ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS II

…..Internal combustion engines

MEE 451 LECTURE NOTES

OSAROBO IGHODARO, B.Sc(Lagos), M.Eng(Benin), Ph.D(Newcastle)
WWW.osaroboighodaro.com [email protected]
 Heat Engines
 Engines that obtain heat energy from combustion of fuels, they convert the heat energy
into mechanical work

TYPES:
• EXTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES (ECE): Combustion occurs outside the cylinder of the engine e.g Steam
Engines.

• INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES (ICE): Combustion occurs inside the cylinder of the engine e.g. Gas Turbine
Engines

ADVANTAGES OF ICE OVER ECE

• Better Overall Efficiency
• Mechanical Simplicity
• Low Weight to Power Ratio
• Easy Starting from Cold Conditions
• More Compact, requiring less space
 ACCORDING TO FUEL EMPLOYED
 Oil, Petrol
Classification of ICE  Gasohol, LPG, Kerosine
ACCORDING TO CYCLE OF OPERATION ACCORDING TO CYCLE OF COMBUSTION
 Two Stroke  Otto Cycle
 Four Stroke  Diesel Cycle

ACCORDING TO METHOD OF IGNITION ACCORDING TO CYLINDER ARRANGEMENT

 Spark Ignition  Straight(In line)
 Compression Ignition  V-Engine
ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF CYLINDERS  W-Engine
 Single Cylinders  Opposing Cylinders
 Multi Cylinders ACCORDING TO METHOD OF COOLING
ACCORDING TO METHOD OF GOVERNING  Air Cooled
 Quality Governing  Water Cooled
 Quantity Governing ACCORDING TO AIR INTAKE PROCESS

 Hit and Miss Governing  Natural Aspirated

Main Parts of an I C E
Working Principle
 The rotation of the crankshaft causes the piston to move up and down inside the
cylinder
 Compression occurs by the upward movement of the piston while expansion occurs by
the downward movement. The crankshaft is rotated by the up and down motion of the
piston in the cylinder.
 The crankshaft rotates as the piston pushes downwards until the piston reaches its
lowest point of travel called the bottom dead centre (bdc), at this position, the
pressure on the piston will have no turning effect on the crankshaft, the piston is
returned up the cylinder by the rotation of the flywheel. The same occurs when the
piston is at the extreme top of travel, this position is called the top dead centre (tdc).
 An engine which requires four strokes of the piston (i.e two revolutions of the
crankshaft) to complete its cycle is called a four stroke engine, while that which
requires two strokes of the piston ( i.e. one crankshaft revolution) is called a two stoke
engine
Four Stroke Engine
 INTAKE STOKE
• The intake valve is open, and fuel and
air are drawn past the valve and into
the combustion chamber and cylinder.

• The exhaust valve is closed and the

electrical contact switch is open.

• The fuel/air mixture is at a relatively

low pressure (near atmospheric).

• At the end of the intake stroke, the

piston is located at the far left and
begins to move back towards the right.
 COMPRESSION STROKE
• With both valves closed, the combination of the
cylinder and combustion chamber form a
completely closed vessel containing the fuel/air
mixture, the piston is pushed to the right, the
volume is reduced and the fuel/air mixture is
compressed.

• During the compression, no heat is transferred to

the fuel/air mixture. As the volume is decreased
because of the piston's motion, the pressure in the
gas is increased.

• During the compression stroke, the electrical

contact is kept opened. When the volume is the
smallest, and the pressure the highest, the contact
is closed, and a current of electricity flows through
the plug.
 POWER STROKE

• At the beginning of the power stroke, the

electrical contact is opened. The sudden
opening of the contact produces a spark in the
combustion chamber which ignites the fuel/air
mixture. Rapid combustion of the fuel releases
heat,

• Combustion increases the temperature and

pressure of the gases

• The high pressure of the gases acting on the

face of the piston cause the piston to move to
the left, initiating the power stroke
 EXHAUST STROKE

• At the end of the power stroke, the piston is

located at the far left. Heat that is left over from
the power stroke is now transferred to the water
in the water jacket until the pressure approaches
atmospheric pressure. The exhaust valve is then
opened by the cam pushing on the rocker arm to
begin the exhaust stroke.

• The purpose of the exhaust stroke is to clear the

cylinder of the spent exhaust in preparation for
another ignition cycle. As the exhaust stroke
begins, the cylinder and combustion chamber are
full of exhaust products at low pressure because
the exhaust valve is open, the exhaust gas is
pushed past the valve and exits the engine. The
intake valve is closed and the electrical contact is
open during this movement of the piston.
• The crankshaft makes two revolutions for every one revolution of the cams. This motion is controlled by the timing chain

• The cam is expected to move the exhaust valve at just the right time and the intake valve is expected to open after the
exhaust valve is closed.

• In real engine operation, the exhaust stroke can not push all of the exhaust out of the cylinder, so a real engine doesn't
perform as well as the ideal engine described on this page. As the engine runs and heats up, the performance changes.

