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Module 1

Mathematics
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Preface

Thank you for purchasing the Total Training Support Integrated Training System. We are
sure you will need no other reference material to pass your EASA Part-66 exam in this Module.

These notes have been written by instructors of EASA Part-66 courses, specifically for
practitioners of varying experience within the aircraft maintenance industry, and especially those
who are self-studying to pass the EASA Part-66 exams. They are specifically designed to meet
the EASA Part-66 syllabus and to answer the questions being asked by the UK CAA in their
examinations.

The EASA Part-66 syllabus for each sub-section is printed at the beginning of each of the
chapters in these course notes and is used as the "Learning Objectives".

We suggest that you take each chapter in-turn, read the text of the chapter a couple of times, if
only to familiarise yourself with the location of the information contained within. Then, using
your club66pro.com membership, attempt the questions within the respective sub-section, and
continually refer back to these notes to read-up on the underpinning knowledge required to
answer the respective question, and any similar question that you may encounter on your real
Part-66 examination. Studying this way, with the help of the question practice and their
explanations, you will be able to master the subject piece-by-piece, and become proficient in the
subject matter, as well as proficient in answering the CAA style EASA part-66 multiple choice
questions.

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rv1odule 1 ChapteiS

1 . Arithmetic
2. Algebra
3. Geometry

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TTS Integrated
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Module 1
Licence Category B 1 and 82

Mathematics

1 .1 Arithmetic

Module 1.1 Arithmetic 1-1

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Copyright Notice

©Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Total Training Support Limited.

Knowledge Levels -Category A, 81, 82 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence

Basic knowledge for categories A. 81 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or
3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category 81 or the category B2
basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.·
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.

LEVEL3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theore'lical fundamentals
and specific examples.
The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
The apµiic::ani �houid be ai.Jie io aµµiy hii:; knowiedge in a praciicai manner using manufaciurer·�
instructions.
The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.

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Table of Contents

Module 1.1 Arithmetic _______ ]

Fractions 7
Types of Fractions 7
Working with Fractions 7

Decimals 17
Working with Decimals 17

Conversion Between Fractions and Decimals 23

Convert a Decimal to a Fraction 23
Convert a Fraction to a Decimal . 23

Percentages 29
Definition 29
Changing a Fraction to a Percentage _ 29
Changing a Percentage to a Fraction 29
Changing a Percentage to a Decimal 29
Changing a Decimal to a Percentage 29
Values of a Percentage of a Quantity 30
Expressing one Quantity as a Percentage of Another 30

Rounding, Significant Figures, and Decimal Places 35

Rounding 35
Significant Figures 36
Decimal Places 37

Mean, Median, Mode and Range 39

Definitions 39
����M� �
Calculating Median 40
Calculating Mode 40
Calculating Range 41

�g�s a
Definitions and Conversions 47
Degrees and Radians: Measuring Angles 48
Acute Angles 49
Obtuse Angles 49
Reflex angles 49
Right Angles 50
Complementary Angles 50
Supplementary Angles 51
Perpendicular Lines 51

Triangles 57
Properties of shapes. 57
Definitions 57

Module 1. 1 Arithmetic 1-3

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Areas and Volume of Common Shapes ______ 61

Rectangle 61
Square 61
Triangie 62
Parallelogram 62
Rhombus 63
Trapezium 64
Kite 65
Circle 65
Other Regular Polygons 66
Summary of Quadrilaterals 67

Surface Area and Volume of Common Solids 69

Introduction 69
Common Solids 69

Common Conversions 79
Length 79
Area 79
Volume 79
Mass ��������- 79

1-4 Modu!e 1.1 Arithmetic

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Module 1.1 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement

Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation 2042/2003 Annex Ill (Part-66)
. ted KnowIed1qe LeveIs as spec1T1ed be Iow:
A,ppend"1x I, and the assoc1a
EASA66 Level
Objective
Reference B1 B2
Arithmetic 1.1
Arithmetical terms and signs, methods of 2 2
multiplication and division, fractions and
decimals, factors and multiples, weights,
mP.;;i�11rA� ;;inn �nnvAr�inn f;;i�tor� r;;itin ;;inn
I
I
- - ---·-�- - � - --··- --· · - - · - · - · · ·-·-----, ·--··- -··-

proportion, averages and percentages, areas

and volumes, squares, cubes, square and cube
roots. I
--
I

>----- ·-

Module 1.1 Arithmetic 1-5

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1-6 Module 1.1 Arithmetic l_L� �_n('l/nr rii<;r.ln�.urAi �

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Module 1.1 Arithmetic

Fractions

Types of Fractions

1. Proper Fractions. Proper fractions may be defined as fractions less than 1.

For example:

1 1 2 11
etc
2' 3 ' 5' 17

2. Improper Fractions. These are fractions which are greater than 1.

For example:

7 5 17 8
- etc
'
3 ' 3' 11 5

3. Mixed Numbers. These include whole numbers and vulgar fractions. For example:

6
1 ...!. 2 � 6 � 27 etc
2' 5 ' 11 ' 7

4. For all fractions, the number above the bar is called the numerator and the number below
the bar is called the denominator.

30
5. Simplest Form. The simplest form of is ...!. . Fractions can be expressed in simplest
60 2
form by dividing numerator and denominator by equal numbers until they will not divide
further. For example:

8 2
= in simplest form (after dividing numerator and
12 3
denominator by 4).

Working with Fractions

6. Cancelling. The process of dividing numerator and denominator by equal values is

called cancelling. For example:

27 9 3 1
= = =

81 27 9 3

Module 1. 1 Arithmetic 1-7

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7. Converting. To convert mixed numbers to improper fractions, multiply the whole

number by the denominator and add to the numerator. For example:

2� =
13
5 5

To convert improper fractions to mixed numbers, divide the numerator by the

denominator to give a whole number - the remainder gives a new numerator. For
example:

25 = 6_!_
4 4
8. Cancelling. Cancelling improper fractions involves exactly the same process as
cancelling vulgar fractions. For example:

28 7 15
= = 7 and
45 = = 7 _!_
4 1 6 2 2
9. Multiplication
(a) Express all mixed numbers as improper fractions

(b) Cancel vertically if possible

(c) Cancel across the multiplication sign if possible

(d) Multiply numerators together, multiply denominators together

(e) If the result is an improper fraction, convert to a mixed number

(f) Check that your answer is in the simplest form

Examples:

2 2 -
- 4 8
( 1) - x4 = x =

9 9 1 9
3 1 1
1 3
1-4 x 2- x
5
(2) =,Yx;Txj( = = 1..!.
14 2 2
-

5 3
?; ?'1 �
1 o. Division

( a) Convert all mixed numbers to improper fractions

(b) Invert the traction you are dividing by

(c ) Proceed as tor multiplication.

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Examples:

(1)
3
1� =
3 12 =
17
- x -
7 = -
7
4 7 4 7 4 .>i'4 16

3 3 1 3
(2) 7 = x - =

4 4 7 28

)6 2
3 5 3 6 _!_
(3) = x = = 1
8 16 � 5 5 's
1

11. Mixed Multiplication and Division

(a) Invert all the fractions preceded by a division sign

(b) Treat the calculations as multiplication only.

Example:

7 9 12
1� 4_!_ x 1� = x -
4 2 7 4 2 7

You only turn upside down the fraction

you are dividing by, i.e. the fraction after
the division sign

=
2
3

12. Addition
(a) Express all fractions as mixed numbers in lowest terms

(b) Add the whole numbers together

(c) To add the vulgar fractions, you must convert each fraction so that their
denominators are all the same. This is done by finding the lowest common
multiple (LCM) of the denominators.

Module 1.1 Arithmetic 1-9

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Examples:

1 1 3 6+ 5+9 20 2
(1) + - + - = = =

5 6 10 30 30 3

9 5 3 5 3
(2) + - + 1- = 2..!. + - + 1-
4 12 8 4 12 8

1 5 3
= 3 + -+ + -
4 12 8

6+ 10+9 25
= 3 + = 3 +
24 24

1 1
= 3 + 1- = 4_
24 24

Note: If your addition of fractions results in an improper fraction, you must convert this to
a mixed number as shown in example (2).

13. Subtraction
The same basic procedure should be used for subtraction as for addition.

Examples:

8 2 8 26
(1) = - =

9 3 9 9
8 4 2 4 2 4
(2 ) 1 = 2 - 1- = 1 +
3 7 3 7 3 7

14 12
= 1 + = 1�
21 21

1 1 3
(3) 4- - 1� = 3 +
3 4 3 4

4 9
= 3 + --

12

12+ 4 9 As numerator (4 - 9) give a negative

= 2 +
i2 value, one whole unit has to be
12
converted to - before the
16 9 12
= 2 +
12 subtraction of fractions is carried out.

