THEATRE OF

SOUTH-
AFRICA
HISTORY, ACTING
SPACES, IDENTITY IN
THEATRE
WORKSHOP THEATRE,
THEATER WITH AN AGENDA.

i
SA THEATRE HISTORY
BACKGROUND:
1. Generally

South Africa has an interesting and unique theatre history, mainly due to the apartheid
policy introduced by the NP (National Party). This legislation resulted in the theatre forms
developing on the basis of cultural differences and being determined by the culture of the
group concerned.
While this situation is changing and more integration can be seen between theatrical streams
today, there is no denying the influence of history. During Apartheid, certain cultural groups'
theatre forms enjoyed advantage, while others were ignored or self-banned.
Government's control over the media and acting platforms:
• Government controls radio and TV broadcasts, print press, and theaters;
• Apartheid policies and accompanying moral and religious values were spread with
propaganda through the media and educational, cultural and social institutions;
• Public social action was to reflect these values, so that the influence of the
government was strengthened and their outlooks confirmed;
• The state suppressed theatrical forms that stood against their policies;
• This resulted in "safe" plays or Western pieces that stood removed from SA
reality being staged instead;
• Indigenous theatre forms were suppressed and Academics did not begin to study
these performance forms until 1990.

ABSTRACT: Government's response to different theatrical streams

Type of Theatre / Cultural Government response :

Group
• Black English Theatre Is oppressed;
• Indigenous forms Is subject to censorship;
• Vernacular theatre Often banned and participants are prosecuted
• White English theatre forms Receiving subsidies (financial support)
• White African theatre forms Receiving platforms to promote growth and development
NB: Provided these theatre makers submit themselves to
the scrutiny of the government
• Liberal and/or "radical" white Is oppressed;
theatre (English or Afrikaans) Is subject to censorship;
• Any statements against Often banned and participants are prosecuted
Apartheid or material seen as
shocking
Furthermore, the mixing of racial groups and cultures was tightly controlled and banned over
time.

1
 2. Periods of SA Theatre Heritage

South Africa's theatre heritage can be divided into four main periods:
• Before 1948: Indigenous theatre and performance styles existed before the advent
of Colonialists. However, colonialists ignore this indigenous theatre, or see it as exotic
and exhibitionist. European standards are pursued in Colonial theatres.
• 1948-1960: Apartheid is implemented under the National Party. Black people and
theatre forms are being suppressed, while white Afrikaans theatre in particular is
growing.
• 1960-1991: SA is strengthened into a republic and Apartheid legislation in 1961. The
restrictions on black theater widened. The 1970s are known as the "Golden Age" of
Afrikaans literature. English theatre performs more Euro-American pieces.
• After 1991: Nelson Mandela's release on 27 April 1991 marked the beginning of a
new South Africa. Restrictions on theatre were abolished, affecting the nature of SA
theatre to this day.

During the 1950s, strict policies and legislation were introduced:

A major turning point in SA theatre history is decade of the 1950s. Until the 1950s, mixed
audiences were allowed to watch the same theatrical production, provided that the non-
white persons were separated from the whites. In the 1950s, the following happened :
• Mixed audiences are banned.
• Mixed theatre companies are prohibited;
• Passbook legislation and curfews restrict black people's access to theatre.

3. Summary of the CREATION of SA theatre forms:

Afrikaans theatre was faithfully supported by the state during Apartheid. Emphasis was
placed on theatre's cultural value to Afrikaners and European models were emulated.
Afrikaans theatre thus grew under the Apartheid government.

On the contrary, English theatre began to suffer onder the political climate. Western
countries withdrew from South Africa because of the injustices of Apartheid. In time,
therefore, no more Western English plays could be performed in South Africa. However,
English theatremen, such as Athol Fugard and Barney Simon, who created experimental
theatre or produced political work, continued to make contributions, but were strictly
monitored or restricted by the government. They often worked with black theater makers.

The Apartheid era did give life to a new voice in SA theatre. Due to oppression, black
theater makers found new, exciting approaches to theater. It was used as a political
mouthpiece and a vehicle for change. Some of SA's most distinctive and internationally
recognised playssaw the light of day during Apartheid.

2
 4. Separate development

To understand the origins of SA Theatre, we need to investigate the types of theatre that
existed before organised Apartheid. These theatre types form a jumping-off point for
understanding SA Theatre.
The NP came to power in 1948, but the full extent of apartheid policy was not achieved until
1960. Due to the isolation of cultures, theatrical forms became truly diverse .
However, black performances (oldest in SA) were suppressed by white theatre;
• Certain black playwrights attempted to write about matters affecting their community
;
• Their voices, however, were thundered over by European forms;
• Indigenous forms also began to emulate later European models;
• Since black performances are based in oral tradition, few of them have been
captured in writing and many of these works have been lost ;
• Black theater makers used theater as a political platform , because their voice in
most other sectors have been silenced;
• Black theatre therefore, due to segregation and social circumstances, has a unique
voice developed;
• New contexts had to be developed in which the anger and frustration towards the
political order could be expressed.

White English theatre was also oppressed during Apartheid:

• Due to the cultural isolation of the SA by the western world;
• Acting rights of European plays were not granted to SA theatre makers ;
• Certain theatre-makers (Pieter Dirk-Uys, Athol Fugard, Barney Simon) continued to
produce:
o create experimental new work;
o work is considered "brave", "new" and "exciting";
o Working with black theater makers to provide a platform of expression .
• These theatre-makers made a major contribution to the formation of a new identity
in SA Theatre.

Interesting thought to consider:

"The irony is that, had it not been for organised apartheid,

South Africa would not have the kind of diversity of theatrical
forms that it has today. The legacy of theatre/performance
is proof of humankind's ability to transcend and transform
oppression through art."

3
HISTORY: PERIODS IN MORE DETAIL

The history of SA cinema can be divided into two main periods, which are distinguished
by the first democratic elections:
Theatre before 1994
&
Theatre after 1994.

1. History of SA theatre: Theatre before 1994

A. BEFORE 1948
POLITICAL:
SA is a British colony.
Discrimination exists, but not yet under extreme Legislation.

• White Colonial Theatre:

o From the 1890s theatre began to develop:
▪ From amateur performances in any space;
▪ to professional performances with theater spaces.
▪ Theatre seeks to reflect Western values and practices ;
o Traveling theatre companies:
▪ African Consolidated Theatres (1913): Bringing American and British
companies to the British colonies. Performances were held in large towns and
companies would tour the country for 18 months.

• Multicultural Theatre:
o Pre-1960s: Few playwrights write about SA realities;
o Those who did write about life in SA had agendas:
▪ Kaatjie Kekkebek (1938): Social satire on life in SA. Main character was a
black capex who spoke Creole (Dutch, English and spoken language).
▪ The Light (1924) & U-Nongquase (1924): Plays by Mary Walters. Both have
a strong missionary message and outline the British who brought "civilization"
to Africa as the saviors of indigenous peoples.

4
• Black performances:
o Historical:
▪ Performances consist of rituals, ceremonies, storytelling, praise poems,
cultural dances etc.;
▪ Not similar to modern notion of theatre ;
▪ No texts or record have been preserved .

o Growth of black theater is restricted:

▪ Westernization and urbanization lead to the extinction of these forms;
▪ Legal restrictions on the coming together of black people;
▪ No compensation for black theater makers;
▪ Theatre work cannot be pursued sustainable career.

o During the 1920s and 1930s, the following became popular:

▪ Marabi & Famo (songs by women);
▪ Difela (praise songs by men);
▪ Religious plays;
▪ Comedy;
▪ Dramatisation of Zulu stories.

o Organizations and companies:

▪ Mthethwe's Lucky Stars (1926): dramas are based on indigenous themes and
rural life. They perform in townships and middle-class areas .
▪ Bantu Dramatic society (1932): Founded by Herbert Dhlomo. They seek to
develop dramatic and opera art & aim their work at the black middle class.

o Black Play:
▪ The girl who killed to save (1936): Written by Herbert Dhlomo. First black play
published in English promoting acceptance of colonialism as a possible
liberation from superstition and ignorance.

