Admixtures in Concrete

What are Concrete Admixtures?

Ingredients other than cement, water, and aggregates that impart a specific
quality to either plastic (fresh) mix or the hardened concrete (ASTM C496) is
called concrete admixture.

Why use Concrete Admixtures?

1. Reduce cost of concrete construction
2. Achieve specific concrete properties more effectively
3. Ensure quality of concrete during mixing, transporting, placing, and curing in
adverse weather condition
4. Overcome emergencies during operations

Classification of Concrete Admixtures:

1. Air entrainers
2. Water reducers
3. High-range water reducers-superplasticizers
4. Retarders
5. Accelerators
6. Fine minerals
7. Specialty admixtures
 Air entraining concrete admixture:
Air entraining concrete admixtures produce tiny air bubbles in the hardened
concrete to provide space for the water to expand upon freezing.

How do they work?

They are anionic (water hating) agents that form tough, elastic, air filled
bubbles. These bubbles reduce stresses caused by movement or freezing of
water. They provide more volume for expansion and shorter flow path.

Benefits of air entraining admixture:

o Increases workability of fresh concrete
o Increased durability; Better resistance to freeze thaw cycles, de-icers, salts,
sulfates, and alkali-silica reactivity

Difficulties:
o Decreases strength
o Effect can be reduced in moderate strength concrete by lowering water cement
ratio and increasing cement factor

Composition of Air Entrainers:

o Salt of wood resins (Vinsol resin)
o Synthetic detergents
o Salts of sulfonated lignin (by product of paper production)
o Salts of petroleum acids
o Salts of proteinaceous material
o Fatty and resinous acids
o Alkylbenzene sulfonates
o Salts of sulfonated hydrocarbons

Usually liquid meets ASTM C260 specifications.

Water Reducing concrete admixture:

Water reducers can result in 3 things:

1. Increased slump at constant w/c

2. Increased strength, by lowering the water content
3. Reduced cost of the cement
 How do they do this?
Water reducers increase the mobility of the cement particles in the plastic
mix, allowing same workability to be achieved at lower water contents.

Superplasticizers:
Superplasticizers are ―high-range‖ water reducers. Superplasticizers are
used when placing:

1. Thin sections or around tightly spaced reinforcing steel

2. concrete underwater
3. Concrete by pumping
4. consolidating the concrete is difficult

Note: When super plasticizers are used, the fresh concrete stays workable for only
a short period of time (30 min to 60 min), which is why they are usually added
at the site
Retarding concrete admixture:
Used to delay the initial set of concrete. Why do we use them?

1. To offset the effect of hot weather

2. Allow for unusual placement or long haul distances
3. Provide time for special finishes

Possible adverse effects of retarders

1. Reduce early age strength

2. Reduction of time between initial and final set

Possible advantages of retarders

1. Air entrainment
2. Increased workability
3. Reduction of time between initial and final set

Note: The use of retarders must be evaluated experimentally before

incorporation in mix design
 Accelerating concrete admixture:
Used to reduce the time required to develop final strength characteristics in
concrete

Possible reasons for using accelerators:

1. Reduce the amount of time before finishing operations begin
2. Reduce curing time
3. Increase rate of strength gain
4. Plug leaks under hydraulic pressure efficiently
5. Offset effect of cold weather

Calcium Chloride is the most widely used accelerator. Initial and final set times reduced
CaCl2 by weight Initial Set Time in Hrs.

0% 6

1% 3

2% 2

The PCA (Portland Cement Association) recommends against using calcium chloride
when:
1. Concrete is prestressed
2. Concrete contains embedded aluminum such as conduits
3. Concrete is subjected to alkali-aggregate reaction
4. Concrete is in contact with water or soils containing sulfates
5. Concrete is placed during hot weather
6. Mass application of concrete

Alternatives to CaCl2
1. High early strength cement (type III)
2. Increase cement content
3. cure at higher temperature (if feasible)
4. Triethanolamine, sodium thiocyanate, calcium formate, calcium nitrite or calcium
nitrate

Fine Minerals as concrete admixtures:

Fine mineral admixtures added in large amounts (20% to 100% of cement
weight) to improve the characteristics of plastic and hardened concrete.
Classification based on chemical and physical properties

1. Cementitious
o Have hydraulic cementing properties Example: blast furnace slag, natural cement
and hydraulic hydrated lime

2. Pozzolanic
o Siliceous and aluminous material
o Little or no cementitious value
o In presence of moisture, will react with calcium hydroxide to form compounds with
cementitious properties 15% of PC weight is hydrated lime. Addition of pozzolan
could make the hydrated lime into a cementitious material

Classification of fly ash and natural pozzolans

o Class N: Raw or calcined natural pozzolans, e.g. diatomaceous earths, opaline cherts
and shales, ruffs and volcanic ashes, & some calcined clays and shales
o Class F: Fly ash with pozzolan properties
Class C: Fly ash with pozzolan and cementitious properties
Fly ash is the most commonly used pozzolan in civil engineering structures

Special concrete admixtures:

Other admixtures are available to improve concrete quality in a number of
ways, such as workability agents, bonding agents, etc.

Table: Effect of Mineral Admixtures on Fresh Concrete

Quality Measure Effect

Water Fly ash reduces water requirements

Requirements Silica fume increases water requirements

Fly ash and silica fume reduce air content

Air Content
It can be avoided by increasing air-entrainer.
 Fly ash, ground slag, and inert materials generally increases workability. Silica
Workability
fume reduces workability; compensate by using super-plasticizers.

Fly ash reduces heat of hydration. Silica fume may not affect, but superplasticizers
Hydration
used with silica fume can increase heat.

Fly ash, natural pozzolans, and blast furnace slag increase set time; Can
Set Time
compensate by using accelerator.

Table: Effect of Mineral Admixtures on Hardened Concrete

Quality Measure Effect

Fly ash increases the ultimate strength but reduces rate of strength gain. Silica
Strength
fume has less effect on rate of strength gain than pozzolans.

Drying shrinkage and Low concentrations usually have single effect. High concentrations of ground
creep slag or fly ash may increase shrinkage. Silica fume may reduce shrinkage.

Permeability and Generally reduced permeability and absorption.

absorption Silica fume is especially effective.

Alkali-aggregate Generally reduced reactivity, extend of improvement depends on type of

reactivity admixture.

Sulfate resistance Improved due to reduced permeability.

Concrete Chemicals (Admixtures) and Applications

Admixtures are materials other than cement,

aggregate and water that are added to concrete
 either before or during its mixing to alter its properties, such as workability,
curing temperature range, set time or color. Some admixtures have been in
use for a very long time in concrete construction, such as calcium chloride to
provide a cold-weather setting concrete.

Based on their functions, admixtures can be classified into the following five
major categories:

o Retarding admixtures
o Accelerating admixtures
o Super plasticizers
o Water reducing admixtures
o Air-entraining admixtures

Among other important admixtures that do not fit into these categories are
admixtures whose functions include bonding, shrinkage reduction, damp
proofing and coloring. The following paragraphs provides details on the
above-mentioned categories of concrete admixtures.

Retarding Admixtures
Retarding admixtures slow down the hydration of cement, lengthening set
time. Retarders are beneficially used in hot weather conditions in order to
overcome accelerating effects of higher temperatures and large masses of
concrete on concrete setting time. Because most retarders also act as water
reducers, they are frequently called water-reducing retarders. As per
chemical admixture classification by ASTM-ASTM C 494, type B is simply a
retarding admixture, while type D is both retarding and water reducing,
resulting in concrete with greater compressive strength because of the lower
water-cement ratio.