1-10 Module 1.1 Arithmetic

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7
= 2-
12

14. Mixed addition and subtraction can be carried out exactly as above.

Examples:

7 6 R- 9 8
(1) 4..!. - 5- + 3� = 2 + = 2 +
2 12 4 12 12

= 23.
3

1 1 3 18- 8
(2) 2- - 1� + 4- = 5 +
8 4 3 24

24+3 1&- 8
= 4 + = 4.!I.
24 24

15. Remember that your final step in any calculation must be to simplify (cancel fractions).

Example:

12+ 18 15
3� + 1� - 2� = 2 +
5 10 4 20

= 2� = 2�
20 4

Module 1.1 Arithmetic 1-11

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Worksheet

1. Convert the following mixed numbers to improper fractions:

3
(a) 2� (b) (c) 21 ( d) 5-32. (e) 22-
7 5 25 7

2. Convert the following improper fractions to mixed numbers:

11 21 53 210 99
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
3 5 7 4
-

3. Multiply and simplify the following:

6 14 2 1 2 3 10
(a) x - (b) - x 2- x 1_g_ (c) 1 x-x -
7 15 3 7 5 5 8 21

4. Divide and simplify the following:

3 9
(a) (b) 3_g_ 3..!_ (c)
10 25 3 7

5. Evaluate the following:

7 5 3 3 17 1 1
(a) - x-x - (b) (c) 2-x7-
10 6 14 8 29 8 4

6. Add the following fractions and mixed numbers:

2 3 3 1 2 2 3 4
(a) (b) (c) -+ -
3 7 4 2 3 3 4 5
+ - + - + - + -

1 1 1 1 1 7
( d) -+ - (e) 3_2_
2 3 4 5 6 16
+ - + + - + -

7. Subtract the following:

2
(a) (b) (c) 1 - 22-
5 7

4 2
( d) ( e)
11 7

Module 1 .1 Arithmetic 1-13

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8. Evaluate the following:

1 2 -
1-+-
5
4 3 7 6
(a) 2�+3� 1 (b) 1..:!. 2� 5 (c)
3 8 9 2 3 42 3 3
-x-
4 7

1 1 4
1-x2- -
(d) 5 3 5
1 5
2-+-
2 6

5 3 1
2)
-
(2�x2-) + (3� 4
--+

(h)
16 4 3
(g) 2 1 1
7 24. 2 3 -+- -
3 4 6

( 1 2 3
I\3-+- 1- 1
2 3 5
)( �)
(i)
3 1
-+-
7 3

1-14 Module 1.1 Arithmetic

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Answers

a) 20 31 108 146 15
1. b) c) - d) - e)
7 9 5 25 7

4 3
d) 52_!_
a)
2. 3_g_ b) 4_! c) 7- e) 12
3 5 7 2 8

a) 4 1
3. b) 2 c)
5 4

5
4. a) - b) 1..!. c) 3
6 6

1
5. a) b) 12 c) 2
8

a)
6. 1__g__ b) 1.!.! c) 2� d) 1� e) 3�
21 12 60 20 16

9 13 26 6 2
7. a) b) c) d) e) -1-
10 20 35 77 9

5 3
8. a) 4� b) c) 2 4 d) e) 1�
72 7 9 5 55

5 5
f) g) 1� h) -- i) 12.!_
6 12 36 24

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Decimals

Working with Decimals

1. Decimals are a very important and particular set of fractions. They are fractions whose
denominators are powers of 10, i.e. 10, 100, 1000, 10000 etc (do not be concerned
about the meaning of 'powers of 1 O', you will deal with this later in the course). Decimals
are not written in the usual fraction form, but in shorthand using a decimal point.

Examples:

1 1 1
a) - :::::: 0.1 b) :::::: 0.01 c) -- :::::: 0.001
10 100 1000

7
d) 5-:::::: 5.7 e) 63 _2_ :::::: 63.07
10 100

2. If you have difficulty in relating decimals to fractions, the following table may help.

THOUSANDS HUNDREDS TENS UNITS TENTHS HUNDREDTHS THOUSANDTHS

1 1 1
1000 100 10 1
10 100 1000

5 3 4 6 7 9 2

The number in the table is 5346.792; it consists of 5 thousands, 3 hundreds, 4 tens, 6

units, 7 tenths, 9 hundredths and 2 thousandths.

3. The number of digits after the decimal point is called decimal places.

Examples:

a) 27.6 has one decimal place

b) 27. 16 has two decimal places

c) 27.026 has three decimal places

d) 101.2032 has four decimal places

4. In addition of decimals, particular care must be taken to ensure that decimal points are
in line.

Example: Evaluate 27.3 + 0.021 + 68.3 27.3

0.021
+ 68.3
95.621

Madu le 1 .1 Arithmetic 1�17

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5. Similarly, in subtraction, ensure that decimal points are in line.

Example: Evaluate 27.3 - 4.36 27.3 27.3 can also be

4.36 written as 27 .30
22.94

6. When multiplying decimals, ignore the decimal point until the final answer is obtained,
then count the number of decimal places in both the numbers being multiplied. This is
the number of decimal places in the answer.

Example: Evaluate 27.3 x 9.31 Note: Total of 3 decimal places.

273
931
245 700
8190
273
254 163 Answer ::: 254.163 (3 dpl.)

Note: It does not matter which you multiply first (i.e. the 9, the 3 or the 1) providing '00' is
placed before the answer when multiplying out the 100's (in this case the 9) and 'O' is
placed before the answer when multiplying out the 10's (in this case the 3) So the above
calculation could have looked like this:

273
931
273
8190
245 700
254 163 The answer�the same

7. In division, it is easier to divide by a whole number than by a decimal. To make the

divisor (the number you are dividing by) into a whole number, move the decimal point a
specific number of places to the right. You must then also move the decimal point in the
dividend (the number you are dividing into) to the right by the same number of decimal
places.

Example: Evaluate 24.024 4.62 We have moved the decimal

point 2 places in both the
2402.4 462 divisor and the dividend, but the
answer is unaltered
5.2
= 462)2402.4
2310
924
924

An approximate answer could be calculated as follows: 24.024 24 -

5
4.62 5

1-18 Module 1.1 Arithmetic

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Worksheet

1. Calculate the sum of the following:

a) 0.251 + 10.298 b) 18.098 + 210.099 c) 0.025 + 10.995

2. Evaluate:

a) 21.76 - 18.51 b) 32.76 - 20.086 c) 10.75 - 19.999

3. Find the product of:

a) 5.05 x 13.8 b) 1.27 x 0.871 c) -1.01 x 0.89

4. Calculate:

a) 42.39 0.09 b) 3.375 1.5 c) 0.002 0.8

Module 1.1 Arithmetic 1-19

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Answers

1. a) 10.549 b) 228.197 c) 11.02

2. a) 3.25 b) 12.674 c) -9.249

3. a) 69.69 b) 1.10617 c) -0.8989

4. a) 471 b) 2.25 c) 0.0025

Module 1.1 Arithmetic 1-21

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Conversion Between Fractions and Decimals

Convert a Decimal to a Fraction

Write the number over the appropriate power of 10 and, if possible, cancel to lowest terms.

Examples:

8 4
a) 0.8 = =

10 5

25 1
b) 6.25 = 6 + -
= 6-
100 4

37
c) 0.037 =

1000

Convert a Fraction to a Decimal

Divide the numerator by the denominator.

Examples:

4 0.80
a)
5
=
)
5 4.00

3 0.375
b)
8
=
)
8 3.000

5 0.
8���.. . the 3 will re-occur for ever
c)
6
=
)
6 5.0000

Here, we cut off the result to the number of decimal places required.

5
Thus - = 0.83 correct to 2 decimal places
6

5
or = 0.8333 correct to 4 decimal places
6

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Worksheet

1. Convert the following decimals to proper fractions in their simplest form:

a) 0.73 b) 0.02 c) 0.004

2. Convert the following proper fractions to decimals to 2 decimal places:

5 13 3
a) b) c)
8 15 200

3. Place in ascending order of magnitude:

3 2 7
a) 1 ' 0.167 and b) -, 0.44 and
6 20 5 16

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Answers

73 1 1
a) c)
b)
1.
100 50 250

2. a) 0.63 0.87 0.02

3 1 2
a) and 0. 167 ) !_and 0.44
b
3.
20
'
6 s· 16

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Percentages

Definition.
A percentage is a fraction whose denominator is 100.

3
Example: 3% means -
100

Changing a Fraction to a Percentage

To change a fraction to a percentage, multiply by 100%.

3 3
Example: - as a percentage = x 100% = 60%
5 5

Changing a Percentage to a Fraction

To change a percentage to a fraction, divide by 100%.

8% 8 2
Examples: a) 8% as a fraction = -- :;;;;; - :::: -

100% 100 25

12f% 25 1 25 1
b) 12 % % as a fraction = ----
� = - x-- = -- = -

100% 2 100 200 8

Changing a Percentage to a Decimal

To convert a percentage to a decimal, 'firstly, convert the percentage to a fraction, then convert
the fraction to a decimal.

65
Examples: a) 65% as a fraction == - , as a dec1ma
. I = 0.65
100

32..1.
b) 32 % % as a fraction = 2
-- , as a decimal = 0.325
100

Changing a Decimal to a Percentage

To convert a decimal to a percentage, firstly, convert the decimal to a fraction, then convert the
fraction to a percentage.

Examples:
21 2.1
a) 0.021 as a fraction = -- , = - , as a percentage= 2.1%
1000 100

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37 3.7
b) 0.037 as a fraction = -- , = -- , as a percentage = 3. 7%
1000 100

Values of a Percentage of a Quantity

To find the value of a percentage of a quantity, express the percentage as a fraction and
multiply by the quantity.

Examples:
2
� 12
a) 4% of 60 = -
x oo' = -
= 2�
tOO' 5 5
5

3.1 7 105
b) 3 % % of 1500 = x 1500 -x1�= = 52%
_2 -
=

100 20,0" 2

Expressing one Quantity as a Percentage of Another

To express one quantity as a percentage of another, make a fraction of the 2 quantities and
multiply by 100.

Examples:

12
a) 12 as a percentage of 50 = x 100 = 24%
50

4
b) 4 as a percentage of 60 = x 100 = 6.67%
60

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Worksheet

1 . Calculate:

a) 4% of 30 b) 0.8% of 360 c) 1.5% of 60

d) 120% of 75 e) 80% of 90

2. Express:

a) 30 as a percentage of 50

b) 24 as a percentage of 16

c) 0.5 as a percentage of 12.5

d) 3.2 as a percentage of 2.4

e) 0.08 as a percentage of 0.72

3. Express as a proper fraction:

a) 0.6 b) 0.35 c) 0.48 d) 0.05

e) 0.325 f) 25% g) 13% h) 4.5%

i) 16'!13%

4. Express as a percentage:

2
a) 0.43 b) 0.025 c) 1.25 d) -

3
3 1 3
e) f) g)
7 12 8

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Answers

1
1. a) 1- or 1.2 b) 2.88 c) 0.9 d) 90 e) 72
5

2. a) 60% b) 150% c) 4% d) 133..!.% e) 11 ..!.%

3 9

3 7 12 1 13
3. a) b) -
c) d) e)
5 20 25 20 40

1 13 9 49
f) g) h) i)
4 100 200 300

4. a) 43% b) 2.5% c) 125% d) 66_g_% e) 42�%

3 7

f) a..!.% g) 37..!.%
3 2

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Rounding, Significant Figures, and Decimal Places

Rounding
Rounding is the process of reducing the number of significant digits in a number. The result of
rounding is a "shorter" number having fewer non-zero digits yet similar in magnitude. The result
is less precise but easier to use.