5
B. 1948 – 1960
POLITICAL:
Between 1949 and 1953 Apartheid legislation Was introduced.

• English Theatre
o White Angel speakers take America's and Europe's lead in creating art;
o Features of English Theatre:
▪ Middle Class;
▪ Conservative;
▪ Follow tradition of "true" western theatre;
▪ Do not reflect the challenges of SA reality.

• African Theatre
o White Afrikaans speakers wrote about issues that affect them;
o This theatre form is native to SA.
o Nationalism leads to the growth of Afrikaans Theatre:
▪ National party comes to power;
▪ National Theatre Organisation is formed;
▪ State subsidizes this organization;
▪ English theatre is encouraged;
▪ Black theater makers are not empowered ;
▪ Afrikaans theatre is strongly supported: Largest amount of new plays is
Afrikaans.

• Black Theatre
o Restrictions on black audiences:
▪ Most Theaters don't allow black people;
▪ Films are censored or banned specifically for black audiences;
▪ This continues into the 1980s.
o 1940s and 1950s :
▪ interest in theatre grows in oppressed classes;
▪ Black theater mainly adheres to oral traditions;
▪ Thus, few texts are preserved.
o Syndicate of African Artists (1940s):
▪ Organisation supports and assists African artists;
▪ government refuses to provide support, due to. racial admonition in
performances;
▪ Forced to disband in 1956.
o Union Artists (after 1956):
▪ Form from the Syndicate of African Artists;
▪ The musical King Kong is about Jazz in the townships;
▪ The musical opens at University of Johannesburg;
▪ King Kong achieved great success and even played in London.

6
C. 1960-1991
POLITICAL:
1960 - Sharpeville
1976 - Soweto Marches

• Generally:
o Theatre remains segregated on the basis of race, language and culture;
o In 1965, mixed troupes and audiences were prohibited by law;
o few theatre makers explore the SA reality in their work;
o Certain black traditions are sometimes exploited by white directors;
o Still no official theatres in the townships .

• Athol Fugard:
o Challenge the system by creating work with black theater makers;
o The Blood Knot (1961) is one of Fugard's plays:
o It makes big headlines, as a white and black man plays in it together;
o The play explores the obsession with racial classification.

• Playwright's Boycott in 1963

o Playwrights from all over the world refused to have their scripts performed in SA,
a.k.a. Apartheid;
o Various Performing Arts Councils are being created (KRUIK in Cape Town);
o Theatre spaces were being built for these councils (eg. Nico Malan, now Artscape);
o English Playwrights had to create their own work;
o Certain SA artists also refuse to cooperate with the councils and boycott the councils;
o Independent / Non-subsidized theaters arise;
o Multi-racial audiences in the theaters lead to clashes with the police.

• African Theatre
o 1960s and 1970s:
▪ "Golden age" of Afrikaans theatre and literature;
▪ Several young actors, playwrights and directors are making a name for
themselves;
▪ Certain Afrikaans Playwrights also ask difficult political questions in their work:
• NP van Wyk Louw questions Prime Minister Verwoerd in the play,
Die Pluimsaad Waai Ver;
• Bartho Smit's work is frequently banned and several of his pieces
were first performed abroad before being seen on SA stages.
▪ This era is waning with the advent of TV and Soweto uprisings.

7
• Black Theatre
o Township Drama:
▪ Larger audiences are seen at performances in townships;
▪ Due to urbanisation and greater spending power in the black middle class;
▪ More professional companies thus see the light of day.
▪ Plays deal with Township reality (love, alcoholism, violence);
o Gibson Kente:
▪ Director who used traditional influences in his work;
▪ Narrative narrative, music, dance, movinging;
▪ In doing so, his pieces connect urban township life with culture;
▪ Kent's pieces were popular and had e.g. influenced the work of Mbongeni
Ngema.
o Theatre of Black Consciousness
▪ Political resistance grew in the 1970s;
▪ SA's economy is leading due to the international sanctions;
▪ More oppressed persons are affected at resistance theatres ;
▪ Theatre becomes a platform of expression due to the fact that theatre becomes
a platform of expression. Depression;
▪ Theatre is didactic and focuses on resistance.
▪ Black consciousness in cinema seeks to:
• finding connection between cultural and political liberation;
• creating unity between the oppressed;
• engaging the audience in the fight;
• encouraging the audience to celebrate their culture.

• Censorship and control

o Government places strict restriction on public platforms;
o Political expression was restricted with strict regulations;
o Members of multi-racial companies (such as People's Experimental Theatre)
were prosecuted as terrorists;
o State sees "anti-state theater" as dangerous.

• Television (1976)
o The advent of TV broadcasting affects theatrical attendance;
o similar to the advent of movie houses in the 1920s;
o This immediate communication is controlled by the state;
o The state could . television propaganda spread.

• Internationally recognized works from the period:

o Woza Albert! : Dynamic production by Percy Mtwa and Mbongeni Ngema, with
Barney Simon. Physical theatre is presented in the style of Grotowski to depict the
situation in SA. Ngema and Mtwa performed this piece in the US and Britain and
received critical acclaim.
o Works by Pieter Dirk-Uys: He creates satire and challenges the state through
humour. His performances aren't necessarily scripted, making it hard for police
to find him .

8
D. TO 1991
POLITICAL:
1991 - Nelson Mandela Is released;
The turnaround In SA began and Led to the first Democratic Elections In 1994.

• Generally:
o Playwrights are beginning to write for a more multicultural audience;
o Focus of theme shift from resistance to reconciliation;
o Portrays humour and sadness from communities that now have to live together;
o Smaller audiences put pressure on theatre industry;
o Arts festivals continue to provide a vibrant platform for theatre makers.

9
 2. History of SA theatre: Theatre after 1994

Historical overview of political and social issues:

A. 1994-1999 - MANDELA'S YEARS
• New SA after the first democratic elections;
• SA is known as the "Rainbow Nation";
• Hopeful vision of reconciliation and hope arises;
• New constitution is introduced in 1997;
• Truth and Reconciliation Commission is compiled:
o investigate the extent and causes of apartheid violence;
o victims of violence come forward to tell their stories ;
o Culprits can also admit their violent offenses.
B. 1999-2008 – MBEKI'S YEARS
• Thabo Mbeki is president after the second democratic elections;
• Outcomes-based education is introduced to engage learners in education;
• Reasonable economic stability;
• HIV/Aids affects national crisis;
• Mbeki is strongly criticised for HIV/Aids and Zimbabwe's political crisis;
• Violence is on the rise;
• White emigrants multiply.

C. 2008-2009 – MOTLANTHE'S YEARS

• Kgalema Motlanthe becomes president after Mbeki is sacked;
• members of ANC leave party and establish COPE as opposing party;
• Xenophobia increases and becomes violent.

D. 2009-2018 – ZUMA'S YEARS

• Zuma becomes president and Motlanthe becomes deputy president;
• SA hosts the football World Cup in 2010;
• Campaigns and protests are on the rise due to growth in activism;
• Corruption is becoming a serious problem in politics;
• Zuma was implicated in many scandals and resigned as president.

E. 2018 – RAMAPHOSA'S PRESIDENCY

• Cyril Ramaphosa is appointed president the day after Zuma's resignation;

F. FUNCTIONS OF THEATER AFTER 1994

• Search / question of identity;

• documenting history ;
• Celebrating heritage;
• Education;
• Bringing healing to the people;
• Build communities ;
• Uncovering social issues ;
• Mocking .