Retarding admixtures consists of both organic and inorganic agents. Organic

retardants include unrefined calcium, sodium, NH4, salts of lignosulfonic
acids, hydrocarboxylic acids, and carbohydrates. Inorganic retardants
include oxides of lead and zinc, phosphates, magnesium salts, fluorates and
borates. As an example of a retardant‘s effects on concrete properties,
lignosulfate acids and hydroxylated carboxylic acids slow the initial setting
time by at least an hour and no more than three hours when used at 65 to
100 degrees Fahrenheit. The concrete contractor, however, need not
memorize these chemical-specific results. Given the specific job
requirements and goals, the concrete supplier should offer appropriate
admixtures and concrete mixes from which to choose.

Accelerating admixtures
Accelerators shorten the set time of concrete, allowing a cold-weather pour,
early removal of forms, early surface finishing, and in some cases, early load
application. Proper care must be taken while choosing the type and
proportion of accelerators, as under most conditions, commonly used
accelerators cause an increase in the drying shrinkage of concrete.

Calcium chloride is a common accelerator, used to accelerate the time of set

and the rate of strength gain. It should meet the requirements of ASTM D
98. Excessive amounts of calcium chloride in concrete mix may result in
rapid stiffening, increase in drying shrinkage and corrosion of reinforcement.
In colder climates, calcium chloride should not be used as an anti-freeze.
Large amount of calcium chloride is required to lower the freezing point of
the concrete, which may ruin the concrete.

Super plasticizers
Super plasticizers, also known as plasticizers, include water-reducing
admixtures. Compared to what is commonly referred to as a ―water reducer‖
or ―mid-range water reducer‖, super plasticizers are ―high-range water
reducers‖. High range water reducers are admixtures that allow large water
reduction or greater flowability (as defined by the manufacturers, concrete
suppliers and industry standards) without substantially slowing set time or
increasing air entrainment.

Each type of super plasticizer has defined ranges for the required quantities
of concrete mix ingredients, along with the corresponding effects. They can
maintain a specific consistency and workability at a greatly reduced amount
of water. Dosages needed vary by the particular concrete mix and type of
super plasticizer used. They can also produce a high strength concrete. As
with most types of admixtures, super plasticizers can affect other concrete
properties as well. The specific effects, however, should be found from the
manufacturer or concrete supplier.

Water reducing admixtures

Water reducing admixtures require less water to make a concrete of equal
slump, or increase the slump of concrete at the same water content. They
can have the side effect of changing initial set time. Water reducers are
mostly used for hot weather concrete placing and to aid pumping. A water-
reducer plasticizer, however, is a hygroscopic powder, which can entrain air
into the concrete mix via its effect on water‘s surface tension, thereby also,
obtaining some of the benefits of air-entrainment (see below).

Air-entraining admixtures
Air-entraining agents entrain small air bubbles in the concrete. The major
benefit of this is enhanced durability in freeze-thaw cycles, especially
relevant in cold climates. While some strength loss typically accompanies
increased air in concrete, it generally can be overcome by reducing the
water-cement ratio via improved workability (due to the air-entraining agent
itself) or through the use of other appropriate admixtures. As always,
admixtures should only be combined in a concrete mix by a competent
professional because some of them can interact in undesirable ways.

Bonding admixtures
Bonding admixtures including addition of compounds and materials such as
polyvinyl chlorides and acetates, acrylics and butadiene-styrene co-
polymers, can be used to assist in bonding new / fresh concrete with old /
set concrete.

Coloring agents have become more commonly used, especially for patios
and walkways. Most are surface applied and often have the additional effect
of surface hardening. Such surface applied coloring admixtures generally
should not be used on air-entrained concrete. Integrally colored concrete is
also available.

Waterproofing and damp proofing admixtures

Water proofing and damp proofing admixtures including soaps, butyl
stearate, mineral oil and asphalt emulsions, are used to decrease the
amount of water penetration into the larger pores of concrete. ―Antifreeze‖
admixtures typically are accelerators used in very high doses, with a
corresponding high price, to achieve a very fast set-time, though they do not
have properties to protect against freezing on their own. However, in
general, these are not used for residential work.

Anti-washout admixture of concrete for underwater concreting is produced as a

viscosity modifying admixture to enhance the rheological properties of cement
paste. It mainly composed of microbial polysaccharides for example gum or
polysaccharide derivatives for instance hydroxyethyl cellulose and hydroxypropyl
methyl cellulose.

It is demonstrated that, the Antiwashout admixture is substantially

influential in enhancing the cohesiveness of concrete that is poured
underwater and in danger of washout or segregation due to surrounding
water.

Moreover, it is by far the most utilized admixture in large repairing and

placement applications. The Antiwashout admixture is also called viscosity
improving admixture, and it is occasionally employed to create self
compacting concrete.

Finally, the advantages, disadvantages, classification, and practical

consideration of Antiwashout admixture will be discussed in the following
sections.
 Fig.1: Anti-washout Admixture
Advantages of Anti-Washout Admixture for Underwater
Concreting
It is added to concrete mixture to be able to place it underwater without
facing segregation and bleeding. As the amount of anti-washout admixture is
increased the rate of dispersion of concrete is decreased which is an
advantage during concreting underwater.

Disadvantages of Anti-Washout Admixture

The most outstanding disadvantages of anti-washout admixture is
decreasing strength and modulus of elasticity based on concrete batch
design, water to cement ratio, amount of added anti-washout admixture and
its type.

It is reported that, the compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of

concrete containing anti-washout admixture ranges between 75-100% and
80-100% of that of concrete without anti-washout admixture, respectively.
Consequently, small amount of reinforcement bars may be increased in
reinforced concrete member.

Dosage of Anti-Washout Admixture for Underwater

Concreting
The amount of Antiwashout admixture which is required to be added to
concrete mixture is specified based on required flowability, depth of the
underwater placement, horizontal flow distance, water to cementitious
materials ratio and the quantity of cementitious materials to be utilized.

Classification of Anti-Washout Concrete Admixtures

It can be divided into the following classes:

Class-A Anti-Washout Admixtures

Water soluble synthetic and natural organic admixture which improve the
viscosity of the mixing water. The ranges of this class applied are between
0.2 to 0.5% solid by mass of cement.

Anti-washout admixtures containing cellulose ether, pregelatinized starches,

carageenans, polyacrylamides, polyethylene oxides, alignates, carboxyvinyl
polymers, and polyvinyl alcohol are examples of the Class A.

Class-B Anti-Washout Concrete Admixtures

It is organic flocculants which can dissolve in water and absorbed by cement
particles, and consequently it enhances viscosity by increasing attractions
between cement particles.

The dosage is between 0.01 and 0.10% solid by mass of cement. Examples
of Class B are Styrene copolymers with carboxyl groups, synthetic
polyelectrolytes, and natural gums.

Class-C Anti-Washout Concrete Admixtures

It is emulsions of different organic material that not only improve attractions
between particles but also provide extremely fine particles in the cement
paste. The amount of Class C anti-washout admixture that is usually added
it ranges from 0.10 to 1.50% solid by mass of cement.

Paraffin-wax emulsions that are unstable in the aqueous cement phase,

acrylic emulsions, and aqueous clay dispersions are examples of Class C
anti-washout admixture.
Class-D Anti-Washout Concrete Admixtures
These are large surface area inorganic materials which rise mixture capacity
to retain water. The dosage range employed is 1-25% solid by mass of
cement. Examples include bentonites, pyrogenic silicas, silica fume, milled
asbestos, and other fibrous materials.

Class-E Anti-Washout Concrete Admixtures

It is inorganic materials which provide extra fine particles to the mortar
pastes. The mount of the Class E that is added is between 1 to 25% solid by
mass of cement.

Fly ash, hydrated lime, kaolin, diatomaceous earth, other raw or calcined
pozzolanic materials, and various rock dusts are examples of Class E
Antiwashout admixture.