For example: 73 rounded to the nearest ten is 70, because 73 is closer to 70 than to 80.
Methods of Rounding

Common Method: This method is commonly used in mathematical applications, for example in
accounting. It is the one generally taught in elementary mathematics classes. This method is
also known as Symmetric Arithmetic Rounding or Round-Half-Up (Symmetric Implementation)

Decide which is the last digit to keep.

Increase it by 1 if the next digit is 5 or more (this is called rounding up)
Leave it the same if the next digit is 4 or less (this is called rounding down)

Examples:
3.044 rounded to hundredths is 3.04 {because the next digit, 4, is less than 5).
3.045 rounded to hundredths is 3.05 (because the next digit, 5, is 5 or more).
3.0447 rounded to hundredths is 3.04 (because the next digit, 4, is less than 5).

For negative numbers the absolute value is rounded.

Examples:
.2.1349 rounded to hundredths is .2.13
.2.1 350 rounded to hundredths is 2.14

Round to Even Method: This method is also known as unbiased rounding, convergent
rounding, statistician's rounding or bankers' rounding. It is identical to the common method of
rounding except when the digit(s) following the rounding digit start with a five and have no non­
zero digits after it. The new algorithm is:

Decide which is the last digit to keep.

Increase it by 1 if the next digit is 6 or more, or a 5 followed by one or more non-zero
digits.
Leave it the same if the next digit is 4 or less
Otherwise, all that follows the last digit is a 5 and possibly trailing zeroes;
then change
the last digit to the nearest even digit. That is, increase the rounded digit if it is currently
odd; leave it if it is already even.

With all rounding schemes there are two possible outcomes: increasing the rounding digit by
one or leaving it alone. With traditional rounding, if the number has a value less than the half­
way mark between the possible outcomes, it is rounded down; if the number has a value exactly
half-way or greater than half-way between the possible outcomes, it is rounded up. The round-

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to-even method is the same except that numbers exactly half-way between the possible
outcomes are sometimes rounded up - sometimes down.
Although it is customary to round the number 4.5 up to 5, in fact 4.5 is no nearer to 5 than it is to
4 (it is 0.5 away from both).

When dealing with large sets of scientific or statistical data, where trends are important,
traditional rounding on average biases the data upwards slightly. Over a large set of data, or
when many subsequent rounding operations are performed as in digital signal processing, the
round-to-even rule tends to reduce the total rounding error, with (on average) an equal portion
of numbers rounding up as rounding down. This generally reduces the upwards skewing of the
result.

Round-to-even is used rather than round-to-odd as the latter rule would prevent rounding to a
result of zero.

Examples:
3.016 rounded to hundredths is 3.02 (because the next digit (6) is 6 or more)
3.013 rounded to hundredths is 3.01 (because the next digit (3) is 4 or less)
3.015 rounded to hundredths is 3.02 (because the next digit is 5, and the hundredths
digit (1) is odd)
3.045 rounded to hundredths is 3.04 (because the next digit is 5, and the hundredths
digit (4) is even)
3.04501 rounded to hundredths is 3.05 (because the next digit is 5, but it is followed by
non-zero digits)

Significant Figures
Rounding to n significant figures is a form of rounding. Significant figures (also called significant
digits) can also refer to a crude form of error representation based around significant figure
rounding.

Rounding to n significant figures is a more general-purpose technique than rounding ton

decimal places, since it handles numbers of different scales in a uniform way.

Rules of Significant Figures

All non-zero digits are significant. Example: '123.45' has five significant figures: 1,2,3,4
and 5.
Zeros appearing in between two non-zero digits are significant. Example: '101.12' has
five significant figures: 1,0,1,1,2.
All zeros appearing to the right of an understood decimal point or non-zeros appearing to
the right of a decimal after the decimal point are significant. Example: '12.2300' has six
significant figures: 1,2,2,3,0 and 0. The number '0.00122300' still only has six significant
figures (the zeros before the '1' are not significant). In addition, '12.00' has four significant
figures.
All zeros appearing in a number without a decimal point and to the right of the last non­
zero digit are not significant unless indicated by a bar. Example: '1300' has two
significant figures: 1 and 3. The zeros are not considered significant because they don't
have a bar. However, 1300.0 has five significant figures.

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However, this last convention is not universally used; it is often necessary to determine from
context whether trailing zeros in a number without a decimal point are intended to be significant.
Digits may be important without being 'significant' in this usage. For instance, the zeros in '1300'
or '0.005' are not considered significant digits, but are still important as placeholders that
establish the number's magnitude. A number with all zero digits (e.g. '0.000') has no significant
digits, because the uncertainty is larger than the actual measurement.

Examples:

Rounding to 2 significant figures:

12,300 becomes 12,000

13 stays as 13
0.00123 becomes 0.0012
0.1 becomes 0.1 O (the trailing zero indicates that we are rounding to 2 significant
figures).
0.02084 becomes 0.021
0.0125 becomes 0.012 in unbiased rounding, while it is 0.013 in biased.

One issue with rounding to n significant figures is that the value of n is not always clear. This
occurs when the last significant figure is a zero to the left of the decimal point. For example, in
the final example above, when 19 800 is rounded to 20 000, it is not clear from the rounded
value what n was used - n could be anything from 1 to 5. The level of rounding can be specified
explicitly. The abbreviation s.f. is sometimes used, for example "20,000 to 2 s.f."

4
Scientific notation could be used to reduce the ambiguity, as in (2.0 x 10 ). As always, the best
approach is to state the uncertainty separately and explicitly, as in 20,000 ± 1%, so that
significant-figures rules do not apply.

A less common method of presenting ambiguous significant figures is underlining the last
significant figure of a number, for example "2QOOO"

Decimal Places
The precision of a value describes the number of digits that are used to express that value. In
a scientific setting this would be the total number of digits (sometimes called the significant
digits) or, less commonly, the number of fractional digits or places (the number of digits
following the point). This second definition is useful in financial and engineering applications
where the number of digits in the fractional part has particular importance.

In both cases, the term precision can be used to describe the position at which an inexact result
will be rounded. For example, in floating-point arithmetic, a result is rounded to a given or fixed
precision, which is the length of the resulting significand. In financial calculations, a number is
often rounded to a given number of places (for example, to two places after the point for many
world currencies).

As an illustration, the decimal quantity 12.345 can be expressed with various numbers of
significant digits or decimal places. If insufficient precision is available then the number is
rounded in some manner to fit the available precision. The following table shows the results for

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various total precisions and decimal places, with the results rounded to nearest where ties
round up or to an even digit (the most common rounding modes).

Note that it is often not appropriate to display a figure with more digits than that which can be
measured. For instance, if a device measures to the nearest gram and gives a reading of
12.345 kg, it would create false precision if you were to express this measurement as
12.34500 kg.

Rounded to 'n' Rounded to 'n'

n
significant digits decimal places

Five 12.345 12.34500

Four 12.35 12.3450

Three 12.3 12.345

Two 12 12.35

One 1 x 101 12.4

Zero n/a 12

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Mean, Median, Mode and Range

Definitions
The Mean, Median and Mode of a set of numbers are three types of "average" of the set.
However, the "Mean" is the term most commonly taken as the average.

Mean: The sum of a set of data divided by the

number of data

Median: The middle value or the mean of the

middle two values, when the data is
arranged in numerical order,

Mode: The value (number) that appears the most.

It is possible to have more than one mode,
and it is possible to have no mode.

Calculating Mean
To find the mean, you need to add up all the data, and then divide this total by the number of
values in the data.

Example 1: Find the Mean of 2, 2, 3, 5, 5, 7, 8

Adding the numbers up gives: 2+2+3+5+5+ 7 + 8 = 32

There are 7 values, so you divide the total by 7: 32 + 7 = 4.57 ...

So the mean is 4.57 (2 d.p.)

Example 2: Find the Mean of 2, 3, 3, 4, 6, 7

Adding the numbers up gives: 2+3+3+4+6 + 7 = 25

There are 6 values, so you divide the total by 6: 25 + 6 = 4.33...

So the mean is 4.33 (2 d.p.)

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Calculating Median
To find the median, you need to put the values in order, then find the middle value. If there are
two values in the middle then you find the mean of these two values.

Example 1: Find the median of 2, 2, 3, 5, 5, 7, 8

The numbers in order: 2 , 2 , 3 , (5) , 5 , 7, 8

The middie vaiue is marked in brackets, and it is 5.

So the median is 5

Example 2: Find the median of 2, 3, 3, 4, 6, 7

The numbers in order: 2 , 3 , (3, 4), 6, 7

This time there are two values in the middle. They have been put in brackets. The median is
found by calculating the mean of these two values: (3 + 4)-;- 2 = 3.5

So the median is 3.5

"'-·-· ··-·=-- •• _ _._

vdl\;UIOllllY IYIUUt::
The mode is the value which appears the most often in the data. It is possible to have more
than one mode if there is more than one value which appears the most.

Example 1: Find the mode of 2, 2, 3, 5, 5, 7, 8

The data values: 2 , 2, 3 , 5 , 5, 7, 8

The values which appear most often are 2 and 5. They both appear more time than any of the
other data values.

So the modes are 2 and 5

Example 2: Find the mode of 2, 3, 3, 4, 6, 7

The data values: 2 , 3 , 3 , 4, 6 , 7

This time there is only one value which appears most often - the number 3. It appears more
times than any of the other data values.

So the mode is 3

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Calculating Range
To find the range, you first need to find the lowest and highest values in the data. The range is
found by subtracting the lowest value from the highest value.

Example 1: Find the range of 2, 2, 3, 5, 5, 7, 8

The data values: 2 , 2 , 3 , 5 , 5, 7, 8

The lowest value is 2 and the highest value is 8. Subtracting the lowest from the highest gives:
8 � 2 =6

So the range is 6

Example 2: Find the range of 2 , 3, 3, 4, 6, 7

The data values: 2 , 3, 3, 4, 6 , 7

The lowest value is 2 and the highest value is 7. Subtracting the lowest from the highest
gives: . . . 7 - 2 = 5

So the range is 5

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Worksheet

1. A data set contains these 12 values: 3,5, 9,4,5, 11, 10,5,7, 7, 8, 10

(a)What is the mean?

(b)What is the median?
(c) What is the mode?
(d)What is the range?