10
 G. TYPE OF THEATER AFTER 1994:

Theatre for identity:

• Multicultural diverse SA is investigated;
• Integration of races and cultures is encouraged;
• Specific ethnic groups' culture is examined in certain plays;
• Afrikaans theatre: the identity and responsibility of Afrikaners is debated.
Theatre for Reconciliation:
• Seeks to portray the potential, ideal SA;
• Sometimes challenge the idea of unity;
• Depicts people who find and understand each other across boundaries of culture and race ;
• Seeks to initiate discussions to promote understanding;
• The Truth and Reconciliation Commission is used regularly .
Theatre for development:
• Education is central;
• Environmental issues are addressed;
• Companies tour rural areas;
• Workshop productions are common.

Theater for Social Commentary:

• Theatre is used to portray and question society;
• Audiences are encouraged to rethink the state of society.
• Themes often associated with social commentary:
1. Crime:
Plays explore how bad circumstances create bad people; Characters
are based on real-life SA citizens.
2. Violence:
Plays look at domestic/gender-based/crime-based violence. Plays also focus on
violence in black communities and vind a lot of support from young black audiences.
3. Religious Intolerance:
Plays explore intolerance and prejudices between about faith.
4. Addiction:
The drug crisis is seen centrally in several plays;
The health risks and emotional toll taken are being investigated.
5. Rape:
Plays are based on real experience and the consequences of rape.
6. Poverty & Socioeconomic / Social Status:
Increasing the separation of wealth and problems such as unemployment;
Investigate further social problems associated with poverty .
7. Racial Issues / Identity:
The ideal of the Rainbow Nation is challenged;
Racism and prejudice are under scrutiny;
The search for identity within an unequal nation, promising equal chances .

11
THEATRE SPACES IN SOUTH AFRICA

BACKGROUND: WHAT IS A THEATER SPACE?

1. Generally:

o Any space in which a performance takes place can be considered a theater space;
o According to Peter Brook (director), the only elements needed to create theatre are:
▪ Space in which the performance takes place;
▪ Performer acting ;
▪ Audience watching the performance .
o So theatre is about the shared experience;
o Not about the formal structure of the space.
o Theatre spaces have the possibility of transformation;
o Audiences usually enter the space with a willingness to believe this transformation ;
o In Western Cinema, there are even certain "rules", namely theatrical etiquette, in
which audience members endorse themselves.

2. Space in South Africa

o Even independent of theatre, space is a complicated issue in SA;

o Large parts of the political struggle in the country are a struggle around space:
▪ Historically, the majority of the population is excluded from certain
spaces;
▪ Certain spaces were held exclusively for use by the minority;
▪ Power relationships thus shape spaces and determine people's experience
of them.
o Certain spaces are therefore still considered " subordinate" or "less formal" today;
o In SA, however, is a vibrant and creative spirit that creates original theatre in various
spaces

12
DIFFERENT THEATRE SPACES IN SA:
1. Traditional performance spaces in SA:

Traditional African performances usually take place outdoors and not necessarily in formal
theatre buildings, as the Western idea prescribes. Oral narration and dramatic elements form
a large part of traditional practices in Africa.

o Different spaces would be used for different performances. The:

▪ social position and status of the practitioner;
▪ the purpose of the action;
▪ the amount participants .

o Although spaces would vary, certain features were frequently used:

▪ Circular arrangement – to promote maximum participation ;
▪ Painted background is sometimes used – extra depiction of the subject;
▪ Shifting space – ensuring flow of the action .

o Audience interaction was very important, following the purpose of the practice;
o These performances and performance spaces are part of SA's ancient theatre heritage.

o Here are examples of events conducted in traditional open-air performance spaces :

▪ Praise poetry (Dithoko in Sesotho and Izibongo in Zulu);
▪ Dance performances (eg. Sesotho dance form Dipina tsa Mokopu);
▪ Storytelling (Intsomi in Xhosa and izinganekwane in Zulu);
▪ Zionist Church Services.

Although these forms of the traditional idea differ Western theatrical performances , each
contains dramatic elements, such as singing, dancing, narrative narrative, improvisation,
etc. The space is chosen to meet the requirements of the performance and fit the doel of
practice .

13
 2. First Western-style theatre buildings in SA:

In the 1800s, several theatre buildings were erected in the cities , as the cities in SA
began to grow and develop rapidly. These theatres followed the shape and structure of
European tea buildings. Mainly white South Africans visited these theatres for the purpose
of seeing European entertainment.

Companies from Britain tour the country with successful pieces from London:
▪ These companies would tour the British colonies (i.e. SA);
▪ British groups help establish the theatre traditions and infrastructure in SA ;
▪ This usage is similar to with Pieter Toerien's theatres:
▪ The Globe (Montecasino in Johannesburg) and Theatre on the Bay (Cape Town);
▪ Where Toerien imports and has international plays and musicals performed.

The following Theatres were established in SA cities in the 1900s :

o Cape town
▪ The first theatrical building was built here;
▪ with the Opera House and Tivoli Theatre afterwards;
▪ Tivoli Theatre was set up for European musicals and variety artists.
▪ First indigenous English SA theatre piece (Love & the Hyphen, 1908) plays in the Cape.

o Johannesburg
▪ The Standard Theatre follows after Cape Town's theatres were erected;
▪ Searelle' Theatre Royal is built with gaslights in chandeliers.

o Kimberley
▪ Also a Theatre Royal, but less impressive than the one in Johannesburg;
▪ It consists of a great hall built of steel;
▪ with a bar that ran the entire length of the building ;
▪ Audiences of this theatre were often coarse and outspoken and audience
interaction took place.

o Other cities and theaters:

▪ Port Elizabeth – Opera House (still in use today );
▪ Durban – Royal Theatre;
▪ Pietermaritzburg – Scott's Theatre.

Although most of these theatres are no longer in use, each of these spaces has created a
platform on which theatre arts have been offered to audiences. These spaces contributed
greatly to the establishment of Western Theatre traditions and training in SA.

14
 3. University spaces in SA (during apartheid):

Performance spaces at Universities are central to SA's theatre history:

o Of course, these institutions contributed to the theatre industry by training students;
o University performance space gives platforms for experimental and alternative works;
o Legal restrictions on performances were not as strictly enforced in University spaces;
o Seen in apartheid as "grey areas", where racial mixing is endured.

o Training of actors:
▪ Young actors were trained at universities;
▪ During apartheid, the training was mainly offered to white students;
▪ Some universities accept "non-whites," but numbers remain low;
▪ Most young black actors are trained in community theaters.

Different Universities and their operating spaces:

o University of Cape Town: Little Theatre
▪ Oldest university space in SA (1931);
▪ National Theatre Organization did their first performance here (1948).

o Rhodes Universities: Drama Department

▪ Drama Department features several acting spaces;
▪ These spaces are used for the National Arts Festival in Grahamstown;
▪ Several important SA works premiere here, eg. Bushman and Lena.

o University of Witwatersrand: University Theatre

▪ Audience members of any race could attend
performances;
▪ Theatre plays that would thus be banned from other theatres are performed here;
▪ Workers' theatre pieces, e.g. Ilanga lizophumela Abasebenzi is performed here.

o University of Natal: Open Air Theatre

▪ Umabatha (SA adaptation of Macbeth) is written by Welcome Msomi in 1970;
▪ He received guidance and assistance from Prof. Elizabeth Sneddon of Natal
University;
▪ This collaboration was unusual in apartheid SA;
▪ The first performance of this piece will be done at the Open Air Theatre.