Principal Considerations for Anti-Washout Concrete

Admixtures
There are number of practical considerations which need to be considered
when anti-washout admixture is added to concrete mixture.

The most significant consideration may be the amount of concrete mixture

need to be dealt with and the capacity of the mixer that is utilized. This is
because of the anti-washout admixture increase viscosity of fresh concrete
substantially and thus the load of fresh concrete increases by 25 to 50
percent.

In many circumstances, high range water reducing admixture is added in

combination with anti-washout admixture to decrease the water demand of
concrete mixture, which is increased due to the addition of anti-washout
admixture, and hence maintaining flowability.

The high range water reducing admixture increases the setting time that is
why types and dosages of high range water reducing admixtures need to be
considered.
Capacity of the pump is another consideration that needs to be dealt with
because on one hand, high dispersion resistance blockage is possible to
occur in pump lines if issues are came across within the pressure
transmission tube during pumping pressure period.

On the other hand, because of large viscosity of concrete mixture, pressure

transmission resistance is increased by 2 to 4 times that of conventional
concrete.

Freezing reduces strength of concrete by 20 to 40 % when fresh concrete is

subjected to freezing. Antifreeze admixtures of concrete, its properties and uses in
cold weather concreting are discussed.

The resistance of the fresh concrete against the freeze and thaw cycle is
given by the durability factor which is also lowered by 40 to 60%. There is
70% decrease in the bond between the reinforcement and the concrete that
is normally cured.

Hence it is very essential during the concreting in cold weather conditions to

ensure that the concrete will not undergo freezing in its plastic state.
 There are two methods for carrying out cold weather concreting:

1. Provision of normal ambient temperatures for the concrete. This can be done
through the heating of the concrete ingredients or by providing heating enclosures.
2. The addition of chemical admixtures.

Conventional Chemical Admixtures in Cold Weather

Concrete
Conventional concrete used calcium chloride as accelerating admixtures to offset
the retarding effects of slow hydration of concrete in low temperatures. This
admixture is not effective below the freezing temperatures.
This is found to be a drawback in the conventional form of admixtures.
Hence, for arctic weather conditions, special admixtures are necessary. One
such is antifreeze admixtures.

Antifreeze Admixtures for Concrete

The antifreeze admixtures affect the physical condition of the mix water
used in the concreting. These can depress the freezing point of the water to
a large extent and can be used in temperatures lesser than -30 degrees
Celsius. This can enable the extension of the period of the construction
activity.

Chemical Composition and Action of Antifreeze Admixtures

There are two groups of antifreeze admixtures that provide the
characteristics of antifreeze and the accelerated setting and hardening
properties.

They are:

1. First Group:
This includes chemicals, weak electrolytes, sodium nitrite, sodium chloride
and non-electrolytic organic compounds which lower the freezing point of the
water used in the concrete. But these group acts as weak accelerators to
promote the setting and hardening.

2. Second Group
These include binary as well as ternary admixtures which contains potash
and additives based on calcium chloride, sodium nitrite, calcium chloride
with sodium nitrite, calcium nitrite -nitrate-urea and other chemicals.

These have effective antifreeze properties and accelerating property to

promote the setting and hardening. These are used in larger dosages
compared to that of conventional admixtures.

One such example is the use of 8% of sodium nitrite to keep the liquid at a
temperature of -15-degree Celsius.

These admixtures function by lowering the liquid phase freezing point and by
accelerating the cement hydration at the freezing temperatures.

Based on the dosage in the mixture, the non-chloride admixture enables the
mix (concrete or the mortar) to be placed at sub-freezing temperatures. This
hence reduces the need of protective measures required during the cold
weathering works.
The method improves the quality of the concrete and as it facilitates early
setting, early stripping of formworks can also be carried out. This helps in the
reuse of the form within a small duration and hence speed up the
construction.
The table-1 shows the significant difference is strength gain at 3, 7 and 28
days for plain concrete and antifreeze admixture used concrete.

Table.1: Concrete Compressive strength with and without antifreeze admixture

(As per Ratinov and Rosenburg)
Property Plain Concrete Freeze-protection Admixture

Set time (-4 degree Celsius) – –

Compressive strength (MPa)

-4 degree Celsius (3 days) 3.4 9.24

-10 degree Celsius (7 days) 8.3 39.3

-10 degree Celsius (28 days) 18.1 49.9

It is possible for the incorporation of other admixtures that contains

superplasticizers to be incorporated with the antifreeze admixtures. The
main advantage of such combination is that in totality there will be a
reduction of water.

The water reduction will reduce the freezable free water content in the mix.
This freezable water content is the one that serves as the heat sink for the
heat liberated by the initial hydration reactions. This will hence reduce the
number of antifreeze admixtures.
 Selection of Antifreeze admixtures
The factors based on which the selection of antifreeze admixtures is carried
out are:

1. The type of structure

2. The operating Conditions
3. Protecting methods employed in winter concreting
4. Cement brand and aggregate types

A laboratory test must be carried out with the operating materials and the
dosage of antifreeze admixtures that are intended to be used in the field.

The incorporation of other admixtures like retarders, superplasticizers with

antifreeze admixtures is not restricted in cold weather concreting. The
dosage of all the admixture that are used must be established
experimentally.

Application and Advantages of Antifreeze admixtures

The antifreeze admixtures are technologically simple and beneficial for cold
weather concreting. The admixture helps in improving the cohesiveness, cold
joint minimizations, sand streaking, and plasticity. These are estimated to
provide large cost saving than other methods of steam curing or concrete
enclosures.

The combination of antifreeze agents with water reducing agents or air-

entraining agents will help in increasing the resistance of concrete towards
the frost action and corrosion.
The ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) is a by-product of iron
manufacturing which when added to concrete improves its properties such
as workability, strength and durability.

This material is obtained by the heating of iron ore, limestone and coke at a
temperature about 1500 degree Celsius. The process is carried out in a blast
furnace.

The formation of GGBFS is not direct. The by-product of iron manufacturing

is a molten slag and molten iron. The molten slag consists of alumina and
silica, also with the certain amount of oxides.

This slag is later granulated by cooling it. For this, it is allowed to pass
through a high-pressure water get. This result in quenching of the particles
which results in granules of size lesser than 5mm in diameter.

The main constituents of blast furnace slag are CaO, SiO2, Al2O3 and MgO.
These are the minerals that are found in most of the cementitious
substances.

The particles are further dried and ground in a rotating ball mill to form a
fine powder, known as ground granulated blast furnace slag cement. Now
different methods can be employed to perform the main process called as
the quenching.

Based on what method is employed, it can be known as palletized slag,

foamed or expanded slag, GGBFS or air-cooled blast furnace slag (ACBFS).
Composition of Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
(GGBFS)
The difference in mineralogical composition in GGBFS compared to Portland
cement is shown in the table below.

Mineral GGBFS Portland Cement

CaO 30-50% 55-66%

SiO2 28-40% 20-24%

Al2O3 8-24% 0-8%

MgO 1-18% 5%

Another significant difference in GGBFS is that some of the metals within it

have not undergone complete oxidation. This change will be reflected in the
structural formation in concrete when compared with Portland cement.

From the above two differences in composition compared with the Portland
cement, would show changes in the hydration reaction as well as the
hydration products that are given GGBFS.
Physical Properties of Ground Granulated Blast Furnace
Slag (GGBFS)
Ground granulated blast furnace slag have a color nearly white in
appearance. The figure below shows GGBFS and ordinary Portland cement,
to clearly show the color difference between them.