2. Calculate the mean, median, mode and range for each set of data below:

(a)3,6,3,7,4, 3,9
(b) 11,10, 12, 12,9, 10, 14, 12,9
(c) 2,9, 7,3,5,5,6,5,4,9

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Answers

1 ( a) 7 (b) 7 (c) 5 (d) 8

2 (a) Mean= 5
Median= 4
Mode= 3
Range= 6

(b) Mean= 11
Median= 11
Mode= 12
Range= 5

(c)
Mean= 5.5
Median= 5
Mode= 5
Range= 7

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Angles

Definitions and Conversions

We can specify an angle by using a point on each ray and the vertex. The angle below may be
specified as angle ABC or as angle CBA; you may also see this written as
L. ABC or as L. CBA. Note how the vertex point is always given in the middle.

Example:

Many different names exist for the same angle. For the angle below, L. PBC, L. PBW, L CBP,
and L WBA are all names for the same angle.

p /-;i

/
B

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Degrees and Radians: Measuring Angles

We measure the size of an angle using degrees. We can also use radians to measure angles.

There are 2 radians in 360°

The radius of a circle fits around the circumference 6.28 (or 2 ) times. 1 radian= 57.3 deg rees.
no
To convert from degrees to radians, use -- x2 where n° is the number of deg rees
360

Note: Degrees can be further subdivided into minutes and seconds.

60 seconds= 1 minute

60 minutes= 1 deg ree

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Acute Angles

An acute angle is an angle measuring between 0 and 90 degrees.

Example:

The following angles are all acute angles.

88°

Obtuse Angles

An obtuse angle is an angle measuring between 90 and 180 degrees.

Example:

The following angles are all obtuse.

�"13:5' 174°
______,,
) )

\
\ 117.8° 110 °

Reflex angles

A reflex angle is an angle measuring between 180 and 360 degrees

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Right Angles

A right angle is an angle measuring 90 degrees. Two lines or line segments that meet at a right
angle are said to be perpendicular. Note that any two right angles are supplementary angles (a
right angle is its own angle supplement).

Complementary Angles

Two angles are called complementary angles if the sum of their degree measurements equals
90 degrees. One of the complementary angles is said to be the complement of the other.

Example:

These two angles are complementary.

----�

5go
/
32°
/
Note that these two angles can be "pasted" together to form a right angle!

32°

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Supplementary Angles

Two angles are called supplementary angles if the sum of their degree measurements equals
180 degrees. One of the supplementary angles is said to be the supplement of the other.

Example:

These two angles are supplementary.

Note that these two angles can be "pasted" together to form a straight line!

Perpendicular Lines

Two lines that meet at a right angle are perpendicular. They are also said to be "normal" to each
other.

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Worksheet

1 . Convert the following angles to radians

b) c)

°
90

d) e) /72°�
!' �-
·
f)

\
\ 120°

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Answers

1. a) % radians b) % radians c) % radians

23
d) radians e) 2/5 radians f) 2/3 radians
180

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Triangles

Properties of shapes.
The 3 properties of shapes that we are going to look at are:

The number of sides

1.
2. The interior angles (the angles inside).
3. The length of the sides.

These properties help use to remember which shapes are which and why they are so called (in
some cases).

Let•s start with a shape that has 3 sides: TRIANGLES (tri- means 3).

Triangles ALWAYS have 3 sides.

The interior angles of a triangle add up to 180 degrees.

Definitions
Here are the triangles you are expected to know about:

1. Equilateral Triangle
2. Isosceles Triangle
3. Right-Angled Triangle
4. Scalene Triangle

2. Congruent and Similar Triangles

Congruent and Similar are two words usually applied to triangles but can equally be applied to
other shapes.

Congruent triangles are two triangles which have equal angles and are the same size (i.e.
identical in every way) but may be oriented differently.

Similar triangles are two triangles which have the same angles but are of different size.

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3. Equilateral Triangle

An equilateral triangle has got 3 sides of equal length and 3 angles that are equal.
Since ALL the angles in a triangle add up to 180Q then 180 divided by 3 must be 60Q.

�oo
I

The clue is in the name EQUILateral.

4. Isosceles Triangle

An Isosceles triangle has got two sides of equal length and 2 angles equal.

What is the value of the angle at the top of this Isosceles triangle?

The answer is so: All angles in a triangle add up to 180°so 180 - (50 + 50) = 80°

So an isosceles triangle has only got two sides of equal length and two angles the same.

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5. Right- Angled Triangle

The right angled triangle contains a right angle ( an angle of 90)

-i
''-._ The I Shows a right angle

In a right angled triangle what must the other two angles add up to 90°because all the angles in
a triangle add up to 180°and a Right Angled Triang le has got one angle of 90�

6. Scalene Triangle

A scalene triangle is the easiest of them all. The scalene triangle has got NO sides of equal
length and NO angles the same.

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Areas and Volume of Common Shapes

Rectangle

The area A ofany rectangle is equal to the product ofthe length I and the width w.

Formula: A = lw

Square

The area A ofany square is equal to the square of the length sofa side.

Formula: A = s2

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Triangle

The area A of any triangle is equal to one-half the product of any baseband corresponding
height h.

Formula: A= 1hbh

Para I lelogram

A parallelogram is a 4 sided shape with the 2 opposing sides parallel to each other.

The area A of any parallelogram is equal to the product of any baseband the corresponding
height h.

Formula: A = bh

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Rhombus

A rhombus is a parallelogram with all 4 sides equal length. The diagonals bisect the interior
angles equally and the diagonals intersect each other at right angles.

The area A of any rhombus is equal to one-half the product of the lengths dt and d2 of its
diagonals.

Formula: A = 1hd 1d2

or

Formula: A = bh as in the parallelogram

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Trapezium

A trapezium has only 2 sides parallel. (UK definition)

The area A of any trapezium is equal to one-half the product of the height h and the sum of the
bases, b1 and b2.

Formula: A = !6h (b 1 + b2)

h
A

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Kite

A Kite shape has no sides parallel. The area can be found by

Formula: A = 1h d1d2

Circle

The area A of any circle is equal to the product of and the square of the radius r.

Formula: A = r2

Sector Area Theorem

The area A of any sector with an arc that has degree measure n and with radius r is equal to the

product of the arc's measure divided by 360 multiplied by times the square of the radius.

Formula: A = (n/360)( fl)

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Other Regular Polygons

Regular polygons are any polygons that are equilateral and equiangular.

The area A of any regular polygon with perimeter P and apothem of measure a is equal to one­
half the product of the perimeter and the apothem.

This formula can be derived if you make 5 triangles inside the shape. The area of each triangle
is% Sa (1/2 base x height).

The totai area is therefore 5 x Y2 Sa (in the case OT me pentagon shown - the 5 oniy represent
the number of sides). But 5 x S is the total perimeter of the shape, so:

Formula: A = 1haP

Regular Pentagon
(shape could be any regular shape)

' .
' .
'' .
..
''
.
'' ..
,. "
a .
'' .
' .
'' ..
' .
'
' .\
' \
' \
' \
' \
' \

s
P ;;5s 5 could be anything, depending on no. of sides

The angle shown is one equal portion of 360 degrees. In the case of the pentagon, it is 360/5
= 72°. Hence the internal angle of any polygon can be found by calculating the supplement of
the external angle.

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Summary of Quadrilaterals

SQUARE
:�.

4 Sides equal
4 right angles
Diagonals bisect each other at right angles
/ Diagonals are equal

-·--.: ··- --i . .-

--
· ,.
·

RECTANGLE
. .
· ,,
, ,· 2 pairs of opposite sides equal and parallel
j
I 4 right angles
II
Diagonals are equal and bisect each other

RHOMBUS
4 sides equal , opposite sides parallel
Diagonals bisect each other but are not of equal length

'- ).-

I ..
'
'
PARALLELOGRAM
2 pairs opposite sides equal and parallel
.
. ··'
Diagonals bisect each other but are not of equal length
'
'·.
·
,,·

L_:._:_ _ ___:.0--
-- --

TRAPEZIUM I TRAPEZOID
1 pair opposite sides parallel
or

L
_ _________ J

' _ KITE
2 pairs of adjacent sides equai

V
Longer diagonal bisects shorter at right angles
.

Module 1.1 Arithmetic 1-67

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Surface Area and Volume of Common Solids

Introduction

There are special formulas that deal with solids, but they only deal with right prisms. Right
prisms are prisms that have two special characteristics - all lateral edges are perpendicular to
the bases, and lateral faces are rectangular. The figure below depicts a right prism.

Common Solids

1. Right Prism Area

The lateral area L (area of the vertical sides only) of any right prism is equal to the perimeter of
the base times the height of the prism (L =Ph).

The total area Tot any right prism is equal to two times the area of the base plus the lateral
area.

Formula: T = 28 + Ph

B == liw
P= 21+ 2w

w�
(The base's formula could Change depending on the base's shape.)
(The perimeter's formu1a oould change depending on the base's shape)

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2. Right Prism Volume

The volume Vof any right prism is the product of B, the area of the base, and the height h of the
prism.

Formula: V = Bh

B=lw

(The base's formula cruld change dependng on the base's srape.}

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3. Pyramid Volume

A pyramid is a polyhedron with a single base and lateral faces that are all triangular. All lateral
edges of a pyramid meet at a single point, or vertex.

The volume Vat any pyramid with height hand a base with area Bis equal to one-third the
product of the height and the area of the base. This applies even if the prism is not a 'right ­
prism' i.e. the axis is not perpendicular to the base. The height however, is still measured
perpendicular to the base as shown below.

Formula: V = X Bh

B=wl
(Base's fom1ulB could change
depending on its sl'lape.)

A regular pyramid is a pyramid that has a base that is a regular polygon and with lateral faces
that are all congruent isosceles triangles.

lo A- ...I •• 1-
IVIUUU It::
... -I A -�.LI-.--.&.:­
I . I /"\I HI 111 lt:::LIL;
-1 "'7-1
I •/ I
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4. Cylinder Volume

The volume V of any cylinder with radius rand height h is equal to the product of the area of a
base and the height.

Formula: V = flh

It

5. Cylinder Surface Area

For any right circular cylinder with radius rand height h, the total surface area Tis two times the

area of the base (2 r) plus the curved surface area (2 rh).

Formula: T = 2 r h + 2 r2

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6. Cone Volume

The volume V of any cone with radius rand height h is equal to one-third the product of the
height and the area of the base.