15
 4. Township spaces in SA:

Formal theatre was not seen in informal settlements. The apartheid government did not
provide black communities with spaces for entertainment. Performances therefore take
place in community halls, churches and other public spaces. Township theater often still
follows these guidelines today.
o Impact of these spaces on the performances:
▪ Lack of formal seats gives an informal feel among audience;
▪ Audiences were large and people would move in and out during performances;
▪ Audiences were often noisy and upbeat;
▪ Poor acoustics in halls is problematic;
▪ Steel and corrugated iron roofs also rage a lot when used e.g. Rain;
▪ Audibility is a challenge;
▪ So to survive, theater had to be vibrant, energetic, and creative.
▪ The space has therefore had a huge impact on shaping the iconic SA-
township style.

o The government's responses to these forms – Township theatre was seen as

dangerous:
▪ Theatre draws large audiences together;
▪ Theatre is used to portray relevant issues, such as the suppression of apartheid ;
▪ Therefore, it was stipulated that certain pieces were only allowed to play at small,
intimate spaces.
▪ This resulted in theatre plays being performed at altenative theatres;
▪ Many of these theatre plays were also performed abroad;
▪ The government felt more comfortable that these controversial pieces were
touring abroad, rather than playing in front of township audiences.

o Township Theatre Today:

▪ Theatre in the townships often still takes place in similar spaces, such as
churches and community halls.
▪ Many companies still exist today;
▪ Companies formed during apartheid and found success moved out of informal
settlements into alternative spaces, such as the Market Theatre.

16
 5. State-run theatre spaces in SA:

The National Theatre Organization was controlled by the state, but did not have its own
theater. In 1962, this organization was replaced by the Councils for PerformingArts. Each of
the four provinces of SA at the time formed its own board and built theatre complexes.
o Layout and facilities of the Theatre complexes:
▪ These complexes were large and well furnished;
▪ Each features more than one large theater spaces;
▪ Several rehearsal venues are set up;
▪ Facilities for the production of costumes and set pieces are available.

o Companies of these theaters:

▪ Permanent companies were appointed to create jobs;
▪ These companies consist of white Afrikaans- and English-speaking actors;
▪ Following the abolition of apartheid, these companies were disbanded.

o Nico Malan (Today known as Artscape / Artscape)

▪ In Cape Town;
▪ The theater was boycotted early after its opening;
▪ Since only white audiences were allowed;
▪ This ban was lifted in 1975;
▪ This theatre was a home for operas, ballet and Western theatre plays;
▪ Few works that reflected the social and cultural reality of SA predate the
performed at this theatre in the 1990s ;
▪ The Artscape is trying to show more indigenous works today.

o Other state-run action spaces:

▪ Johannesburg – Windybrow Theatre (Smaller Theatre in Hillbrow);
▪ Pretoria – State Theatre (Used for Opera, Ballet and Western productions);
▪ Durban – The Playhouse (Designed in the style of Elizabethan Theatres).

o These theaters today:

▪ The Councils for the Performing Arts were dissolved after apartheid was abolished;
▪ The theatre complexes today are Cultural Institutions;
▪ These theatres receive funding from the Department of Arts and Culture;
▪ All these theatres aim to house performances of all cultures found in SA;
▪ Cultural celebrations and community projects are also hosted by these theatres
▪ In doing so, these spaces become more inclusive and accessible.

17
 6. Alternative acting spaces in SA:

During apartheid, the most dominant Theatre traditions reflected the culture of the minority.
Alternative theatre is therefore theatre that responds to this and rebels against it. Alternative
performance spaces are theatre spaces that stage this work and other experimental or
controversial work.
o The Space in Cape Town (opened in 1972):
▪ Alternative, non-racial space for experimental works;
▪ Found after KRUIK (Cape Council for the Performing Arts) requested a piece from
playwright Athol Fugard;
▪ Fugard sought a space where he could experiment with ideas;
▪ Ironically, Fugard's process led to the opening of this space, where many anti-
apartheid pieces were performed;
▪ Big names who have performed here include Pieter Dirk-Uys, Fatima Dike and
John Kani;
▪ The theatre had to do so. financial pressures close;
▪ Pieter Dirk-Uys refers to this theatre as the "end of apartheid in art", as it is one of
the country's first spaces where multi-racial performances were held.

o The Market Theatre in Johannesburg (opened in 1976):

▪ The Market Theatre opens in the same week as the Soweto uprisings;
▪ Theatre opened as a space for The Company;
▪ The Company – company independent of state that created non-racial theatre;
▪ This theater opened in a space that was formerly a fruit market;
▪ The theater is located in Newtown, a so-called "gray area";
▪ This meant that the theatre was accessible to all South Africans;
▪ The theater did not begin to receive funding from the state until the 1990s ;
▪ Many original SA theatre pieces depicting the real circumstances of SA were
created or opened here, such as Woza Albert!.

o - The Baxter in Cape Town (opened in 1977)

▪ Theatre was donated to the City of Cape Town by William Baxter;
▪ The theater was deliberately opened on university grounds;
▪ In doing so, it falls into a gray area;
▪ Censorship was also less strictly applied to this theatre;
▪ The Baxter collaborated with the Market Theatre on pieces performed at both;
▪ Relationships are also built with companies from townships of Cape Town;
▪ It gives these artists a platform and space to develop.

18
 7. Community Arts Centres in SA:

These types of spaces are found in urban, rural and township areas. These types of theatres
often lack funding and are run as a matter of love or because the community has a need
for them.
o Community halls are often used for these theatres;
o These spaces are temporarily furnished as theatres and not used everyday as theatres;
o Young actors are often trained at community art centers;
o Many community art centers offer classes in various art forms ;
o These centres will also create a space for debate and conversation;
o Several of the productions will address community issues, for which trained
professionals who are experts on these issues will be involved (nurses, therapists, etc.).

o These theatres usually do not develop, due to various challenges:

▪ Financial challenges limit the possibilities;
▪ Lack of interest or support;
▪ Many participants are amateurs;
▪ Young promising talent developed here often wants to "move on" to bigger
or more profitable platforms;
▪ Participants in this theatrical form usually have to find another work, so rehearsal
time is rare.

19
 8. Arts festivals in SA:

South Africans have developed several arts festivals to celebrate Art:

o National Arts Festival (Grahamstown)
▪ Oldest SA Arts Festival;
▪ The festival program is 11 days long;
▪ All art forms are provided a platform at this festival;
▪ The festival seeks to shake off its image as an English Language Festival and become
more inclusive;
▪ Efforts are made to engage the community ;
▪ The main festival gives platform to existing and established artists;
▪ The fringe festival provides space for alternative work and young, up-and-coming
artists to show off their work.

o Klein Karoo National Arts Festival (Oudtshoorn)

▪ The first KKNK was held in 1995;
▪ The festival program is usually 8 days long;
▪ This festival is mainly Afrikaans, but work in other languages is offered;
▪ The festival also has various initiatives to develop young talent , such as the
Uitkampteater and the level of play offered to winners of the ATKV teen scene
competitions.

The festivals draw many people from all over the country to the villages where they are
hosted. Festivals
is therefore an economic injection for the town where it takes place.
Although efforts are being made to involve the communities, some of the festivals are
receiving criticism because they are not yet totally inclusive. The management of the
festivals does aim to involve more SA citizens, by launching community projects and by
inviting a greaterdiversity of artists to the festival.

20
IDENTITY IN SA THEATRE

BACKGROUND: WHAT IS IDENTITY IN THEATRE?

Theatre seeks to ask questions or offer answers regarding human experiences. To tell the
story of people, audiences need to resonate with events on stage in a way. A certain identity
or experience must be portrayed. Theatre has always been used to celebrate, question or
seek identity.