Hence the use of GGBFS in concrete manufacture would give a light and
brighter color to concrete unlike the dark grey color of ordinary cement
concrete structures. This is an added advantage of GGBFS in terms of
aesthetics.
 The typical properties of GGBS are given in Table-2.
Table 2. Physical properties of GGBFS (As per Tasong et.al)
Property Value

Physical Form Off white powder

Bulk density (kg/m3) 1200

Specific Gravity 2.9

Specific surface (m2/kg) 425 – 470

Particle Size Distribution of Ground Granulated Blast

Furnace Slag
It is observed that the particle size of GGBFS varies with the grinding
techniques used during its manufacture. It is also observed that the product
from ball mill has wide particles and narrow particles for the one grounded in
airflow mill. Those grounded in vibro-mill have spherical shaped particles.

Using GGBFS cement

In the concrete manufacturing plant, the GGBFS can be added along with
the Portland cement, water and aggregates. The normal ratio of the mixture
remains the same. The studies show that the GGBFS can be replaced from
30 to 85 % of the cement weight. Most of the instances we replace 40 to
50%.

Advantages of GGBFS in concrete

The incorporation of ground granulated blast furnace slag in concrete
manufacture gains many advantages which are mentioned below:

o GGBFS in concrete increases the strength and durability of the concrete structure.
o It reduces voids in concrete hence reducing permeability
o GGBFS gives a workable mix.
o It possesses good pumpable and compaction characteristics
o The structure made of GGBFS constituents help in increasing sulphate attack
resistance.
o The penetration of chloride can be decreased.
o The heat of hydration is less compared to conventional mix hydration.
o The alkali-silica reaction is resisted highly.
o These make the concrete more chemically stable
o Gives good surface finish and improves aesthetics
o The color is more even and light.
o Lower chances of efflorescence
o The maintenance and repair cost of structures are reduced thus increasing the life
cycle of concrete structures.
o Unlike cement, GGBFS does not produce carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide or nitrogen
oxides.

It is found that working with GGBFS is easy as it has greater mobility

characteristics. This is due to its fineness and the particle shape of the
GGBFS particles. These also possess a lower relative density.
The GGBFS particles have a very glassy texture that makes them increase
the workability. This can help in reduction of water as well as
Superplasticizers to get adequate workability in common situations.

They also have fewer chances to get segregated during handling as well as
pumping of the material. Pumping is facilitated by the lower relative density
and flowing ability of the mix, that is owned by GGBFS.

The usage of GGBFS in concrete provides a certain unique feature that

differs from the ordinary Portland cement concrete. The concrete made from
GGBFS sets slowly when compared to ordinary Portland cement mix.

More the GGBFS amount, more will be the time taken for its setting. But the
strength is gained with time. This slow setting would help in the formation of
cold joints. But the situations where faster setting time is required, cannot
go for this replacement.

The GGBS composition stays plastic for a longer period that would help in
making a smoother finish for the contractor.

The sustainability factor of GGBFS is proved from the above-mentioned

advantages. The product itself is a by-product that is used for a greater
recognition. The reduction of carbon dioxide in the structure make them
more sustainable.

The GGBFS as a replacement has lesser water demand because of their

glassy texture. The glassy surface of GGBFS particles does not absorb water
onto its surface.

GGBFS is facing certain hindrances in its implementation widely due to the

low rate of strength gain. It is also highly sensitive to conditions of curing.
So, a better quality of curing process ensures the happening of full
advantage of GGBFS.
Superplasticizers are used to fluidify the concrete in the field. Most of the
superplasticizers helped to maintain high slump values for a time of 30 to 45
minutes.

But some of the Portland cement do no behave well with the use of
superplasticizers. This problem is understood only by the detailed study on
the mode of action of superplasticizers.

Cement and Superplasticizer Reactivity and Compatibility

It is clearly impossible to explain the minute details about the working of
superplasticizers. But among many problems, the most faced issue is the
slump-loss problem which is observed in the making of high-performance
concrete.

When the intention is to create a large slump value with a lower water/
cement ratio the mentioned problem is met.

Generally, 120 to 135 L/m3 of mixing water is used in the manufacture of

high-performance concrete compared to a quantity of 160 to 180L/m3 of
water in ordinary concrete. This value is dependent on the entrained air
 content, the maximum size of the coarse aggregate, nature and other
related factors.
On one hand, the rheology of the high-performance concrete is mostly
influenced by:

o the rate at which different Portland cement mineral phases react with the
water molecules
o the rate at which molecules of superplasticizers are trapped by compounds
that are formed newly by the contact of water and the Portland cement

Calcium hemihydrates (Plaster of Paris) which are formed during the

dehydration of gypsum and the ettringite (that is formed in the interstitial
phase) are the two phases that consume a substantial amount of water and
show a rapid hydration.

Most studies have observed that the by the addition of superplasticizers on the
Portland cement, their molecules are adsorbed over the di and tricalcium
silicates. This is to control their hydration efficiently or to retard substantially
at required situations.
The cement’s rheological reactivity can be called as the rate at which the water
molecules are consumed by the cement during the first moment of mixing.
It is seen that that during hydration process certain number of
superplasticizers are also consumed. The first moment consumption of
Superplasticizer molecules after the mixing is qualified as
the cement/Superplasticizer compatibility.
It is very difficult to make high-performance concrete with a very low water-
cement ratio, that it will still have a slump value of 50mm 30 minutes with
an initial slump value of 200mm.

It is observed that the concrete surfaces become shiny as the time progress.
And it is not found appropriate to add more superplasticizer with an intention
to increase the slump value, as the mix lacks water.
 Such situations can ask for a small amount of water to recover the slump
instantaneously, but the gained slump value will be lost once the reaction
has been carried out within it.

So, the optimization of high-performance concrete for a location can be

carried out by conducting the following investigations:

o Whether the cement is having lower rheological activity

o Whether the superplasticizers used will not compete with the crystals of
ettringite

There is no theoretical method to determine the above mentioned behavior.

So, it is necessary to proceed with the trial and error method.

Rheopump to Study the Behavior of Superplasticizers and

Cement
An empirical test was developed at the University of Sherbrook. The method
is proved to be efficient and extremely reliable.

A great variety of cement that varies in the content of tri calcium aluminate,
tetra calcium alumino ferrite, limestone filler, di and tri calcium silicates and
cement with different fineness works compatible with the test. The whole
arrangement is called the rheopump.

The test comprises an arrangement of small modified pump that will

recirculate a cement grout having a water cement ratio of 0.35. The grout
consists of a reference superplasticizer of naphthalene.

The dosage is based on the type of cement that is used in the preparation of
the grout. This is dosed for a time of four minutes.

As shown in the figure-1, the flow time taken for 1L of the prepared grout
through the Marsh Cone is measured. This marsh cone is used to check the
fluidity of bentonite in the petroleum industry.
Once the measurement of initial time is completed, the grout is placed in
another plastic container and subjected to continuous agitation until the next
measurement. The next set of measurement will be taken 40 minutes later.

Hence the initial reactivity and the compatibility of the chosen cement with
the specified superplasticizer is understood within an hour by employing a
single bag of cement. The rheopump have never failed even used with
concrete for slump loss measurement.

Fig.1: Schematic Diagram Representing Rheopump

The rheopump can also be used to find the retarder dosage whenever it is
necessary to slow down the slump loss or to find the compatibility of a
different variety of superplasticizer with a given type of cement.

Problems in Choosing Appropriate Superplasticizer of High-

Performance Concrete
 It is very essential to carefully choose the different constituents to make a
high-performance concrete. The concrete producers lack a complete
knowledge of this particular area and the following problems are faced.