Formula: V = X lh

7. Cone Surface Area

The total surface area T of a cone with radius rand slant height I is equal to the area of the

base ( r2) plus times the product of the radius and the slant height.

Formula: T = rI + r2

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8. Sphere Volume and Surface Area

The volume V tor any sphere with radius r is equal to four-thirds times the product of and the

cube of the radius. The area A of any sphere with radius ris equal to 4 times the square of
the radius.

Volume Formula: V = J< r

Surface Area Formula: A = 4 I

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Worksheet

1. A grave is dug 2m x 1mx1 m deep. The earth removed is piled into a pyramid of circular
base 2 m diameter. Find the height of the pyramid (in terms of ).

Give the answer in m, cm and mm.

2. A right prism has ends 10 cm x 10 cm and is 50 cm long. It is drilled lengthwise with an 8

cm drill through its full length. Find

a) the remaining volume of the prism material. Give the answer in terms of and in
3
mm
b) the surface area of the inside of the hole. Give the answer in terms of and in
2
mm

3. Find the surface area of a right cone with base radius 3 inches and perpendicular height
of 4 inches. Leave the answer in terms of and include the base area.

4. Find the ratio of the 'surface area to volume' of spheres of the following diameters:

a) 2m
b) 4m
c) Sm

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Answers

1. 61 m, 600/ cm, 6000/ mm

2. a) (5x106)- (8 x105) mm3

2 2
b) 400 cm , 40,000 mm

2
3. 24 in

4. a) 3:1
h\
OJ/
111
I
...
''-
·1
• I

c) 3A: 1

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Common Conversions

Length
imperial> metric
metric> imperial
1 inch [in] 2.54 cm
1 millimetre [ m m ] 0.0394i n
1foot [ft ] 12 in 0.3048 m
1centimetre [ cm] 10mm 0.3937 in
1yard [yd] 3fl 0.9144 m
1 metre [m] 100cm 1.0936yd
1 mile 1760yd 1.6093 km
1 kilometre [km] 1000m 0.6214 mile
1 nauticc=iJ mil8 1 1.5 mi!I'! 1.8-52 k_rn

Area

imperial> metric metric> imperial

1sq inch [in2] 6.4516cm" 1 sq cm [cm"I 100 mm" 0.1550 in"

1sq foot (ft2] 144 in2 0.0929 m" 1sq m [m '] 10,ooocm2 1.1960 ydp

1sq yd [yd"] 9ft" 0.8361 m" 1hectare [ha] 10,000 m2 2.4711 acres

1 acre 4840yd" 4046.9 m" 1sq km [km"] 100 ha 0.3861 mil e"

1sq mile [m il e"] 640 acres 2.59 km2

Volume
metric> imperial> metric
imperial

1 cu cm [cm"] 0.0610 in"

1cu inch [in3] 16.387 cm3

1cu decimetre [drn"] 1,000 cm" 0.0353 ft3 1cu foot [ff] 1,728in' 0.0283 m'

1cu metre (m3] 1,000 dm" 1.3080 yd" 1fluid o un ce [fl oz] 28.413ml

1 litre [I] 1 pint [pt] 20fl oz 0.5683 I

1 dm" 1.76 pt

1 1hectolitre [hi] 11001 I 21.997 gal 11. !oJClllUll

" "
l!JCl.IJ
- ,'t.::>'+O I
• .-- . ,..._.

I
I

USA measure > metric

1fluid ounce 1.0408 UK11 oz 29.574 ml

1 pint (16fl oz) 0.8327 UK pl 0.4731 I

1gallon 0.8327 UK gal 3.78541

imperial> metr i c
Mass
1ounce [oz] 437.5 grain 28.35g

I I
metric> imperial
1 pound [lb] 16 oz 0.4536 kg
-
1 millioram lmol -·
I -
0 0154 arain
1stone 141b 6.3503 kg
1 gram [g) 1,000 mg 0.0353 oz
1 hundredweight [cwt] 112 lb 50.802 kg
1 kilogram [ kg] 1,000 g 2.2046 lb
1slug 14.6 kg
1 kilogram [ kg] 1,000 g 0.068 slug
1long ton (UK) 20 cwt 1.0161
0_9842 long to n
1 tonne [t] 1,000 kg 1s ho rt ton (US) 2,000 lb 0.907 I
{UK)

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TTS Integrated
Training System

Module 1
Licence Category B 1 and 82

Mathematics

1.2 Algebra

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Copyright Notice

©Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Total Training Support Limited.

Knowledge Levels- Category A, 81, 82 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence

Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and 82 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or
3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category 82
basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
• A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
• The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
• The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
• A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
• ,a_,, abl!ity to app!y that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
• The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate. typical
examples.
• The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
• The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
• The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.

LEVEL 3
• A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
• A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
• The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
and specific examples.
• The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
•
The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simp!e drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
• The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
• The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.

2-2
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Table of Contents

Module 1.2 Algebra 4

Transposition 5
Basic Rules 5
,.. _____ ,...__...__ ... ...
\JUllllllUI I rdl.;lVI::> I I

Powers and Roots 17

Complex Formulae 25

Linear Equations 35
Introduction 35

Indices and Powers 45

Basic Laws of Indices and Powers 45

Standard Form 51
Introduction 51

Number Systems 59
Binary 59
,..,,.. _..._, r>f:'
Vl,;lCll 0'->

Hexadecimal 71
Binary Coded Decimal 77
Summary 83

Simuitaneous Equations 85
Methods of Solving 85

Quadratic Equations 91
Introduction 91
Solution by Factorisation 93

Logarithms 103
Why Logs? 103
Definition 103
Common Logarithms 105
Natural Logarithms 105
Rules of Logarithms 107
Further Logarithms 109
Some special properties of logarithms 111

Complex Numbers 117

The Number i 117
The Complex Plane 118
Complex Arithmetic 119

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Module 1.2 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement

Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation 2042/2003 Annex Ill (Part-66)
Appendix I, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:
EASA66 Level
Objective
Reference 81 82
Algebra 1.2
(a) 2 2
Evaluating simple algebraic expressions,
addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division, use of brackets, simple algebraic
fractions; I

I
(b) 2 2
Linear eQuations and their solutions --·-

Indices and powers, negative and fractional

indices
Binary and other applicable numbering systems ---

Simultaneous equations and second degree

eQuations with one unknown I
Loaarithms

2-4 Module 1.2 Algebra

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Module 1.2 Algebra.

Transposition

Basic Rules

1. Most formulae are remembered in a standard form, but for the purpose of solving a
particular problem, it is often necessary to express a formula differently. This involves
changing the subject of the formula and this process is called transposition.

Note:

(a) In the formula, A = LB, A is the subject

(b) In the formula, C = 7td, C is the subject

2
(c ) In the formula, S = ut + % at , Sis the subject

2. The basic rules of algebra apply equally to transposition of formulae as to solution of

equations. The most important concept being that whatever we do to the left hand side,
we must also do the right hand side.

Examples:

(a) If A = LB, transpose this formula to make L the subject.

A
Divide both sides by B: = L
8

A
Reverse the formula: L =

X
(b) If Y = , transpose the formula to make X the subject.
z

Multiply both sides by Z: YZ = X

·
X = YZ

(c) If a = E., transpose this formula to make c the subject:

c

Multiply both sides by c: ac = b

Use
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b
Divide both sides by a: c =
a

(d) If y = x + c, transpose this formula to make x the subject.

Subtract c from both sides: y - c = x

x = y - c

q m
(e) If p = - , transpose this formula to make q the subject.
r

Multiply both sides by r: pr = q - m

Add m to both sides: pr+ m = q

q = pr + m

2-6
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Worksheet
Transpose the following formulae to make the letter in the brackets the subject.

1. y = x+z (x)

2. a = b - c (b)

3. p =
q + s (s)

4. I = m - n (n)

5. y =
zx (x)

6. y =
mx (m)

z
7. y= (z)
x

b
8. a = (r.\
,-,
c

9. v = u+at (u)

iO. y = m+c (c)

11. V =
E - IR (I)

12. v =
u + at (t)

p RT
1 3. = (T)
v

14. s = ut + %at2 (u)

1 1
15. .:::
(P)
R p

Module 1.2 Algebra 2-7

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 Module 1.2 Algebra 2-9
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Common Factors

1. When the subject exists in 2 or more terms the formulae can only be transposed
correctly when the subject is taken out as a common factor.

Examples:

a) Transpose the formula be+ c = a to make c the subject.

Take out c as a common factor: c(b+ 1) = a

a
c =

b+1

b) If 2r = pq + rs, make r the subject.

Subtract rs from both sides: 2r - r s = pq

Take out r as a common factor: r(2 - s) = pq

pq
r =

2-s

ab+c .
c) If x = , make c the subject.
a+c

Multiply both sides by (a+ c): x(a+ c) = ab + c

Remove brackets: ax + ex = ab + c

Collect terms containing c onto one side: ex - c = ab - ax

c(x - 1) = ab - ax

ab-ax
c =
x-1

a(b-x)
c =

x-1

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Worksheet
Transpose the following formulae to make the letter in the brackets the subject.

1. If XY + X = 7 (X)

2. lf ab -b = c (b)

3. If p = st - pq (p)

Y+3
4. If x = (y)
y

a-b
5. If = c (a)
a

t-u
6. If d = (u)
u

2 3 3
7. If _! = + (b) (Hint: Take the to the left side of the equation
a b c c
then find the Common Multiple of 'a' and 'c')

8. _! 1 1 (R) (Hint: Find the Common Multiple of R1 and R2)

If = +
R R1 R2

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2-14
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Answers

7
1 x
Y+1

c
2 b = --

a-1

st
3 p
= --

1+q

3
4 y
=

x-1

b
5 a = --

1 ······· C

t
6 u =

d+1

2ca
7 b =

c-3a

R1 R2
8 R
=

R1+R2

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Powers and Roots

1. The square root of a given number is such that, when the square root is multiplied by
itself, the original number is again obtained.

