask which bounds that IP class to have prefixed
number of Networks and prefixed number of Hosts per network. Classful IP addressing does not provide any
flexibility of having less number of Hosts per Network or more Networks per IP Class.
CIDR or Classless Inter Domain Routing provides the flexibility of borrowing bits of Host part of the IP
address and using them as Network in Network, called Subnet. By using subnetting, one single Class A IP
address can be used to have smaller sub-networks which provides better network management capabilities.
Class A Subnets
In Class A, only the first octet is used as Network identifier and rest of three octets are used to be
assigned to Hosts (i.e. 16777214 Hosts per Network). To make more subnet in Class A, bits from Host
part are borrowed and the subnet mask is changed accordingly.
For example, if one MSB (Most Significant Bit) is borrowed from host bits of second octet and added to
Network address, it creates two Subnets (21=2) with (223-2) 8388606 Hosts per Subnet.
The Subnet mask is changed accordingly to reflect subnetting. Given below is a list of all possible
combination of Class A subnets −
In case of subnetting
too, the very first and
last IP address of every
subnet is used for
Subnet Number and
Subnet Broadcast IP
address respectively.
Because these two IP
addresses cannot be
assigned to hosts, sub-
netting cannot be
implemented by using
more than 30 bits as
Network Bits, which
provides less than two
hosts per subnet.
Class B Subnets
By default, using Classful Networking, 14 bits are used as Network bits providing (2 14) 16384 Networks and
(216-2) 65534 Hosts. Class B IP Addresses can be subnetted the same way as Class A addresses, by
Class C Subnets
Class C IP addresses are normally assigned to a very small size network because it can only have 254
hosts in a network. Given below is a list of all possible combination of subnetted Class B IP address −
transfer protocol – identifies the manner for interpreting and transferring computer information,
and can include: http (Hypertext transfer Protocol), gopher (Internet Gopher Protocol), ftp
(File Transfer Protocol), news (Usenet Newsgroups)
server name – is the domain name of the server you are contacting
pathname – gives the path to the specific file on the World Wide Web server
Web Search Engine
is designed to search for information on the World Wide Web and FTP servers
search results are generally presented in a list of results often referred to as SERPS, or "search
engine results pages"
o the information may consist of web pages, images, information and other types of files
the very first tool used for searching on the Internet was Archie
NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 21 of 23
Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: IM-ITECC1-1S-2020-2021
o the name stands for "archive" without the "v"
o it was created in 1990 by Alan Emtage, Bill Heelan and J. Peter Deutsch, computer
science students at McGill University in Montreal
I. COMPUTER ETHICS
ETHICS
Deals with placing a “value”, on acts according to whether they are ‘good’ or ‘bad’.
The use of computer became widespread in every facet of our lives that the need of COMPUTER
ETHICS comes as consensus.
Ten Commandments of Computer Use
1. Thou shalt not use a computer to harm other people
2. Thou shalt not interfere with other people’s computer work
3. Thou shalt not snoop around in other people’s files
4. Thou shalt not use a computer to steal
5. Thou shalt not use a computer to bear false witness
6. Thou shalt not use or copy software for which you have not paid
7. Thou shalt not use other people’s computer resources without authorization
8. Thou shalt not appropriate other people’s intellectual output
9. Thou shalt think about the social consequences of the program you write
10. Thou shalt use a computer in ways that show consideration and respect.
J. Networking Cabling – simple step by step guide
Tools
Cat5e cable
RJ45 connectors
Cable stripper
Scissors
Crimping tool
Steps
1. Strip cable end 2. Untwist wire ends
Strip 1 – 1½” of insulating sheath Sort wires by insulation colors
Avoid cutting into conductor insulation
7. Crimp 8. Test
Squeeze firmly to crimp connecter Does the cable work?
onto cable end (8P)