 CONCLUSION  BIBLIOGRAPHY

PRESSURE

Pressure, in the physical sciences, is the perpendicular force per unit area, or
the stress at a point within a confined fluid.

 In SI units, pressure is measured in pascals; one pascal equals one newton per
square metre.

 Absolute pressure of a gas or liquid is the total pressure it exerts, including

the effect of atmospheric pressure.

An absolute pressure of zero corresponds to empty space or a complete vacuum.

 Pressure is a scalar quantity.

EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

 According to the equation of continuity Av = constant.

Where A =cross-sectional area and v=velocity with which the fluid flows.

 It means that if any liquid is flowing in streamline flow in a pipe of non-

uniform cross-section area,

then rate of flow of liquid across any cross-section remains constant.

Consider a fluid flowing through a tube of varying thickness.

Let the cross-sectional area at one end (I) = A1 and cross-sectional area of other
end (II) = A

The velocity and density of the fluid at one end (I)=v1,

ρ1 respectively, velocity and density of fluid at other end (II)= v2,

ρ2 Volume covered by the fluid in a small interval of time ∆t, across left cross-
sectional is Area

(I) =A1xv1x∆t Volume covered by the fluid in a small interval of time ∆t, across
right cross-sectional Area (II) = A2x v2x∆Fluid inside is incompressible (volume of
fluid does not change by applying pressure) that is density remains same.

{ρ1=ρ2 .... (equation 1)} Along (I) mass=ρ1 A1 v1∆t and along second point (II) ,
mass = ρ2A2 v2∆t By using equation (1), we can conclude that A1 v1 = A2 v2.

This is the equation of continuity. The velocity and density of the fluid at one
end (I)=v1, ρ1 respectively, velocity and density of fluid at other end (II)= v2,
ρ2 Volume covered by the fluid in a small interval of time ∆t, across left cross-
sectional is Area (I) =A1xv1x∆t Volume covered by the fluid in a small interval of
time ∆t, across right cross-sectional Area (II) = A2x v2x∆t Fluid inside is
incompressible (volume of fluid does not change by applying pressure) that is
density remains same. {ρ1=ρ2 .... (equation 1)} Along (I) mass=ρ1 A1 v1∆t and along
second point (II) , mass = ρ2A2 v2∆t By using equation (1), we can conclude that
A1 v1 = A2 v2.This is the equation of continuity.

From Equation of continuity we can say that Av=constant.

This equation is also termed as “Conservation of mass of incompressible fluids”

DANIEL BERNOULLI
Daniel Bernoulli (8 February 1700 – 17 March 1782) was a Swiss mathematician and
physicist and was one of the many prominent mathematicians in the Bernoulli family.

He is particularly remembered for his applications of mathematics to mechanics,

especially fluid mechanics, and for his pioneering work in probability and
statistics.

His name is commemorated in the Bernoulli's principle, a particular example of the

conservation of energy, which describes the mathematics of the mechanism underlying
the operation of two important technologies of the 20th century:

the carburetor and the airplane wing.

Together Bernoulli and Euler tried to discover more about the flow of fluids.

It was known that a moving body exchanges its kinetic energy for potential energy
when it gains height.

Daniel realised that in a similar way, a moving fluid exchanges its specific
kinetic energy for pressure, the former being the kinetic energy per unit volume.

INTRODUCTION TO BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in the speed of a

fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the
fluid's potential energy.

The principle is named after Daniel Bernoulli, as mentioned before, who published
it in his book Hydrodynamica in 1738.

Although Bernoulli deduced that pressure decreases when the flow speed increases,
it was Leonhard Euler who derived Bernoulli's equation in its usual form in 1752.

The principle is only applicable for isentropic flows: when the effects of
irreversible processes (like turbulence) and non-adiabatic processes (e.g. heat
radiation) are small and can be neglected.

Bernoulli's principle can be applied to various types of fluid flow, resulting in

various forms of Bernoulli's equation; there are different forms of Bernoulli's
equation for different types of flow.

The simple form of Bernoulli's equation is valid for incompressible flows (e.g.
most liquid flows and gases moving at low Mach number).

More advanced forms may be applied to compressible flows at higher Mach numbers.

Bernoulli's principle can be derived from the principle of conservation of energy.

This states that, in a steady flow, the sum of all forms of energy in a fluid along
a streamline is the same at all points on that streamline.

This requires that the sum of kinetic energy, potential energy and internal energy
remains constant. Thus an increase in the speed of the fluid – implying an increase
in its kinetic energy (dynamic pressure) –
occurs with a simultaneous decrease in (the sum of) its potential energy (including
the static pressure) and internal energy.

If the fluid is flowing out of a reservoir,

the sum of all forms of energy is the same on all streamlines because in a
reservoir the energy per unit volume (the sum of pressure and gravitational
potential ρ g h) is the same everywhere.

Bernoulli's principle can also be derived directly from Isaac Newton's Second Law
of Motion. If a small volume of fluid is flowing horizontally from a region of high
pressure to a region of low pressure,

then there is more pressure behind than in front. This gives a net force on the
volume, accelerating it along the streamline.

Fluid particles are subject only to pressure and their own weight.

If a fluid is flowing horizontally and along a section of a streamline,

where the speed increases it can only be because the fluid on that section has
moved from a region of higher pressure to a region of lower pressure;

and if its speed decreases, it can only be because it has moved from a region of
lower pressure to a region of higher pressure.

Consequently, within a fluid flowing horizontally, the highest speed occurs where
the pressure is lowest, and the lowest speed occurs where the pressure is highest.

BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

The equation is given as, P + 1/2(ρ v2) + ρgh = 0 Where P is pressure, ρ is the
density of the fluid, v is its velocity,

g is the acceleration due to gravity and h is the height of the fluid from the
ground.