Examples:

2
a) The square root of 4 is 2 because 2 = 4

b) The square root of 9 is 3 because 32 = 9

c} The square root of 25 is 5 because 5

2 = 25

2. Instead of writing or saying 'square root', we write �

Examples:

a) The square root of 16 can be written -J16

b) J36 simply means the square root of 36

3. The cube root of a given number is such that, when it is cubed, the original number is
again obtained.

Examples:

a) The cube root of 8 is 2, because 2

3 = 8

b) The cube root of 125 is 5, because 5

3 = 125

4. Instead of writing or saying 'cube root', we write �.

Examples:

a) W simply means the cube root of 27

b) The cube root of 64 can be written V64

5. It follows from the above the nth root of a given number is such that when it is raised to
the power n, the original number is obtained.

Examples:

a) If r.ifX = y, then x = y"

b) If x =
n
y , then efX = y

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6. You should remember that, providing we add or subtract equal numbers or letters to both
sides of equations or formulae, or multiply or divide both sides of equations or formulae
by the same number or letter, the truth of the equation or formula is unaffected. We can
now extend this concept to include powers and roots.

Examples:

2
a) x = 9

Taking square roots of both sides: R= J9

x =3

7. Consider the following examples:

a) If .JX = y, make x the subject.

Squaring both sides:

so x = y2
2
b) If x = y, make x the subject.

Square rooting both sides: R = .JY

so x = �y

c) If a = b-Jc , make c the subject.

Squaring both sides: a2 = (bJC )2

2 2
a = b2 (JC )

a2 =
b2 c

a2
Divide through by b2 : = c
b2

a2
Reverse: c=
b2

so: c =

(: ) '

2-18
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2011
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�
8. You should note that J4 can be either +2 or-2 because both
2 2
(+2) and (-2) = +4.

Similarly, .J9 = ± 3 and, in general, R = ± x

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2-20 Module 1.2 Algebra

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Worksheet

Transpose the following formulae to make the letter in brackets the subject:

1. JA = d (A)
p2 = (p
2. q )

3. vx = y (x)
4. a3 = b (a)

5. A = 1tr2 (r)
2
6. {n - 1) = t (n)

7. p = q,Jf (r)

8. z = Jr2 +x2 (x)

9. a = �2bc (c )

10. x2 = yz3 (z)

U•e and/or disclosure is

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Complex Formulae

1. In previous periods, you were shown some of the basic types of situations that can arise
when changing the subject of a formula. These basic types are often combined into a
single problem. Such problems can be treated in a variety of ways, but, if you are in any
doubt at all, the following sequence should be followed:

a) First: remove root signs These 3 steps may be carried

out in a different order for
b) Second: remove fractions certain problems, but all roots,
fractions and brackets should
c) Third: remove brackets be removed before carrying
out the fourth step.

d) Fourth: rearrange formula, collecting all terms containing the required

letter on one side of the equation and all other terms on the other side.

e) Fifth: take the subject out as a common factor

f) Sixth: divide through by the coefficient of the subject

g) Seventh: take roots (if necessary)

2. It may not always be necessary to use all the above steps, but, nevertheless, the
sequence should be followed.

Examples:

a) Transpose v2 = u2 + 2fs to make u the subject.

There are no root signs, fractions or brackets, therefore rearrange:

u2 = v2 - 2fs

There are no common factors or coefficients, therefore take roots:

u = .Jv2-2fs

US& and/or disclosure is

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b) Transpose T =
2it � ,to make g the subject.

Square both sides: =

:::::

Multiply through by g:

Divide through by coefficient T2: g --

2-26 Module 1.2 Algebra

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2011
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Worksheet

Transpose the following fomiulae to make the letter in the brackets the subject.

1. c = Ttd (d)

2. v2 = 2gh (v)

E
3. =
(R)
r+R

4. v = J2gh (h)

5. (C)

1 1 1
6. .. +--=- (u)
u v j

7. T = 2it � (L)

8. s = ut + %ft2 (f )

9. x
=
J§ (s)

PTR
10. =
(R)
100

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2-28
For Training Purposes Only Module 1.2 Algebra Page113
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Answers
c
1. d = -······

7t

2. v .J2gh

E
3. R = - -r
I

v2
4. h =

2g

L
5. c =

(QR)2

a II =
jv
v. u

v-j

7. L =
9(�)2
2(s -ut)
8. f =

x2b- a
9. s =

x2 - 1

1001
10. R = -

PT

Use and/or disclosure ts

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Worksheet

Solve the following equations.

= =
1. n + 8 17. 2. n - 5 11

= x =
3. 3y 20 4. 9
2

=
5. Bx = 0 6. x + 2x 18

a +4 =
7. 3n - 2 = 10 8. 2
3

= x+ 2
9. 4y - y 21 10. = 5
4

=
11. 3c c + 5 12. 2p - 8 = p ... 3

=
13. t + 7 17 - 4t 14. 2a + 4 = 19 - a

=
15. 7m - 9 - m = 3m 16. 3(n- 7) 12

3)
=
17. 4(2k - 1) 20 18. 5(2r + = 15

= x
19. 4(t - 5) 0 20. - + 2 = 5
4

m
21. m + = 12 22.
5 3 4

x 2 = 2k k
23. 0 24. = 1
5 7 3 2

a a x x x =
25. + = 1 26. + + 1
3 5 2 3 4

SW 1 3 4 2
27. + = 28. =

2 3 4 x 7

3 9 2 3 = 5
29. =
'ln
vu. +

p 10 v 2 3

Use and/or disdosure is.

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Answers

1. n = 9 2. n = 16 3. y = 6.666

4. x = 18 5. x = 0 6. x = 6

7. n = 4 8. a = 2 9. y =7

10. x = 18 11. c = 2.5 12. p =5

13. t = 2 14. a =5 15. m = 3

16. n = 11 17. k = 3 18. r = 0

19. t = 5 20. x =12 21. m = 10

22. a = -12 23. x = 1.4287 24. k = 6

25. a = 1.875 26. x = 0.9230 27. w = 0.1666

28. x = 14 29. p = 3.3333 30. v = 12

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Linear Equations

Introduction
Any statement of equality between two quantities is an equation. This chapter is concerned with
the solution of equations that can be rearranged into the form

ax+ b = 0

where xis the unknown (variable), and a and b are constants.

To solve equations of this form (variable} in the equation, we may first need to manipulate the
equation so that all the terms involving the unknown (variable) appear on one side of the
equation, and only constants appear on the other side.

Note. When manipulating the terms of an equation it must remembered that whatever
arithmetic operation is performed to one side of the equation must also be performed
to the other side.

Example:

Solve 2x-4 = 10

We want to find the numerical value of xthat satisfies this equation. By moving -4to the R.H.S.
of the equation, remembering that \."le must change the sign (i.e. by adding + 4to both sides of
the equation) we obtain

2x= 10 + 4
2x= 14

now, by dividing both sides of the equation by 2, we obtain

x=7

Hence x= 7 is the solution to the equation 2x- 4 = 10.

We can check our answer by substituting it back into the original equation

i.e. 2x-4 =10

2(7)-4 = 10
14-4 = 10

Since this is true, our solution is correct.

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Example:

Solve 3x-2 = 2x+4

We aim to get the terms in x on one side of the equation and the constants on the other.

Now, by moving -2 to the R.H.S. of the equation (i.e. by adding+ 2 to both sides of the
equation). we obtain

3x= 2x+4+2
3x=2x+6

Now by moving 2x to the L.H.S. of the equation (i.e. by subtracting 2x from both sides of the
equation), we obtain

3x - 2x = 6
x=6

This is the solution and we can check it by substituting back into the original equation.

i.e. 3x - 2=2x+4
3(6) - 2 2(6)+4=

18- 2=12+4
16=16

Since this is true, our solution is correct.

Example:

4x
Solve = 1
5

By multiplying both sides of the equation by 5, we obtain

by dividing both sides of the equation by 4, we obtain

s[�XJ =5(1)
4x= 5

2-36
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We can check this answer by substituting it back into the original equation

.
1.e. 4x
5
=1
! (1Y-I) 1
5
=

! 1�1 =1
5 \
4;

Since this is true our solution is correct.

Example:

Solve 1h (3x- 1) =7
This equation can be written as

--
3x-1 - "7
- 1

multiplying both sides of the equation by ,2 we obtain

2 [3x-12 ] = 2(7)

3x - 1 =14
by moving -t to the R.H.S. of the equation (i.e. by adding +1 to both sides of the equation), we
obtain

3x = +1 14
3x =15
by dividing both sides of the equation by 3, we obtain

3x
-
-
15
-

3 3

x=S
This is the soiuiion.

Example:

Soive %<x-1) = %<2x-3)

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This equation can he written as

2(x-1) _ 4(2x-3)
3 5

Using the process of cross-multiplication, we obtain

5[2(x - 1)) :::: 3[4(2x-3)]

10(x -1) == 12(2x - 3)

eliminating the brackets, we obtain

10x - 10 = 24x - 36

rearranging the equation so that the terms in x are on the R.H.S. of the equation, and the
constants are on the L.H.S., we obtain

-10 + 36:::: 24x-10x

26 = 14x

dividing both sides of the equation by 14, we obtain

26 14x
-=-

14 14

-26
14
=X

6
X=1
7

This is the solution.

Example:

Solve

9(--) x+3 7 5x
+-=-+3(x-1)
10 2 2

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In order to first simplify this equation we can multiply both sides of the equation by 10, thus
eliminating the denominators.