1. Problems with the physical Nature: Because of a limited number of bins and
service to the regular customer, the facilities allow a little latitude in this
area.
2. Problems due to an Economical Nature: Based on the geographic location,
resources that are locally and economically available are demanded first
then selecting others.
3. Problems with the Social Nature: Limit the Superplasticizer selection due to the
tie up with known cement or quarry companies. The concrete producers may
have a personal dealing with any of the cement companies that limit the
variety of selection.
Selection of Superplasticizer for High-Performance
Concrete
Certain general rules that each concrete producer must strictly follow to
bring the desired result are mentioned below:

Type of Superplasticizer
By only focusing on the solid content it is recommended to use naphthalene
superplasticizers when compared with the melamine. The naphthalene
superplasticizers are marketed with a solid content from 40 to 42 percent.

The melamine superplasticizers are marketed for a solid content of 22 to 30

%. New melamine superplasticizers are said to have solid content of 40
percent.

The experience show that the efficiency of the superplasticizers depends on

the following parameters:

o Quantity of solids present

o Quality of the solids

o The length of the molecular chains

o The amount of impurities that are present

o The amount of residual sulphates present

Hence it can be concluded that the choice of superplasticizer is not

dependent on the solid content alone, but also on the economic efficiency,
that is by thinking about the dollars that must be spent to reach the desired
workability.

Other factors that influence the choice of superplasticizer is the technical and
the commercial problems. This include factors like quality service that is
offered by the admixture company, the consistency of quality of
superplasticizer, the regularity of superplasticizer delivery and the
confidence laid on the admixture company.

Superplasticizers may be chosen only by considering the technical factors.

For example, the melamine superplasticizers where chosen by some of the
precasters, because they provide surfaces free from bubbles.

In North America, due to commercial reasons, melamine was chosen

commonly for the concrete manufacture. This is mainly because of the
reason that the market status of melamine superplasticizer was very well
done. But now as the use of high performance concrete moved worldwide,
the use of naphthalene superplasticizer also increased.

Brand of Superplasticizer
The number of superplasticizer manufacturers whether it be naphthalene or
melamine, is very limited. This will lead to rise of several commercial
superplasticizers that have the same reactor and showing similar properties.

The origin of certain commercial superplasticizers can be determined by

analyzing their infrared spectrum and subjecting their respective solids to
thermal analysis.
Type of Superplasticizer from a Brand
There was a time where a single superplasticizer was only available where
the contractors have no other choice of selection. But now it is not the case.

A single brand provided different variety of superplasticizers. It is a time

taking process to determine which products from the same product must be
chosen.

The Portland cement can be classified into different types. But each type
shows different characteristics which is influenced by various factors.
Superplasticizers with variation in types do show variability it character, but
it is less compared with Portland cement.

This is because the superplasticizers are manufactured in a straight forward

process incorporating limited number of raw materials that are fairly pure.

Type of Formulation – Liquid or Solid

The superplasticizers are offered either in the solid or in the liquid form.
When considering the ease of use and the limited time for mixing, liquid
superplasticizers are mainly used.

It must be kept in mind that the superplasticizers are very sensitive to

ambient temperature changes. The naphthalene superplasticizers can freeze
at a temperature of -4 degree Celsius.

When the ambient temperature is below 5-degree Celsius their viscosity will
decrease. This change in property will affect the efficiency that is guaranteed
by the superplasticizer. In case of frozen superplasticizers, they must be
kept at a maximum temperature of 35-degree Celsius for a time period of 24
hours.

It is observed that certain superplasticizers will perform undesirable at high

temperatures. They will develop bad odors, fungi, and bacteria. So, to take
the full advantage of superplasticizers, it must be stored in temperatures
between 10 and 30 degree Celsius.
Dosage of Superplasticizer
The dosage of superplasticizers is known in concrete plants as in liters of
commercial solution per cubic meter of concrete. This representation is in
contrast with the scientific practice of representing the superplasticizer
dosage in terms of solid content.

It is very important to know how to consider the amount of water that is

contributed by the superplasticizer as it is in turn necessary to control the
water cement ratio of high-performance concrete.

Utilization with a Water Reducer

Some concrete producers to save money ass lignosulphonate based water
reducers to the superplasticizers. These will be dosed at the usual rate of 0.5
to 1.5L/m3. This is a common practice and a rule in Norway and producers in
North America. This method is considered to save superplasticizers.
Utilization with a Retarder
Experience and observation have shown that the incorporation of a certain
amount of retarding agent at the time of mixing the concrete along with the
superplasticizer can help in solving the slump loss problem that is faced by
the the producer.

This retarder use is mainly done when rheologically active types of cement
are used. The retarding agent can be added in an amount equal to 5 to 10
percent of the weight of superplasticizer that is added to the whole mix. The
problem of slump loss is solved without retarding the setting of the concrete.

Retarding agent based on sodium gluconate will work best when compared
with lignosulphonate retarding agents. This is because the sodium gluconate
helps in fewer entrapping of air bubbles when compared with a
lignosulphonate retarding agent.

Sodium gluconate is found to be more effective practically and is more

controlled than lignosulphonate when it is used as a retarding agent.
Conditions, where the superplasticizers and the retarding agents have to be
used simultaneously, leads the producer to determine the optimum dosage
in terms of cost as well as the compressive strength for short term.

Any delay in the compressive strength that is to be gained within a single

day will delay the work.

The use of superplasticizer and the retarding agent is a tricky method. The
climatic factors also must be considered while optimizing their amount,
because the cement reactivity is greatly affected by the temperature of the
concrete.

Waterproofing admixture for concrete is also called as water resisting

admixtureand permeability reducing admixture. These admixtures prevent the
passage of water through hardened concrete under a pressure head.

Water is an essential part of concrete construction from the mixing of

concrete to the curing of concrete. But once the concrete has gained its
required strength, thereafter any moisture or water penetration in concrete
can cause damage to the concrete. The damage can be due to corrosion of
reinforcement or due to freeze thaw.
 When a concrete work has finished and curing completed, the water content
evaporates and leaves voids inside the concrete. Thus for a good durable
concrete construction, low water/cement ratio is recommended so that
porosity of concrete can be reduced. But then also, a concrete cannot be
completely made waterproof even by using the minimum water/cement
ratio. Concrete is a porous material and water can penetrate through pores
and micro-cracks of concrete due to capillary actions.

Thus there is a need of an admixture which can control the porosity of

concrete. A permeability reducing concrete admixture or waterproofing admixtures
function in following ways:
o It reduces the size of capillary pores, their numbers and continuity inside the
concrete structure.
o It blocks the capillary pores of concrete, or
o It may line the capillary pores with hydrophobic materials. This prevents the
absorption of water in the pores due to capillary absorption.

Capillary absorption is the passage of water through pores in concrete due to

presence of an externally applied hydraulic head.

These water resisting admixtures cannot significantly prevent the movement

of water through cracks in concrete or through poorly compacted concrete
which are the most common reasons for water leakage in concrete.
 There are many products in the market now a day which are available to
protect the concrete structure from damage due to water penetration. For
example, coatings, sealers, membranes etc. are used to prevent water
penetration. But all these require huge amount of money and time. These
process can be simplified by the use of water resisting admixture which
prevent the ingress of water through concrete by making it waterproof.

American Concrete Institute (ACI) Committee 212 offers guidance on use of this
admixture in its ACI 212.3 Rev10 titled ―Report on Chemical Admixtures for
Concrete ―. Details about permeability reducing admixtures are covered in
Chapter – 15 of the report.
Materials in Permeability Reducing Admixtures:
The ACI 212.3 Rev.10 in its report states that following types of materials to
be used in waterproofing admixtures:

o Hydrophobic or water-repellent chemicals such as oils, petroleum products which

can block the entry of water into the pores by forming a layer along the pores in
concrete. These materials do not fill the pores.
o Finely divided solid particles (powders)of inert and chemically active fillers to act as
densifiers and restrict the movement of water through pores.
o Crystalline materials with hydrophilic nature which increases the density of calcium
silicate hydrate and / or generate the pore-blocking deposits to resist water
penetration.