In SA, the separation enforced by apartheid led to the fact that the theatre forms that
developed in SA could be linked to racial or cultural identity. Within the political context of
apartheid, theatre makers of different cultural groups portrayed their identity in theatre.
Theatre has been used to promote this socio-political identity or even to fight for it.

DIFFERENT IDENTITIES IN SA THEATRE

1. South African " Black" Identity in Theatre

Black theater was banned and suppressed. Theater makers who pushed through wanted to
be heard:

o During apartheid, the focus is on the political construction of "being black";

o Forms of theatre with an agenda go hand-in-hand with this;
o Thus, efforts are made to reconcile and empower black audiences;
o Thus , personal stories are not very portrayed;
o Exceptions do exist, such as Gcina Mhlope's Have you seen Zandile?

Mafika Pascal Gwala (Black Consciousness poet) makes a distinction between two theatrical
forms:

o "Black drama"
▪ Seeks to promote dignity and self-assessment among black audience;
▪ Black people's own cultural norms are used;
▪ Increased political awareness is seen;
▪ Theatre in the service of the national black freedom movement.

o "Drama for Black People"

▪ Is associated with exploitation of black people and their culture;
▪ Also seen as theatre that values community problems/morality over politics.

21
2. "White" Afrikaans identity in theatre

o This theatre originated when Afrikaans was suppressed by British Colonists;

o Afrikaners were discriminated against;
o Theatre, therefore, encouraged people to fight for their place.

o Early African Theatre:

▪ Focus on building Cultural nationalism;
▪ Promote the idea of an independent South African republic;
▪ Theatre was also used to remember history;
▪ Playwrights are encouraged to create a lot of work ;
▪ The emphasis is on quantity rather than quality;
▪ In doing so, a corpus of literature is built up;
▪ Experimentation is prevented and little innovative work is created.

o Afrikaans Theatre under apartheid:

▪ New era in Afrikaans theatre is ushered in by Bartho Smit's Mother Hanna
(1959);
▪ Councils for the Performing Arts are established in 1962;
▪ These councils create energetic new theatre and receive good subsidies;
▪ This gives rise to the "Golden Age" of Afrikaans theatre;
▪ Many new jobs are created and faithfully supported by Afrikaners.

o South African Theatre is becoming more "aware":

▪ In the 1970s, Afrikaans drama gained a more socio-political voice;
▪ Playwrights begin to write "problem dramas":
▪ In these works, the characters are faced with a dilemma;
▪ It often works with ideas seen as taboo by conservative audiences;
▪ Audiences are encouraged to reconsider their own views.
▪ Other forms are also created that are seen as "anti-establishment":
▪ Hennie Aucamp's cabarets question the Afrikaner values;
▪ Reza de Wet's plays question Calvinism;
▪ Deon Opperman criticizes the border war;
▪ Pieter Dirk-Uys's satire lives up to political criticism.
▪ These pieces have been banned or are being performed at alternative theatre
spaces.

22
3. "Coloured" identity in Theatre

o “coloured” communities defend their identity in theatre;

o Afrikaans is the home language of many coloured people;
o The struggle of identity is central to several coloured playwrights ' work;
o An example of this is Adam Small's Kanna Hy Kô Hystoe;
o Several brown playwrights' works are nowadays considered literary gems;
o The coloured experience is also being explored. Social issues:
▪ Murder;
▪ Drugs and alcohol;
▪ Violence;
▪ Poverty

o The live musicals of Taliep Pietersen and David Kramer:

▪ Create popular work that is internationally renowned;
▪ Examples are District Six – The Musical and Cat and the Kings;
▪ It reflects the zest for life and energy of this cultural group;
▪ but unfortunately also led to the creation of certain stereotypes

4. South African " white" English identity in theatre

o English theatre reflects a lack of identification with SA as a country of birth;

o It took a long time for English theatre makers to develop a unique voice ;
o Before 1970s, most theatre work in English is Western imported texts;
o Cultural Boycott during the 1970s and 1980s led to more English SA pieces being
created;
o English Theatre Makers began to write about their experience as SA citizens;
o Certain pieces explore the SA identity through the process. Satire, such as The
Fantastical History of a Useless Man;
o Paul Slabolepzy's works explore the identity of English South Africans, e.g . South
Africans.
Saturday night at the palace (1982).

23
5. South African " Indian" identity in Theatre

o Indians came to SA in 1800s;

o They bring with them an established theatrical tradition;
o Various cultural and theatrical organizations are created in Indian communities,
despite the opposition of the government;
o This perseverance signifies a cultural love of theatre;
o In the 1960s, satire and slapstick comedy were used to create protest theater ;
▪ These theater makers turn the mirror to their own communities;
▪ In these theatre plays, weaknesses of SA Indians are depicted;
▪ But the rich culture is also celebrated;
▪ The references were current;
▪ Colloquialisms are used;
▪ characters were broad and stereotypical;
▪ Masses resonated with this .
o In the 1990s, most new Indian jobs were offered in English;
▪ Plays explore experiences peculiar to SA Indians;
▪ E.g. At the Edge which deals with experiences of displacement from homes
and destruction of neighbourhoods through the Group Areas Act.

6. Negotiating an Overall SA Identity in Theatre

o No official restrictions exist anymore separating groups in SA ;

o Certain plays attempt to portray a shared identity;
o Shared experiences and different outlooks are explored;
o Plays are not affiliated with a specific culture, race, or language;
o In doing so, multiculturalism is explored and promoted.

24
COLLABORATIVE CREATION
PROCESS: WORKSHOP THEATRE

BACKGROUND
1. What is Workshop Theatre?

First , it is very important to realize that the term Workshop Theatre refers to a process
of creation, rather than a presentation style. Although most Workshop productions may
have certain features that are stylistically similar, the process of creation is at the core that
we focus on.
It's a method where the band members WORK TOGETHER to co-create a drama. These
dramas always have a strong message and use language and words that are familiar to the
audience so that they can identify with them.
It advocates unity and cohesion because it allowed illiterate people to contribute to the
creation of a relealofte, thought-provoking, stimulating and topical performance.

2. What type of theatre is appropriate for the SA reality in the 1960s-

1990s?

Africa has a strong tradition of storytelling and spoken poetry. Although certain traditional
formulas are used, the poet/storyteller will adapt and vary the presentation based on the
reaction of the audience.
A number of Western theatre practitioners, specifically Grotowski and Peter Brook (a British
director), have worked on the idea of a simplified presentation and the development of the
importance of the actor.
In South Africa, however, the workshop process was a sensible, rather than an artistic,
choice. Actors wanted to quickly create actualplays with a strong message, speaking the
language of the people and following a democratic process. Moreover, these plays could
not rely on theatrical staging spaces, but should have been staged anywhere, even outdoors.

3. Why did Workshop Theatre in SA become so popular?

This form of theatre appeared in South Africa in the 1970s. It quickly became a popular
creation process, as it allowed any person to create a drama or play in it , even if they
were not brought up as an artist. Even people who cannot read or write can participate in
the creation process.

25
These productions also use a variety of languages and the language is as one would
hear on the street – it is therefore accessible to all people as audience members. It was
therefore very helpful when the actors tried to educate large numbers of people on important
matters such as racism and oppression.

Although initially criticized by the Swart Awareness Movement ( Black Consciousness

Movement), after the '76 uprisings it became a dominant theatrical form, employed by
anti-apartheid knowers. In essence, it is participatory and communal (communal) in nature
and shifts the focus away from an individual playwright.