• Modern automobile engines adjust the fuel/air ratio with computer controlled fuel injectors to maintain high performance
 TWO STROKE ENGINE
When the two stroke cycle is employed, the induction and exhaust strokes are eliminated. The piston
stroke is longer because part of the compression and expansion strokes are used for the processes of
exhaust and induction. Apart from the self-acting spring loaded valve on the crank case, no valves are
required, and the piston is used to open and close inlet and exhaust ports.
INDUCTION-COMPRESSION STROKE
Fresh charge of air (air and fuel) is admitted into the crank chamber as a result of the
depression created below the piston as it advances upwards towards the cylinder air. At the
same, final compression of the earlier induced charge takes place above the advancing
piston.

POWER-EXHAUST STROKE
Combustible charge in the cylinder is ignited immediately preceding the power stoke, during
which the gas expands to perform useful work on the retreating piston, at the same time,
previously induced charge trapped beneath the retreating piston is partially compressed.
During this process, the exhaust port is uncovered to allow the hot gases to blow down the
exhaust port, further movement of the piston uncovers the inlet port, and compressed air
flows into the cylinder. The exhaust and inlet ports are open simultaneously for a short period
so that the incoming air can assist in clearing the cylinder of combustion products in the
process called scavenging.
 PROS AND CONS….
 2 stroke engines perform twice as many power strokes per cylinder per revolution; in theory it would be expected to
produce twice the performance of an equivalent size 4 stroke engine, but in practice this is not the case because of the
difficulties encountered in effectively purging the exhaust gases from the cylinder and then completely filling with a
fresh combustible charge. Thus, the Scavenging efficiency of the basic 2 stroke petrol engine is rather poor.
 In performing twice as many power strokes per revolution, the 2 stroke engine can deliver a smoother flow of power, but
this may be less true at low engine speeds when irregular firing can result from poor scavenging
 2 strokes do not require any mechanically operated valves, this confers simplicity and contributes to a more compact
and lighter engine.
 Poor consumption of basic 2 stroke is adversely affected by poor cylinder scavenging which allows part of fresh charge to
escape through the exhaust port before final compression of charge to take place
 Greater danger of overheating and piston seizure with the 2 stroke engine which sets a limit of maximum useable
performance. It is more difficult to cool satisfactorily because it does not have the benefit of a second revolution like
the 4 stroke .
 Lubrication of the 2 stroke petrol engine is complicated by the need to introduce oil into the fuel supply called the
“petroil mixture”. Working parts are thus lubricated in aerosol fashion by oil mist in the charge tending to increase
harmful exhaust emission. For this reason, the 2 stroke engine is obsolete in cars.
 The 2 stoke engine tends to have a higher fuel consumption than the 4 stroke engine. Little time is available for
induction and exhaust in the 2 stoke engine, thus the process of clearing the combustion products from the cylinder and
recharging it is less complete, moreover, less time is available for the fresh air to cool the cylinder, consequently
overheating might be a serious problem.
 SCAVENGING
 Frequent reference has been made to the poor scavenging efficiency of the basic 2 stroke petrol engine. In
the scavenging action of the 2 stroke engine, there is the possibility of fresh charge escaping with the
exhausted gases because there is a small fraction of the revolution of the crank during which the exhaust of
the burnt gases and entry of the fresh charge occurs simultaneously, to overcome this difficulty, the piston
crown is manufactured in a particular shape so that the fresh charge is deflected upward after entering the
cylinder.
 To carry out Scavenging, the following are the three basic methods used.

 a) Cross Flow Scavenging

 In this method, the inlet or transfer ports are situated on one side of the cylinder while exhaust ports are
situated on the opposite side. The piston crown is designed into a particular shape so that the fresh charge is
deflected upward to push out the burnt exhaust gases.
 b) Back Flow or Loop Scavenging
 In this method, the inlet and exhaust ports are situated on the same side of the cylinder. A loop is formed as
the fresh charge of air-fuel mixture or pure air enters the cylinder to push out the burnt exhaust gases.
 c) Uniform Scavenging
 In this method, both the fresh charge and the burnt exhaust gases moves in the same upward direction in the
cylinder. The valve closes, as the piston moves upward during the compression stroke. Fresh charge is
supplied from the side of the cylinder.
 TESTING AND PERFORMANCE OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

 INDICATED POWER
This is the actual work done by the working fluid on the piston. The IP can be determined from an indicator
diagram.
The work represented by the small loop is termed the pumping loss, which is as a result of viscous friction in the
induction and exhaust strokes, thus the area of the pumping loop must be substracted from the area of the
power loop to obtain the mean effective pressure
 Thus, Net work done per cycle α (area of power loop – area of pumping loop)
 Consider a one cylinder engine, Work done per cycle = 𝑝𝑖 × 𝐴 × 𝐿
 Where 𝑝𝑖 is the IMEP, A is area of piston and L is the length of the stroke
 Power output per unit time = Work done per cycle × cycles per minute
 Or 𝐼𝑃 = 𝑝𝑖 𝐴 𝐿 × (𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)
 The cycles per unit time depends on the type of engine, for a 4 stroke engine,
number of cycles = 𝑁Τ2
 For a 2 stroke engine, number of cycles = 𝑁
 Thus, 𝑰𝑷 = 𝒑𝒊 𝑨 𝑳 𝑵Τ𝟐 𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂 𝟒 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒌𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆
 𝑰𝑷 = 𝒑𝒊 𝑨 𝑳𝑵𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂 𝟐 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒌𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆
 WHERE 𝑁 is the engine speed and n is the number of cylinders.