The report does not limit the use of materials only to as mentioned above.
Any material can be used as water-resisting admixture which can block the
water penetration. These materials can be used as single or combination of
two or more.

Dosage of Waterproofing Admixtures for Concrete:

Dosage of these admixtures vary depending on the type of admixture and
the level of performance required. 2% of hydrophobic type admixture is
commonly used, and may be 5% or more for the pore blocker types. These
percentage is calculated based on weight or volume of concrete and not on
cement.
Mechanism of Water Resisting Admixtures:
The mechanism of water resisting admixture lies in reducing the porosity of
concrete. To reduce the porosity of concrete, the water content or the water
cement ratio must be reduced. If the water/cement ratio can be reduced
below about 0.45, the porosity of concrete can be reduced significantly and
hence concrete permeability is significantly reduced.

If we further reduce the water/cement ratio, the workability of concrete

reduces. This can be prevented by the use of water-reducing admixture that
can ensure sufficient workability of concrete for full compaction and reduce
shrinkage cracking.

The other mechanism can be the use of pore-blocking admixtures that are very
fine reactive or unreactive fillers or insoluble polymer emulsions. These have
particle sizes of around 0.1 microns and can easily get into the capillaries of
concrete during the early stages of hydration process and physically block
them.
The hydrophobic admixtures are designed as a soluble admixture in concrete
but it reacts with the calcium of the fresh cement and forms an insoluble
material which are adsorbed onto the surfaces of the capillaries. When the
hydration process is complete and moisture dries out, the hydrophobic layer
on surface of pores prevents water from entering the capillary by suction.
But the resistance of hydrophobic admixture is limited and depends
hydraulic head, the quality of the concrete and the effectiveness of the
admixture.

Concrete admixtures are used to enhance the properties of concrete for applications
in concrete works with special requirements.

Concrete admixtures are used to modify the properties of concrete to

achieve desired workability in case of low water cement ratio, and to
enhance setting time of concrete for long distance transportation of
concrete.

So, it is of much importance for a civil site engineer to know about the
properties of admixtures for better selection and application in concrete
works.
 Definition of Concrete Admixtures
As per BIS (IS – 9103: 1999) Page No.1, Concrete Admixture is defined as a
material other than water, aggregates and hydraulic cement and additives
like Pozzolana or slag and fiber reinforcement, used as on ingredient of
concrete or mortar and added to the batch immediately before or during its
mixing to modify one or more of the properties of concrete in the plastic or
hardened state.

Reasons for Using Admixtures (ACI Committee Report Page

– 298)
Admixtures are used to modify the properties of concrete or mortar to make
them more suitable for the work at hand or for economy or for such other
purposes as saving energy.

Some of the important purposes for which admixtures are used are:

To modify properties of fresh concrete, mortar and grout so as to:

o Increase workability without increasing water content or decrease water content at
the same workability.
o Retard or accelerate time of initial setting.
o Reduce or prevent settlement.
o Modify the rate or capacity for bleedings.
o Reduce segregation.
o Improve pumpability.
o Reduce the rate of slump loss.

To modify the properties of hardened concrete, mortar and grout so as to:

o Retard or reduce heat evaluation during early hardening.
o Accelerate the rate of strength development at early ages.
o Increase strength (compressive, tensile or flexural).
o Increase durability or resistance to severe condition of exposure.
o Decrease permeability of concrete.
o Control expansion caused by the reaction of alkalies with certain aggregate
constituents.
o Increase bond of concrete to steel reinforcement.
o Increase bond between existing and new concrete.
o Improve impact resistance and abrasion resistance.
o Inhibit corrosion of embedded metal.
o Produce colored concrete or mortar

When to Use Concrete Admixtures

o When properties cannot be made by varying the composition of basic material.
o To produce desired effects more economically.
o Unlikely to make a poor concrete better.
o Not a substitute for good concrete practice.
o Required dose must be carefully determined and administered

How to Use Concrete Admixtures

o Check job specification
o Use the correct admixture
o Never use one from an unmarked container.
o Keep containers closed to avoid accidental contamination.
o Add the correct dosage.
o Avoid adding ‗a little bit extra
o Use a dispenser
o Wash thoroughly at the end the day
o Best if added to the mixing water
o Manufacturer‘s recommended dosage is usually adequate
o Trial mixes are important to determine most effective dosage

Types of Concrete Admixtures

Admixtures are classified according to the Indian Standard (IS 9103: 1999) are as follows:

a) Accelerating admixtures

b) Retarding admixtures

c) Water-reducing admixtures

d) Air-entraining admixtures

e) Super plasticizing admixtures

Classification according to American Concrete Institute Committee report.

a) Air-entraining admixtures

b) Accelerating admixtures

c) Water reducing and set controlling admixtures

d) Admixtures for flowing concrete

e) Miscellaneous admixtures

Classification of admixtures according to the book of ―Concrete Admixtures:

Use and Applications‖ edited by M. R. Rixom are given in the forward pages.
Air Entraining Agent Concrete Admixtures
These are generally used to improve workability, ease of placing, increased
durability, better resistance to frost action and reduction in bleeding.

The common Air-Entraining agents are natural wood resins, neutralized

vinsol resins, polyethelene oxide polymers and sulphonated compounds.

Mechanism of Air Entraining Concrete Admixtures

These are anionic, because the hydrocarbon structures contain negatively
charged hydrophilic groups, such as COO, SO3 and OSO so that large anions
are released in water. Conversely, if the hydrocarbon ion is positively
charged, the compound is cation active or cationic.

In other words, anionic surface active agents produce bubbles that are
negatively charged, cationic charged cause bubbles to be positively charged,
surface active agents of all classes can cause air entrainment in concrete,
but their efficiency and characteristics of air-void system vary widely.
 Air entraining Admixtures have following properties:
o These are foaming agents, gas producing chemicals. It introduces millions of tiny,
stable bubbles of uniform size that are uniformly distributed throughout the mix
(usually about 5% of the volume).
o Improves properties of fresh concrete such as workability, cohesion and reduces
segregation and bleeding.
o Improves properties of hardened concrete – For every 1% of air there is a 4% loss
in strength which is minimized by the reduction in water content. It improves
durability of hardened concrete.

Accelerating Admixtures for Concrete

Accelerating admixtures are used for quicker setting times of concrete. It
provides higher early strength development in freshly cast concrete.

Main uses of Accelerating Concrete Admixtures

o These admixtures are suitable for concreting in winter conditions
o During any emergency repair work
o In case of early removal of formwork

Disadvantages of Accelerating Concrete Admixtures

o It has increased drying shrinkage
o It offers reduced resistance to sulphate attack
o CaCl2 high risk of corrosion of steel – not permitted in reinforced concrete
o It is more expensive and less effective

Water Reducing Admixtures

Chemical Types for Water Reducing Admixtures
a) Calcium or sodium salt of lignosulfonic acid

b) Poly carboxylic acid

Mode of Action
The principal role on mechanism of water reductions and set retardation of
admixtures are usually composed of long-chain organic molecules and that
are hydrophobic (not wetting) at one end and hydrophilic (readily wet) at
the other.
Such molecules tend to become concentrated and form a film at the
interface between two immiscible phases such as cement and water, and
alter the physio-chemical forces acting at this interface.

The mechanism by which water reducing admixture operate is to

deflocculated or to disperse the cement agglomerates into primary particles
or atleast into much smaller fragments.

This deflocculating is believing to be a physio chemical effect whereby the

admixture is first of all adsorbed on to the surface of the hydrating cement,
forming a hydration ―sheath‖, reduces the antiparticle separated from one
another.

The presence of water reducing admixture in a fresh concrete results in:

(i) a reduction of the interfacial tension.