We then have:

Expanding the brackets we have:

9(x + 3) + 35 = 25x + 30(x - ·i)

9x + 27 + 35 = 25x + 30x - 30
9x + 62 = 55x - 30

Rearranging the equation so that the terms in x are on the RH.S. of the equation, we have:
30 + 62 = 55x - 9x ·

92 = 46x
x=2

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Worksheet

1.
i\
.,
x - 3=4
ii) 3x-5 = 7
iii) 2 - x=1
iv) 14 - 5x = -6
v) -3+ 4x = 5

2.
i) 4x + 1=3x+ 2
ii) 2 - x= 7x - 6
iii) 4 + 2x= Sx - 8
iv) -4 - 3x=-7 - 2x
v) 5x-·2 =-12x-36

3.

i) 8x;.( =16
I .J

ii) 1% x = -7
iii) 2ra = -6
_

iv) -31hx = 4
v) 7 = -1
Ys

4.
i) 2(3x - 1) = 28
ii) 5(3 - 2x) =35
iii) 3(2x+1)= -15
iv) - 4(1 - x) =24
v) %(5 - 3x) = 15

5.

i) t(x-3)=·i(x-1)
ii) 1f(4-2x)=1�(6x+1)
iii) �(x-2)=!(3-2x)
iv) -�(x-3)=4x
v)
?Ux-�)=-·
-
- � ,. ��- -
• I

For Training
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6.
i) 3x = x-7

ii) 2(3 - 2x) = -2

iii) x - 2 = 7 - 2x

iv) x
- =-2
5
v)
�+3 = 2 -JcL
4
vi) x 1 3x
- - -= -+1
2 4 4
vii)
� (2--3x)= - � �
viii) 2(3a - 1) = 5(a + 7)
ix) _1
=S
y
x) 2 1
- -
3x 6
xi) 1 2
k-3 k+S
xii) 2 =
3
_

"'\
0 -
.-
A

xiii) 1 3
-- .----
2x-4 2(1-4x)
xiv) 3 2
4x 3x+1
xv) x
3(6:-5x)=-+3
4
xvi) 2(3t + 7) + 4(8- t) = 8(t + 2)

xvii) %+ 2(3 - z) Y2 (2 - 6z)

[
=

xviii)
J
1 1 4x
- 2x+-(x-3) =-+7
2 3 3

xix) 3x2-7x
=2
x

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Answers

1.
i) x=7
ii) x=4
iii) x=1
iv) x=4
v) x=2
2.
i) x=1
ii) x=1
iii) x=4
iv) x=3
v} x=-2
3.
i) x=6
ii) x= -4
iii) x=9
iv) x=-rs
v) x=-x
4.
i) x=5
ii} x = -2
iii) x =-3
iv) x=7
v) x =-5
5.
i) x=9
ii) x=1
iii) x= 1..1.l.
25

iv) x= 1.
7
v) x= 2�
21

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6.
i) x=-3%
ii) x=2
iii) x=3
iv) x = -10
v) x =-2
vi) x =-5
vii) x= 1
viii) a=37
ix) y= Ys
X) x=4
xi) k = 11
xii) x=2�
xiii) x=1
xiv) x = -3
xv) x=2
xvi) t=5
xvii) z=-5%

xviii) x = -45
xix) x=3
2
xx) x =43

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Indices and Powers

Basic Laws of Indices and Powers

The laws are shown below in algebraic form, where a, m and n are any number.

am = a x a x a x . . ., ... to m terms
an = a x a x a x ......to . n terms

Laws:

1. [I]
3 5 3+5 8
For example a a = a = a

2. [II]

a6
6-2 4
For example = 8 = 8
2
a

3. [Ill]
For example (a3}5 = a3x5 = a15

4. [IV]
7
For example a712 = ..Ja

1
-n
5. a M
-
--

1
For example: a·3 =
a3

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4
and expressing a x a -7 with a positive index gives

(by law [I])

1
(by law [VJ)
3
8

a0 =1 [VI]
2
8 ...3

Example: = (by law [IJ)

s
a 85

(by law [II])

s
a

=ao

= 1 (by law (VI])

Example:
2 2
Simplify a b3c x ab c3 and evaluate when a = 1, b = % and c = 2

2 2
Grouping like terms this becomes a x a x b3 x b x c x c3 and since a = a1 and
c = c, using law [I) this becomes

<2+1 > <3 ...2> '1+3> =

a x b xc a3 x b5 x c4

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Worksheet

1 Simplify p2q3r x pq2r5 and evaluate when p = 3, q = 2 and r = %

2 Simplify and evaluate when x = 2, y = 2 and z = 9

y3/2 z

3 Simplify a Y. b2 c·2 x b -31 2 c3 and evaluate when a = 16, b = 1 /9 and c = 6

Simplify the following

4 a2b3 c x a·3b -5 c2, expressing the answer with positive indices only

1r 1rs
P 3 q2 r
5
y, 1
(pq r 3 ) 13

1 1
6 (x-213 y v. z3) x (x 213 y 2z 13) 13 expressing the answer with positive indices only

a2b v. c-v. x (ab) Y.

7
3-.Ja 2 "b 3 c y,

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Answers

1 p3 qs r6 13%

v. v. Y.
2 x y z 6

3 a y,.by. c 4

CJ
4
.....2
..
QIJ

q 1116 r -4 15
5

y11a z3 119

6
419
x

314 314
7 819112 b. c-

k 2 213 12 m 2 112
8

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Standard Form

Introduction
To multiply a decimal fraction by 10 the decimal point is moved one place to the right, by100
two places to the right and so on. To divide a decimal fraction by10, the decimal point is moved
one place to the left and to divide by 100, two places to the left. The value of a number is
unaltered if the number is both multiplied and divided by the same number. For example, the
number 3 is not altered if multiplied by1000 and divided by1000, for

3 3
3 x10 + 10 = 3.

When solving problems containing decimal or other fractions, the fractions can be expressed in
decimal fraction form with one figure only in front of the decimal point by multiplying or dividing
the number by 10 raised to some power. When this way of writing a number is used it is said to
be written in standard form. Thus a number written in standard form is a number between1 and
1O multiplied by 1O raised to a power.

To write 43.7 in standard form, for example, it is first divided by 10 by moving the decimal point
one place to the left to give 4.37. But it must now be multiplied by10 to retain the value of the
original number. So, 43.7 = 4.37 x 10 when written in standard form.

Again, to write 0.0437 in standard form, it is multiplied by 100 or102 by moving the decimal
2
point two places to the right and then divided by 100 (or multiplied by10- ) to retain its original
value.

Thus 0.0437 = 4.37 x10-2 when written in standard form.

Writing a number in standard form enables a quick check to be made on the approximate value
of a calculation to make sure an error in the position of the decimal point has not occurred. Also
a similar principle is used to denote the size of certain physical quantities. The SI system of
units has adopted the metre as its basic unit of linear measure (length or distance). To measure
the distance between two towns, thousands or tens of thousands of metres would be required,
whereas the length of a small insect such as an ant would be expressed in thousandths of a
metre. Since length and distance can vary so much, large distances are measured in kilometres
or metres x 103. The Table below gives some of the powers of10 used to express numbers as
a reasonable size, together with the abbreviations used for these powers of 10 and the name
given to them.

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Powers of ten in common use:

When multiplying The prefix The abbreviation

a number by used is used is

1 09 Gig a G

10 M
6
Mega

103 kilo k

101- deci d

10-2 centi c

10·3 milli m
6 micro
10" µ

10-9 nano n

1 o-12 pico p

1 o-1s femto f

To measure the power output from a large modern alternator in a power station, megawatts
(MW) are used, but the power to drive a small transistor radio would be measured in milliwatts
(mW). The distance between London and Birmingham would be stated in kilometres (km) but
the distance between the ends of a pencil would be measured in centimetres (cm).These units
are selected to keep numbers to a reasonable size. Other units used such as velocity, whose SI
.. 1
unn 1s metres per secona, w111 oe wrmen as ms-· or mis ana acce1erat1on, naving an �1 unn or
·� • .. • .•• • .. • • • •• .. . -· . .. ,

metres per second squared, will be written as ms-2or m/s 2.

When a number is written in standard form, the number is called the mantissa and the factor by
which it is multiplied the exponent.

Thus 4.3 x105 has a mantissa of 4.3 and an exponent of 1 05.Addition and subtraction of
numbers in standard form can be achieved by adding the mantissae provided the exponent is
the same for each of the numbers being added. For example:

4x 1 02 + 5,6x102 = 9.6x 1 02

This can be verified by writing the numbers as integers, for

4 x 1 02 + 5. 6x102 = 400+ 560= 960

Also 9.6x 1 02 = 960

hence 4 x 1 02 + 5.6x102 = 9.6x102

When the exponents are not the same it is usually better to write the numbers in decimal
fraction form before adding or subtracting .

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The laws of indices are used when multiplying or dividing numbers given in standard form. For
example:

6
(3x103) x (5x102) = (3x5) x(103+2) = 15x 105=1.5x10

Similarly,
8x105

2 x 103
= [ �] x (1o •-•i = 4 x 1o'

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Worksheet

Express the following numbers in standard form:

1 (a)47.44 (b) 83.6 (c) 91.274 (d) 387.7

2 (a)563 (b)7210 (c) 63 000 0000 (d) 76271. 85

3 (a)0.375 (b)0.14 (c) 0.6 (d) 0.0026 (e) 0.00302

4 (a) 0,0000017 (b)0.000101 5 (c)0.10002 (d) 0.07073

5 (a)63 7/8 (b) 3/20 (c) 468 4/5 (d) 1/500

In the following problems, change the numbers from standard form to integers or decimal

fractions:

2 2 3 4
6 (a) 3.72 x 10 (b) 6.2174 x 10- (c) 1 .1004 x 10 (d) 3.27 x 10
1
(e) 8.27 x 10-

7 /13. \ � 'J 1 1nO th\ -:t 1n-6 f,..\ 1 A771 v 1n-3 /.-1\ � R7 1n
. . \U.J v.� I
v
A IV \U/ V
v
"- IV \VJ •.�r r ' " IV \"'! v.v•
v
A 1 v

4 5
8. (a)7.176 x 10 6 (b) 9.98 x 10 (c)4 x 10-

9. Change the following numbers from standard form to proper or improper fractions:

2 2 1 2
(a) 9.375 x 10- (b) 1.873 5 x 10 (c) 5.625 x 10- (d) 3.2475 x 10

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10. Evaluate and express the answer in standard form:

2 2 3 3
(a) 3.774 x 10 · + 7.28 x 10- (b) 6.3 x 10 + 5.381 x 10
6 6 4 4
(c) 1.476 x 10 - - 1.471 x 10- (d) 3.576 x 10 - 4.211 x 10

11. Find the value of the following, giving the answer in standard form:

2 3 10 ·iQ·10
{a) ; .874 x; 0· + 2.227 x ; 0- (b) 5.27 x i0- + 8.37i 42 x
4 4 2 3
(c) 7.2873 x 10· - 3.8771 x 10- (d) 9.71 x 10 - 9.998 x 10