Workshop Theatre is... cooperative, immediate,

accessible, varied.
4. The first Workshop theatre groups in South Africa

The groups whose work formed the basis of the style were:
The Serpent Players (New Brighton, Port Elizabeth) where Fugard worked with John
Kani and Winston Ntshona to shape such works as Sizwe Banzi is Dead and The Island .
Workshop '71 (an Institute of Race Relations – project) which produced plays such as
Crossroads, Uhlanga, and Survival , among others .
The Phoenix Player s that, in collaboration with Barney Simon, to adaptations,
musicals, as well as a health training project, worked .
The Junction Avenue Theatre Company was formed in 1976. This group of actors
created topical and challenging plays through the workshop process, many of which were
eventually immortalized in textual form. Their first toneesltuk was The Fantastical History of
a Useless Man and explored the participants' own view of each one's place in theSouth Africa
of 1976. This company was interested in the past, their own histories and place in society,
and the social order of which they are a part. One of the company's highly acclaimed
productions is Sophiatown (1986) documenting the devastation of the multicultural
township of Sophiatown.
5. The comparison between oral tradition and workshop theatre.

Both are based on improvisation. They are not written down, but "created" (any written
version is a record of the end product). The audience is engaged as an essential part of the
process. Both forms make use of certain formulas (which can be used in different ways)
and stereotypical characters and storyline. Repetition is a further feature. The whole
process shows similarities to the work created during the Commedia Del 'Arte period.

26
WORKSHOP THEATRE IN PRACTICE
1. The Creation Process

The process does not assign specific roles (director, actor or wearingmatrix) to contestants
and although the process is different for creating each performance, there are certain
recognizable stages/steps. These phases/steps do not always proceed linearly and may
overlap.

A summary of each of the Steps:

1. The Idea/Intent: The process begins with an idea for a presentation, or the need to
investigate an issue or educational matter .

2. Observation and Research: This is the research step that uses traditional research
methods: interviews, observation, or personal experiences.
3. Improvisation: The group decides on a skeleton structure or basic theme for the
improvisation. Actors improvise within this structure.
4. Selection (Selections): The respective "bits of action" (scenes) created through
improvisation are either selected, or rejected, or processed by the members of the
group / the director.
5. Record recording/Corroboration: The final phase may include a
recording/substantiation of the production wees, either as text, auditory recording,
or as footage (video). This ensures that the play is preserved after the performance.
6. REHEARSAL!

27
 2. The five phases / steps in more detail...

A. STAGE 1: THE IDEAS/TOPICS

The idea of where the presentation is developed is determined by the members of the
group who will be performing the play. It is very important that the group discusses the
idea thoroughly. In doing so, the group ensures that they are going to weave productively
in the same direction when they start creating.
The idea is often a problem or shortcoming that they have noticed in their immediate
environment or society. So the group feels that this issue really affects them and they want
to change/address it. With the workshop process, the group does not have to wait for a
playwright to write the text, publish it, then learn the words and interpret the author's
ideas , themes and characters. They can create a production that directly addresses the
problem , provided the IDEA is well developed.
This idea may have to do with:
1. An issue that affects everyone's lives in the community (Community Theatre)
2. Something the audience needs to know to improve their lives (Educational theatre)
3. Issues Occurring at the Workplace (Workers' Theatre)
4. Something the community sees as unfair and wants to show their feelings about it – a
controversial topic (Protest Theatre)
5. Someone's experience(s) they want to share (Dramatic theatre)

28
 B. STAGE 2: RESEARCH AND OBSERVATION

Once the group has established their idea, research should be done. This ensures that...
1. The idea they want to address is relevant in the contemporary context;
2. The play is more universal (the group already fails to present their own
impressions/experience as the absolute truth);

3. The play is not based on generalized knowledge or prejudices ;

4. The groep interesting and real inspiration gets to create material with .

The manner in which research is conducted in this section is, of course, determined by the
goal that the group wants to achieve with their production. Usually, research will be more
focused on people and their experiences, rather than only looking at " academic sources".
Traditional research methods are used:
1. Interviews (as in the process of Sophiatown) – This direct communication asks that
relevant people tell about their personal experiences. It can also give the group
interesting inspiration about how they communicate with others.
2. Observation (as with Woza Albert!) – it can be direct observation of people and their
everyday circumstances, where they are confronted with the subject of the production
in real situations; such as trading at the market, bus/taxi stands, etc.
3. Personal experiences (such as The Long March) – The group can substantiate their
material or base it on their own experience of the topic. It is wise, however , not to
lean the entire production on this, as it is not necessarily universal enough.

29
C. STAGE 3: IMPROVISATION

1. Improvisation takes place around the structure chosen by the group . Actors
improvise by relying on their observation and research in order to create characters
and respond to situations.
2. The rest of the group watches, responds and gives advice. The improvisation, in many
cases, includes singing and dancing (which often has cultural significance).
3. Improvisation can be experimental, developing characters or instilling confidence in the
company.
4. Improvisation does get done most of the time o m creatingnew material for the play
.
5. Records should be kept of the improvisation (i.e. videos or notes) so that all
work can be considered for the final text.

30
 D. STAGE 4: SELECTION / CHOICES

Choice should be made as to which improv material to involve in the final play .
For obvious reasons, not everything can be included; so it has to be decided which sections
best support the topic and binne will work in a dramatic context . The scenes chosen are
then joined together through connecting material, in order to form a framework for staging
.
The selection and aggregation of scenes can be done in two ways:
6. One person controls the process after the completion of the improvisational phase
(eg. Sophiatown). This is known as the directors approach.
7. The group that does the improvisations connects the respective parts (eg. Asinamali).
It
is a collective and collaborative approach.

"When do we use the directors approach, or when do we use the

collaborative approach?"

Workshop plays designed for professional performances usually make use of the
directorial approach and tend to be structured and coherent in theatrical terms.
HOW DO WE KNOW IF SUCH A PRODUCTION IS SUCCESSFUL?
The end product is assessed . creating a successful theatrical presentation.

Workshop plays created by non-professional groups (such as unions or communities)

make use of the collaborative approach. The vision is communal, the process
democratic, and the presentation is created through consensus and joint decision-making.
HOW DO WE KNOW IF SUCH A PRODUCTION IS SUCCESSFUL?
The end product is judged in terms of the political statement it makes and the action it
depicts or produces.

31
 E. PHASE 5: RECORD RECORDING/CORROBORATION

Record must be kept in two ways:

1. In fact, record-breaking begins already in the improvisational phase. While actors
improvise, records of spontaneous creation must be kept, so that all the results can
be considered at the selection.
2. The final text must be finalized and written down after selection. Plays need to be
staged repeatedly and need a degree of consistency. It can be accessed by...
a. repeating scenes until captured ,
b. a scribe writing down notes,
c. or to record the action (video/audio).
True, it is important that a final text is fixed so that the company and technicians
can follow each other exactly during performances.
The more professional the presentation, the more detailed the final text should be (in
terms of playtime, scene directions, etc.). However, many times there are elements
that still occur to make thisplay more current, or highlight touchpoints with a specific
audience .

32
 3. Advantages of animal Workshop Process

Workshop theatre was based on democratic methods (not authoritarian) and was therefore
an appropriate medium for people to use in their revolt against the apartheid regime. This
method allowed illiterate people to make contributions when creating a topical, thought-
provoking performance. It does not require elaborate sets, or lighting, or a special theater
space.

1. Anyone can create a piece or play in it, even if they can't read or write .
2. A text is not required.
3. It is reasonable to perform, seeing that costumes, props, lighting and set to a
be minimized .
4. No special space is required. Usually an arena play area is used.
5. The audience can gather around the actors informally – they don't even need
chairs.
6. Special effects are created by the actors, through musical, vocal and movement
skills.
7. Costs are kept very low.
8. There is not one director .
9. All participants in the performance play a role in the creation process.
10. The play could be about recent/current events.
11. The structure of the performance is as varied as the talents of the group.