(ii) an increase in the electro kinetic potentials and

(iii) protection sheath of water dipoles around each particle i.e. mobility of
fresh mix becomes greater, partly because of reduction in inter-particle
forces and partly because of water freed from the restraining influence of the
highly flocculated system which is now available to lubricate the mixture.
Hence less water is required to achieve given consistency.

Why Water Reducing Admixtures are used?

a) Concrete having greater workability be made without the need for more
water and so strength losses are not encountered

b) By maintaining some workability, but at a lower water content, concrete

strengths may be increased without the need for further cement addition

c) While maintaining the same w/c ratio and workability concrete can be
made to a given strength as in the reference concrete at lower cement
content.
Effect on durability
The straight addition of admixtures of this type does not came any increase
in permeability and indeed where the admixture is used to reduce the w/c,
then permeability is considerably reduced.

Effect on shrinkage
Admixture of this type when used as workability aids on water reducers do
not adversely effect the shrinkage.

Effect on creep
Materials of this type of admixture have no deleterious effect on the creep of
concrete.

Detrimental effect
a) While using water reducing agent. Care must be taken in controlling the
air content in the mix. Most water-reducing agent entrain air due to their
surfactant properties.

b) At high dosages of lignosulphonate material, retardation of the mix

occurs.

Applications of Water Reducing Concrete Admixtures

The application of the type of admixtures are as follows —

a) When concrete pours are restricted due to either congested reinforcement

or this sections.

b) When harsh mixes are experienced such as those produced with

aggregates (crushed). Then considerable improvement in the plastic
properties of concrete can be obtained.

c) When required strengths are difficult to obtain within specified maximum

cement content and where early lifting strengths are required.
d) By addition of this admixture in concrete cement economics of about 10%
can be obtained.

Retarding Concrete Admixtures

The function of retarding concrete admixture is to delay or extend the
setting time of cement paste in concrete. These are helpful for concrete that
has to be transported to long distance in transit mixers and helpful in placing
the concrete at high temperatures, specially used as grouting admixture and
water reducers results in increase of strength and durability.

Chemical type for Retarding Concrete Admixture

a) Unrefined lignosulphonates containing sugar, which of course the
component responsible for retardation.

b) Hydroxyl carboxylic acid and their salts

c) Carbohydrates including sugar

d) Soluble zinc

e) Soluble borates etc.

Mode of action
It is thought that retarding admixtures are absorbed on to the C3A phase in
cement forming a film around the cement grains and presenting or reducing
the reaction with water. After a while thus film breaks down and normal
hydration proceeds. This a simple mixture and there is a reason to believe
that retards also interact with C3S since retardation can be extended to a
period of many days.
Why Retarding Concrete Admixtures are used?
To delay in the setting time of concrete without adversely effecting the
subsequent strength development.
Advantage of Retarding Concrete Admixture
a) The hydroxyl carboxylic acid type admixture normally produces concrete
having a slightly lower aim content them that of a control mix.

b) Materials of this class (lignosulphonate containing sugar and derivatives

of hydroxyl carboxylic acid) in some cases have a much higher dispersing
effect and hence water reducing capacity.

c) Durability increases.

Detrimental effect
a) When lignosulphonate based material used, then the air content might be
0.2 to 0.3% higher unless materials of the tributyle phosphate type are
added.

b) As the water content increases, so there is a tendency for drying

shrinkage.

Applications of Retarding Concrete Admixture

Retarding admixtures are used

a) Where long transportation of ready mixed concrete is required then

premature setting can be usefully avoided by this type admixture.

b) When concrete is being placed or transported under conditions of high

ambient temperature.

c) In case of large concrete pours

d) Concrete construction involving sliding formwork

Super Plasticizers or High Range Water-Reducing

Admixtures in Concrete
These are the second generation admixture and also called as
Superplasticizers. These are synthetic chemical products made from organic
sulphonates of type RSO3, where R is complex organic group of higher
molecular weight produced under carefully controlled condition.

The commonly used superplasticizer are as follows:

i) Sulphonated melamine formaldehyde condensate (S M F C)

ii) ii) Sulphonated napthalene formaldehyde condensate (S N F C)

iii) iii) Modified ligno-sulphonates and other sulphonic esters, acids etc.,

Chemical type
a) formaldehyde derivatives such as melamine formaldehyde and napthalene
sulphonate formaldehyde.

Mode of action of Super Plasticizer Admixtures

This admixture acts as the same way as that of a water reducing admixture
acts. It disperses the cement agglomerates when cement is suspended in
water and adsorbed on to the surface of cement, causing them mutually
repulsive as a result of the anionic nature of super plasticizers.

Why Super Plasticizer Admixtures are used?

a) At a given w/c ratio, this admixture increases the workability, typically by
raising the slump from 75 mm to 200 mm.

b) The second use of this admixtures is in the production of concrete of

normal workability but with an extreme high strength (super plasticizer can
reduce the water content for a given workability by 25 – 35 percent
compared with half that value in the case of conventional water reducing
admixtures).

Advantages of Super Plasticizer Admixtures

a) The concrete using this admixture can be placed with little or no
compaction and is not subject to excessive bleeding or segregation.
b) They can be used as high dosages became they do not markedly change
the surface tension of water.

c) It does not significantly affect the setting of concrete except that when
used the cements having a very low C3A content.
d) They do not influence shrinkage, creep modulus of elasticity or resistance
to freeing to thawing.

Disadvantage
The only real disadvantage of superplasticizer is their relatively high cost.

Applications of Super Plasticizer Admixtures

a) In very heavily reinforced sections, in inaccessible areas in floor or road
slabs.

b) Where very rapid placing is desired.

Mineral Admixtures for Concrete

Mineral admixtures are finely divided materials which are added to the
concrete in relatively large amounts, usually of the order of 20 to 100
percent by weight of Portland cement.

Source of Mineral Admixtures

a) Raw or calcined natural minerals

b) Industrial by products

Reasons for using mineral admixtures

a) In recent years‘ considerable efforts have been made by the cement
industry world wide to reduce energy consumption in the manufacture of
Portland cement. Therefore, a partial replacement of Portland cement by
mineral admixtures which can be of the order of 50 – 60% by weight of total
cementitious material, represents considerable energy savings.
b) The ability of cement and concrete industries to consume mithions of tons
of industrial byproducts containing toxic metal would qualify these industries
to be classified as environmentally friendly.

c) Since natural Pozzolana and industrial by products are generally available

substantially lower costs than Portland cement, the exploitation of the
Pozzolanic and cementitious properties of mineral admixtures are used as a
partial replacement of cement can lead to a considerable economic benefit.

d) Possible technological benefits from the use of mineral admixtures in

concrete include entrancement of impermeability and chemical durability,
improved resistance to thermal cracking and increase in ultimate strength.

Classification of Mineral Admixture

Mineral admixtures may be classified as follows —

a) Pozzolanic — Siliceon or siliceons and admixtures material which itself

possesses little or no cementitious value but is the presence of moisture
chemically react with CalOH2 at ordinary temperature to form compounds
possessing cementitious properties.
b) Pozzolanic & Cementitious — The materials which have some cementitious
properties in itself.

ASIM specification C618 recognizes the following three classes of mineral

admixtures.

a) Class N — Raw or calcined natural pozzolanic such as diatomaceous

earths, clay and shales, tuffs and volcanic ashes.

b) Class F — Fly ash produced from burning anthracite or bituminous coal.

c) Class C — Ash normally produced from lignite or sub-bituminous coal

which may contain analytical CaO higher than 10%.

Silica Fume as Concrete Admixture

Although the use of silica fume (SF) in concrete has increased significantly in
the past few years, its beneficial properties were not well realized until
comprehensive research was undertaken in the late 70‘s and early 80‘s at
the Norwegian Ins. of technology to study the influence of SF on concrete
properties.