The bottom line of these factors is that the play can be performed where the audience will
be. Because it is cost-effective, people are not excluded because they cannot afford a
ticket.

33
 4. Form and Structure of Workshop Productions.

It's episodic. This is due to the influence of traditional oral stories, such as the Izinganeg
wane of Zulu tradition. This episodic structure can be seen as Brechtian or Epic .
Furthermore, the creation process of workshop theatre suggests and encourages an episodic
style.
It uses a repeated formula. The workshop plays in the 1980s range from people's
recognition of their oppression to a clear explanation of how to rise above the tribulation.
This is multilingual in many cases. Choice of language is determined by the target audience.
Community-based theatre will usually use the do-it-yourselflanguage of the community,
while more professionally oriented theatre should cater to a wider range of people. In
many cases, characters will speak in different languages as an outward sign of their cultural
differences.
Scenes are connected through singing, dancing, or physical movements. This may help
with the creation of a uniform presentation.
The actors make eminent use of physical and vocal work (reminiscent of Grotowski)
to create a dynamic, energetic presentation .
Dramatic skills include storytelling, dialogue, monologues, singing, dance, music , and
narrative.
The audience is often encouraged to participate in the singing, dances and the making of
contributions, and this is required.

34
SUMMARY:

Workshop theatre has a twofold social process:

1. For the participants in the creative process: They acquire a sense of pride and dignity
because their story is important. They develop increased self-confidence that assists
them in their actions. A sense of solidarity and group identity is developed and a better
understanding of how they are oppressed/exploited, as well as wayse to oppose
oppression/exploitation.
2. For those watching the play: The play forms a record of the group's fight against
injustice and documents contemporary social issues. In general, other media forms
were controlled by the state. Workshop plays create a social awareness of injustice and
oppression. They serve as a mobilization agent, by encouraging others to oppose
oppression and resort to similar action .

35
THEATRE WITH a SPECIFIC AGENDA!

INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS THEATER WITH AN AGENDA?

Theatre is created in SA especially in the 1970s with a specific agenda. So: the theater
makers want to achieve a specific goal. The value/success of these forms of theatre is
measured by the ability to bring social or political change. this change can be made
through new knowledge and ways of thinking OR new patterns of behavior.

THEATRE WITH AGENDA TRADITIONAL

THEATRE:
Focus / Core Idea what motivates the Playwright's storyline
text
Purpose Social change Providing entertainment or
/ insight
Motivation
Central Actors ' skills Themes and characters
element

1. How are these theatrical forms approached?

WHO CREATES THE THEATER PIECE?:

1.Most are created through Workshop process;
2.Sometimes also created by a single Playwright.
WHAT DOES THE PROCESS LOOK LIKE?:
1.The workshop process can either take a
Directorial, 2.or a Collaborative approach.

HOW IS THE ABOVE DETERMINED?

1.It Is decided by the type of Agenda (goal) that needs to be Achieved.

2. How to determine what the agenda of a theater piece is:

Ask yourself ...

WHAT? What Topics are covered?

HOW? How are the piece created?
WHO? Who are the players? Who is the audience?
WHERE? Where are the piece staged?

36
THE SIX FORMS OF THEATRE WITH AN AGENDA:
These forms can be mixed up and overlap a lot. Theater makers choose to what extent they
use these forms to achieve their unique goals:

1. Protest Theatre; 2. Workers' Theatre;

3. Educational theater; 4. Environmental theater

(a form of educational theatre);

5. Community Theatre; 6. Satire and the Satirical Revue.

37
 1. PROTEST THEATRE

OBJECTIVE: To bring about real change as soon as possible.

FOCUS ON: Social problems, political injustice, economic inequality, etc.
• Existing topical / relevant challenges are blatantly and directly addressed
• It is demanded that something be done about it.

IN SOUTH AFRICA , PROTEST THEATRE...

• ... A way in which the evolving Black Awareness movement created a sense of
be able to create solidarity;
• ... made audiences aware of inequalities of apartheid;
• ... focus placed on oppression by a white minority.

FEATURES: IF YOU WANT TO CREATE PROTEST THEATER/IDENTIFY IT...

• Idea is the main feature;
• Even the storyline and characters are created around the idea;
• Episodic structure is used;
• Connecting material ties together independent scenes (vocals, music, narration, etc.)
• Impact on the audience is important, so shocking images and symbols are used;
• Characters are artificial and stereotypical;
• Topical references are used and updated as needed;
• Sets were stripped: suggestive rather than complete;
• Posters and slides are used to transmit information
• Performances are often in “found spaces” /alternative spaces, not theaters;
• Financial shortages lead to multifunctional and simple costumes and props;
• Unusual and homemade instruments are used;
• Lighting is simple (especially due to lack of availability/finansies);
• Poor theatre techniques are used, so actors ' physical actions are encouraged.

AUDIENCE REACTION: WHAT SHOULD THE AUDIENCE DO / FEEL?

Many techniques of Epic cinema are used, but...

Epic Theatre seeks INTELLECTUAL REACTIONS from the audience , so that the
audience notices the given problems and tries to solve them productively or rationally.
Protest theater seeks EMOTIONAL REACTIONS from the audience, so that audiences
become indignant or angry about the problems and immediately demand or apply the
change for them.

Protest theater is urgent: the problems must be solved immediately.

38
 2. WORKERS' THEATRE

OBJECTIVE: To teach, Mobilise and raise awareness .

FOCUS on: Theatre "for the people , by the people" on problems in the workplace.
• Plays are staged by workers of a particular employer / institution;
• "Actors" are amateurs who portray issues that are truly experienced;
• Workers' theatre arises because...
o There are often differences in levels of skill within workspaces ;
o Workers were not always given a platform to raise their grievances.

OBJECTIVES ARE TO...

• Make workers aware of issues that apply to them;
• Creating Solidarity ;
• Train workers on how to improve their situation ;
• Raising money for strikes ;
• Empower all workers inclusively to understand and discuss issues;
• Resolving the issues .

IN SOUTH AFRICA, WORKERS' THEATRE IS...

• ... Developed from principles of European Marxism (where in the 1920s- 1950s in the
USSR the working class was encouraged to use the theater, to wage the struggle of
"land, peace and bread");
• ... based on the assumption that the audience has the ability to reason and think
(as in Brecht's Epic Theatre);
• ... mixed with Protest Theatre over time to depict similar themes and opinions;
• ... 1970s developed with political change and emergence of Unions;
• ... staged for the first time under FOSATU at a strike of metalworkers:
o Workers lacked the skills to file grievances in report format;
o By dramatizing the problems, the labor lawyer was able to grasp the situation;
o Junction Avenue Theatre Company creates the play, Illanga Lizo Phumela
Abasebenzi (The Sun Also Rises).
• ... staged as a way to involve workers in the annual union meetings :
o Volunteers are "cast" and rehearsals take place in the union's offices;
o Plays are made by means of. created workshop process ;
o It empowers players and audience, and gives a sense of pride in their
achievements;
o First example is the Dunlop Play by the Metal and Allied Workers' Union.
• More examples:
o Once Bitten, Twice Shy, The Kwa Mashu Street Cleaners' Play, The Clover Play
and The Long March.

39
FEATURES: IF YOU WANT TO CREATE/IDENTIFY WORKERS' THEATER...
• Actors are unprofessional and work in the circumstances themselves;
• Plays do not rely on language skills and are appropriate for illiterate audiences;
• Use techniques such as mime, storytelling, informal language, and humor;
• Messaging can be serious and potentially controversial;
• Jump between realistic and non-realistic presentation style;
• Multilingual, multicultural audiences;
• Decor, costumes and props are simple and easy to transport;
• Show that differences between groups should not affect the status of the groups.

AUDIENCE REACTION: WHAT SHOULD THE AUDIENCE DO / FEEL?

• Audience is involved in the production;
• Audience interaction is encouraged, e. in terms of questions asked;
• In doing so, audiences become aware of alternative options
• AND conflict can be resolved in a social space.

40
 3. COMMUNITY THEATRE

OBJECTIVE: Try to identify and address problems in community.

FOCUS ON: Social Engagement and interaction.
• Developed in third world countries ;
• Addresses social and social issues and encourages change.

IN SOUTH AFRICA , COMMUNITY THEATRE IS...

• ... outcome-oriented, as it identifies and then addresses the specific community's
problems;
• ... used to inform illiterate and uninformed communities in an accessible way in
lifting and solving problems;
• ... harnessed to replace books and written sources that are not always accessible;
• ... created primarily by concerned outsiders and experts;
• ... develop from knowledge of experts and blend social experience of the community.
• ... focused on portraying communities' challenges and providing solutions:
o Example: Winterveld Squatter Camp Project
o Problems such as medical needs, unemployment and
education andtheir psychological effect are explored in role-playing
with real stickers;
o Subject matter experts are called in to dramatize
skills, such as a
dietitian who dramatizes methods of food production.
• ... sometimes employed in a political manner :
o Example: Code Kobenini ma Crossroads? (How long Crossroads)
o It follows the model of the Winterveld project, but takes it a step further;
o Tour in similar communities and make audiences aware of the causes of the
problems;
o So this play explores the underlying political circumstances.

FEATURES: IF YOU WANT TO CREATE / IDENTIFY COMMUNITY THEATRE...

• ... the following three stages should be followed:
1. Raising awareness: Role-playing is used to explore community problems ;
2. Social action: Scholars help actors dramatize practical solutions to problems ,
which have practical utility for the community.
3. Politicization: Information about the cause of problems is given here and social
change is encouraged. This phase is therefore accompanied by protest theatre
and is only included if protest elements are actively pursued.

AUDIENCE REACTION: WHAT SHOULD THE AUDIENCE DO / VOEL?

• Audience should find the situations on stage recognizable;
41
• The audience must find solutions to their societal challenges in the play.

42
 4. EDUCATIONAL THEATER

OBJECTIVE: To Teach and Empower General Audiences to Act expertly.

FOCUS ON: A specific issue that the company chooses, with universal application.
• Usually initiated by professional outside groups;
• Companies go to where the audiences are;
• Audiences can be diverse and are taught in general;
• This theatrical form is used worldwide.

OBJECTIVES ARE TO...

• ... Train or educate audiences about issues related to their communities OR
outside their frame of reference.

IN SOUTH AFRICA , EDUCATIONAL THEATRE BECOMES...

• ... used to address a wide range of topics ;
• ... often performed at schools and community centers ;
• ... used especially in the transitional years from apartheid to democracy ;
• ... employed productively to educate unskilled and skilled audiences.
• Examples:
o Twisisa (Understand) project launched at Gazankulu: methods of Augusto Boal
are used to teach people to read and write and learn basic skills for a modern,
industrial existence . Adults and youth groups make up the audiences.
o Beachwise: Staged around Durban to train persons who did not have access to
beaches before the 1990s on safety and general responsibility at sea. This was
necessary because of the apartheid legislation that enforced segregation on
beaches.
o Voter education: Before 1994, a large amount of the SA population had never
voted. Interactive performances tour across SA to provide training .
o The work of Pieter Dirk Uys: In 1993 Uys wrote his own play and toured SA to
encourage citizens to vote. In the late 1990s, his focus shifted to HIV/AIDS
education.
o Gang violence: In the Cape, productions were created with the help of ex-gang
members. With the use of rap and graffiti, they seek towarn young people's of
the dangers of this lifestyle.

FEATURES: IF YOU WANT TO CREATE / IDENTIFY EDUCATIONAL THEATER...

• Plays can be created through a playwright or workshop process;
• Tickets are very cheap or free;
• Costuming and sets are basic;
• Plays can be staged in any space;
• Accurate factual content is essential, so professional subject matter experts are
engaged.
43
 5. ENVIRONMENTAL THEATRE

OBJECTIVE: To Point out Specific Threats and Challenges Or Environment.

FOCUS ON: A conservation issue that affects Nature OR the Population.
• Follow the same basic process / principles as Educational Theater;
• This form is therefore a branch of Educational Theatre;
• In the SA context, environmental issues are very prominent;
• Thus, Environmental Theatre in SA is seen as an individual form of theatre.

OBJECTIVES ARE TO...

• ... Educating audiences about ecological or conservation problems:
o What threatens nature (such as the conservation of endangered species);
o Threatening nature and human population (such as drought water
restrictions).
• ... Trying to ensure the conservation of the environment.

IN SOUTH AFRICA , ENVIRONMENTAL THEATRE IS...

• Created mainly by Theatre For Africa: a company led by Nicholas
Ellenbogen;
• This company combines their focus on nature with a physical SA style that refers to
the indigenous performance traditions;
• Examples of environmental theater created by Ellenbogen :
o Kwamansi: Originated in 1986 and is set at a waterhole. Actors use movement
and sound effects to imitate the animals and create atmosphere of SA bushveld .
Created by Ellenbogen and Loft Actors.
o Horn of sorrow: Focus on the bereavement of the black rhinoceros. It seeks to
educate poorer communities who are tempted to become involved in poaching.
o Elephant of Africa: This play explores the moral issues of hunting as
sports, by following the life of an elephant bull .

FEATURES: IF YOU WANT TO CREATE / IDENTIFY ENVIRONMENTAL THEATRE THEATRE...

• Plays are most commonly created through a workshop process;
• Plays contain dialogue, but movement and physical theater are central;
• Actors often emulate animal qualities;
• Rehearsals often begin in nature;
• Actors conduct firsthand research of the environment.

44
 6. SATIRE AND THE SATIRICAL REVUE

• Satire is literary or Dramatic art that illuminates the ridiculousness of something;

• Subject matter is ridiculed by humor;
• Audience / reader is entertained and experiences contempt for the subject;
• Highly critical and never sympathetic ;
• Use humor as a weapon.

OBJECTIVES ARE TO...

• Making audiences realize where the shortcomings of the subject lie;
• Audiences laugh at the recognizability of the portrayal;
• Audiences realize that their own behavior, or society's behavior, is reflected;
• This criticism and awareness of one's own or others' shortcomings will hopefully lead
to change.

FEATURES: IF YOU WANT TO CREATE/IDENTIFY SATIRE...

• Sophisticated satire: mocking shortcomings that can change (such as vanity, greed;
corruptions);
• Blatant satire: Mocking more obvious features, such as physical
properties (eg. a big nose) and foolishness.
• Techniques of Satire: How does the satirist make the subject mocking?
1. Irony By saying the opposite of what is expected or intended;
2. Sarcasm Snide or hurtful remarks that are often also ironic ;
3. Reduction Status and dignity are stripped from the subject;
4. Exaggeration The shortcomings need to be magnified humorously , to create
a new
create distorted version of the character ;
5. Wit / wit When detached ideas are connected to
show fine humorous connection between matters;
6. Imitation To create a recognizable likeness of the subject ;
7. Parody When mocking the recognizable imitation ;
8. Travesty When grotesque or shocking features are exaggerated to create
humor.

ON STAGE :
• Techniques of satire can be inscribed as a literary technique a text;
• Satire can form a performance in its own right, in the form of the Satirical Revue:
o The Satirical Revue was developed in France;
o Theatrical presentation without a storyline;
o It focuses on the problems of society and is updated daily;
o Comic songs and sketches are combined to explore a current issue ;
o Often performed by only one actor;
45
o Pieter Dirk Uys is a well-known satirist who stages Satirical Revues on politics.

46