Production of Silica Fume

Silicon, ferrosilicon or other alloys are produced in so-called ―submerged are
electric furnaces‖. There are two types of electric furnaces one is with heat
recovery system and the other is without heat recovery system.

Types of Alloys Produced in Submerged Arc Electric Furnaces

a) Ferrosilicon of various Si contents

– FeSi – 50% with a 43 to 50% Si content

– FeSi – 75% with a 72 to 78% Si content

– FeSi – 90% with a 87 to 96% Si content

b) Calcium silicon

c) Ferrochromium Silicon

d) Silicomanganese

Specific Gravity and Specific Surface Area of SF

The specific gravity of SF is generally equal to that of amorphous silica which
is about 2.20. However, depending on its chemical composition, the specific
gravity of SF particle can be as high as 2.40 and 2.55, as in the case of
FeGSi.

The specific surface area of SF is measured by nitrogen absorption is given

below.
 Calculated Surface Area Measured by Nitrogen
SF Mean Diameter (mm)
(m2/kg) Adsorption

Si 20000 18500 0.18

FeCrSi 16000 – 0.18

FeSi – 50% 15000 – 0.21

FeSi – 75% 13000 15000 0.26

However, regardless of the differences in chemical composition, color and

carbon content, all types of SF share a certain number of common, yet
important physio chemical characteristics, which make them effective
supplementary cementitious materials to cement concrete. these properties
are as follows —

a) SF originates from the condensed SiO vapors and generally has a high
content of silica of 35 to 98%

b) SF is an amorphous material

c) SF is composed mostly of fine spheres with a mean diameter of 0.1 to 0.2

mm.

Filler and Pozzolanic effects of Silica Fume

The unique characteristics of SF that make it suitable for use as
supplementary cementitious materials are its fineness, highly amorphous in
nature and elevated content of SiO2.
The small SF spheres act as fillers since they occupy some of the space
between the relatively coarser cement grains which can be otherwise
occupied by water. This results also in a denser matrix with a better
gradation of fine particles.
Bache stated that in a super plasticized, low w/c ratio concrete, small SF
spheres can displace water entrapped between the flocculated cement
grains, thus increasing the amount of free water in the paste which
enhances fluidity.

Several researchers have studied the pozzolanic properties of SF. The

resulting reactions between SF and Ca(OH)2 increases the volume of CSH
and reduces the total volume of capillary pores in the cement paste. The
pozzolanic reactions of SF with Ca(OH)2 reduces the amount of Portlandite
in the hydrate cement paste.
Mehta explained that the absence of large Portlandite crystals in a SF
mixture can be due to the fact that each SF particles can act as a ―nucleation
site‖ for precipitation of Ca(OH)2. As a result, numerous small crystals of
Ca(OH)2 can form rather than a few large ones.
This absence of large and week crystals of Portlandite enhance the
mechanical properties of concrete.

The beneficial action of SF has also been attributed to the reduction of the
porosity of the transition zone between the cement paste and aggregate
which increases the strength and impermeability of the concrete. In or
conventional concrete, the transition zone can have large and oriented
Portlandite crystals which form weak zones in the concrete.

The thickness of the transition zone can be drastically produced by adding

SF to the concrete since SF reduces bleeding and the amount of water
accumulation under aggregate. As a result, it decreases the porosity of the
transition zone and it also reduces the concentration of oriented
Ca(OH)2 crystals.
Selection of Concrete Admixtures:
Concrete admixtures shall be selected carefully as per the specifications and
shall be used as recommended by the manufacturer or by lab testing report.
The quantity of admixtures to be used for specific application of admixtures
are recommended by the manufacturers.
For use in large construction projects, the quantity of the admixture to be
used shall be obtained from tests reports for concrete mixed with admixtures
at various percentage admixtures use. These tests are conducted to
understand the behaviour of admixtures on the desired quality and strength
of concrete at different quantity of admixtures used. Thus, the optimum
quantity of admixtures can be selected for specific application based on
results.

The selection of specific admixtures for use in concrete to alter properties of

concrete should be selected carefully as per requirement of concrete works.
Concrete admixtures should be used judiciously according to specification
and method of application to avoid adverse effect on concrete properties at
fresh and hardened state.

After selecting the admixtures product, one should carefully choose the
supplier with quality product, timely service and at competitive price. The
admixture supplier should be with good history and should possess the staff
with efficient and professional experience to guide on effective
application/use of admixture in right way.

Concrete admixtures should be accepted with test certificate, manufacturing

date and its chemical composition, should comply specifications given by the
authorities.

The various factors which affect the performance of concrete admixtures are:

1. Type of super-plasticizer:
The admixture will be more effective if molecular weight of the super-
plasticizer is high.

2. Dosage:
 The quantity of admixture should be optimum. Excess of admixture may
cause segregation or bleeding. It may also cause excessive retardation. The
optimum does should be estimated by trials.

3. Compatibility with Cement:

All admixtures may not produce same results with different cements.
Therefore before using any admixture, its compatibility with cement has to
be established. Properties of cement like fineness, chemical-composition,
C3A content etc. affect the performance of admixture. Therefore, trials have
to be made before finalizing an optimum does of admixture.

4. Mix Design:
All constituents of mix affect the performance of the super-plasticizer as
given below:

o Water: more water in the mix improves the physical interaction and
dispersion of admixtures.
o Coarse aggregate: proportioning and grading of coarse aggregates influence
the performance of concrete admixture.
o Fine aggregate: proportioning, grading and silt content also influence the
performance of concrete admixture.
o Cement: its fineness, C3A content influence the performance of admixture.
Higher C3A reduces efficiency of admixture.
o Other admixture: presence of other admixtures also influences the
performance of concrete admixtures.
Therefore, proper trials before actual use are very vital for effectiveness of
admixture.

Other factors admixture performance:

Certain other factors like temperature and humidity at the time of concreting
also affect the performance of the concrete admixtures.
Drum mixtures are considered ideal for mixing admixtures, instead we
should use pan or compulsive shaft mixes.

Standard Codes for concrete admixtures:

Admixtures used should conform to the following relevant standard codes.

In reinforced concrete, the chloride ion of any admixture used should not
exceed 2% by weight of the admixture as determined in accordance
with IS:6925 and the total chloride ion in all admixtures used in concrete mi
shall not exceed 0.83% by weight of cement. The addition of calcium
chloride to concrete containing embedded metal will not be permitted under
any circumstance.
Accelerating concrete Admixtures conforming to IS:9103 & 2645 should be used. It
is in liquid state with a specific gravity of 1.3 and complying with ASTM C-
494 type E. It accelerates the setting and hardening of the concrete mix
thereby achieving high early ago strength. Accelerating concrete admixture
should be compatible with all types of cement.
Retarding concrete Admixtures conforming to IS:9103. It is in liquid state with a
specific gravity of 1.22 and complying with ASTM C-494 type B&D, CRD-C87
type B & D, BS:5075 part 1. It should be added to the concrete mix during the
mixing process along with water and aggregates. No extension of normal
mixing time is necessary. It will delay the initial and final setting time and
helps to spread the heat of hydration over a longer period of time. It gives a
highly workable concrete with a low W/C ratio. It must be compatible with all
types of cement depending on requirement.
Air-entraining Admixtures conforming to IS:9103.
Water-reducing admixtures conforming to IS:9103.
Integral waterproofing admixtures conforming to IS:2645. It is used as an
excellent cement admixture in all types of concrete/ plaster mortars,
pointing mortars, masonry works, guniting works and pressure grouting
works. It improves resistance of the surface to weathering and chemical
attacks. It should not be toxic so as to use for waterproofing in water tanks,
reservoirs, tanks, etc.