12 Rewrite the following statements without using powers of 10:

3
(a) the freezing temperature of copper is 1.3576 x 10 Kelvin

6
(b) one kilowatt hour has the same energy as 3.6 x 10 joules

3 4
(c) the reciprocal of 1.609 x 10 is 6.214 x 10-

5
(d) the volume of one fluid ounce is 2.841 x 10- cubic metres

-4 2
(e) the square root of 4 x 10 is ± 2 x 10-

13 In these problems. evaluate giving the answers in standard form:

2 3 3
(a) (4.75 x 10 )(8 x 10 ) (b) 3 x (4.4 x 10 )

3 3 2
(c) 8 x 10- (d) (4.5 x 10 )(3 x 10" )
5 4
5 x 10- 2.7 x 10

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Answers

1 (a)4.744x10 (b)8.36x10 (c) 9.127 4x10 (d) 3.877x102

2 3 4
2 (a)5.63x 10 (b)7.21x10 (c) 6.3x 108 (d)7.627185x 10

1 1
3 (a)3.75x10- (b)1.4x10- (c) 6x 10-1 (d)2.6x10-
3

3
(e) 3.02x10-

6 4
4 (a)1.7x10- (b)1.015x10 (c) 1.0002x 10-1 (d) 7.073x 10-
2

1
5 (a) 6.3875x 10 (b)1.5x 10- (c) 4.688x 102 (d)2x 10·
3

6 (a) 372 (b)0.062174 (c) 1 100.4 (d) 32 700 (e)0.827

7 (a)5.21 (b)0.000003 (c) 0.0014771 (d)58.7

8 (a)7 176 000 (b)0.000998 (c) 0.00004

9 (a)3/32 (b)3747/20 (c) 9/16 (d)1299/4

1 4 3
10 (a)1.1054x10- (b)1.1681x 10 (c) 5x 10-9 (d)-6.35x10

2 9
11 (a)2.0967x10- (b)1.364142 x10- (c) 3.4102 x10-4
3
(d)-9.027x10

12 (a) 1357.6 K (b)3 600 000 joules (c) 1609; 0.0006214

I I\. "' AAAA,..__ 4 � �
lOJ U.UUUULO"+ I m- (e)0.0004; ± 0.02

4
13 (a) 3.8x 10
6
(b)1.32x 10 (c) 1.6x 102 (d)5 x10-
3

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Number Systems

Binary

Every number that can be written in decimal can also be written in another system called
Binary. Binary is the main number systems used by computer scientists.

The binary number system is a base 2 number system which uses only the digits 0 and 1. It is
also a place value system which means that each place represents a power of 2, just as the
place represents a power of 10 in the decimal system:

Powers of 2: 25 24 23 22 21 20 2·1 z2

Decimal No.: 32 16 8 4 2 1 0.5 0.25

e.g.: 1010.0h 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1

The number 1010.01i therefore means:

1x8 =8
+1 x2 =2
+ 1 x 0.25 =0.25

So, 1010.0h = 10.2510

Binary to Decimal Conversions

Example:

Convert 1001001 to Decimal

Write down the powers of 2, and the number to be converted below them, as follows

64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 0 0 1 0 0 1

Then add all the numbers above the 1 's

i.e. 64 + 8 + 1 =73

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Decimal to Binary Conversions

Example:

Convert 271 to Binary

Write down the powers of two up to the next higher number (256 in this case)than the number to
be converted

256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

Next write in the first digit 1 under the highest number (256). Subtract the 256 from 271

271-256=15

Insert 1's under the numbers which, when added, come to 15.

256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 1 1 1 1

The Decimal number 27110 is therefore 1000011112

Adding Binary Numbers

Example:

Add 1100010 to 1000111

Line up the numbers as shown, and add each column starting from the left (as you would when
adding decimal numbers). When two 1 's are added, this would normally be 2. But 2 is not
allowed in binary, so write 0 and carry 1 to the next column to the left and include it in the
addition of the next column.

1100010 1 's carried to next left column

�
10101001

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Worksheet

1. Convert the following Binary numbers to Decimal:

(a) 1101.1 (b) 1001110.11 (c) 100100.1

2. Convert the following Decimal numbers to Binary:

(a) 62 (b) 1,024 (c) 42.25 (d) 51.125

3. Add the following Binary numbers:

(a) 111and 100 (b) 10010and 1101 (c) 10110001 and 11100010

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Answers

1. (a) 13.5 (b) 78.75 (c) 36.5

2. (a) 11111 O (b) 10000000000 (c) 101010.01 (d) 1 10011.001

3. (a) 1011 (b) 1 1 111 (c) 1100 10011

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Octal
Every number that can be written in decimal can also be written in another system called octal.
Like binary, octal is one of the three main number systems used by computer scientists.

The octal number system is a base 8 number system which uses only the eight digits 0, 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, and 7. It is also a place value system which means that each place represents a power
of 8, just as the place represents a po'lv'er of 10 in the decimal system:

Powers of 8: 84 82 a-1

Decimal No: 4096 512 64 8 1 0.125 0.015625

e.g.: 237a 2 3 7

2 i °
Thus, an octal number such as 2378::::: 2 x 8 + 3 x 8 + 7 x8 = 128 + 24 + 7 = 15910.

Converting Binary to Octal and Octal to Binary

To convert a binary number to an octal number, construct a 3-bit binary I octal lookup table like
the one below. Starting at the binary decimal point of the binary number, take the first 3 bits and
find the corresponding octal value from the table. Repeat with next 3 bits and so on. If less than
3 bits remain, pad them with O's until there are 3 bits. Again use the table.

3-bit binary octal

000 0
001 1
010 2
011 3
100 4
101 5
110 6
111 7
3-bit binary I octal table

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Example:

Convert 11010010 to octal.

1. Take the 3 most right bits, 010 and find the corresponding octal value in the above
lookup table. The octal value is '2'.

2. Take the next 3 bits, 010. The corresponding octal value from the lookup table is '2'
again.

3. Now, only 2 bits, 11 of the binary number remain. Pad the left hand side with a Oto get
011 . The corresponding octal value from the lookup table is '3'.

So , 110100102 = 322s

To convert from octal to binary, write down the binary representation of each octal digit. Note
that each octal digit should take up 3 bits.

Example:

Convert 322s to binary

3 = 011
2 = 010
2 = 010

So, 322a =0110100102

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Worksheet

1. Convert the following Binary numbers to Octal:

(a) 101010100 (b) 011110100000 (c) 111101001

2. Convert the following Octal numbers to Binary:

(a) 1263 (b) 65217 (c) 426 (d) 5625

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Answers

1. (a) 524 (b) 3640 (c) 751

2. (a) 1010110011 (b) 110101010001111 (c) 100010110

(d) 101110010101

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Hexadecimal
Every number that can be written in decimal can also be written in another system called
hexadecimal. Hexadecimal is the last of the three main number systems used by computer
scientists.

The hexadecimal number system is a base 16 number system which uses the sixteen digits 0,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, and F. Here, we need the extra digits A, B, C, D, E, and F
to represent the numbers 10, 11; 12, 13, 14, and 15, since there are no digits in the decimal
numeral system to do this.

decimal hexadecimal
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 A
11 B
12 c
13 D
14 E
15 F

Hexadecimal is also a place value system which means that each place represents a power of
16, just as the place represents a power of 10 in the decimal system:

Powers of 16:

Decimal No: 4096 256 16 1 0.0625

e.g.: 3AFrn 3 A F

Thus, a hexadecimal number such as 3AF16=3 x 162 + 10 x 161+ 15 x 16° = 768 + 160 + 15 =

94310.

Note: It is much more difficult to convert from decimal to hexadecimal than it is to convert from
hexadecimal to decimal. If you are asked in the exam to do the latter, take each answer
provided and convert to decimal, until you get the number in the question.

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Converting Hexadecimal to Binary and Binary to Hexadecimal

To convert a binary number to an hexadecimal number, construct a 4-bit binary I hexadecimal
lookup table like the one below. Starting at the binary decimal point of the binary number, take
the first 4 bits and find the corresponding hexadecimal value from the table. Repeat with next 4
bits and so on. If there is less than 4 bits remaining, pad them out to 4 bits.

4-bit binary hexadecimal

0000 0
0001 1
0010 2
0011 3
0100 4
0101 5
0110 6
0111 7
1000 8
1001 9
1010 A
1011 8
1100 c
1101 D
1110 E
1111 F
Example:

Convert 11010010 to hexadecimal.

1. Take the 4 most right bits, 001 O and find the corresponding hexadecimal value in the
above lookup table. The hexadecimal value is '2'.

2. Take the next 4 bits, 1101. Find the corresponding hexadecimal value in the above
lookup table. The hexadecimal value is 'D'.

So, 110100102 = 0215

To convert from hexadecimal to binary, write down the binary representation of each
hexadecimal digit. Note that each hexadecimal digit should take up 4 bits.

Example:

Convert 2CF1e to binary

2 0010
=

c = 1100
F = 1111

So, 2CF16 = 0010110011112

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Worksheet

1. Convert the following Binary bits to Hexadecimal code:

{a) 11100001
(b) 101110001111
(c) 11111100

2. Convert the following Hexadecimal codes to Binary bits:

(a) 4F (b) 1AC (c) 67 {d) 2A8

3. Convert the following Hexadecimal codes to Decimal:

(a) 20 (b) 1AF (c) 21A (d) 1AE

4. Convert the following Decimal numbers to Hexadecimal codes:

(a) 1632 {b) 494 (c) 5174 (d) 67

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Answers

1. (a) E1

(b) B8F

(c) FC

2. (a) 1001111 (b) 110101100 (c) 1100111 (d) 1010101000

3. (a) 45 (b) 431 (c) 538 (d) 430

4. (a) 660 {b) 1EE {c) 1436 (d) 43

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Binary Coded Decimal

The BCD system is a four-bit system representing a decimal character for use with digital
display readouts. It can also be used for addressing to make it more convenient for humans to
use.

BCD number 1001 0010 0011 0000

Decimal equivalent 9 2 3 0

Thus, a BCD number such as 1001001000110000 is 4 sets of 4-bit binary numbers

9, 2, 3 and 0, which, when decoded means decimal 9230.

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Worksheet

1. Convert the following Decimal numbers to BCD:

(a) 94 (b) 429 (c) 2947 (d) 1736

2. Convert the following BCD numbers to Decimal:

(a) 10000101 (b) 011100001001 (c) 001101100100

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Answers

1. (a) 10010100 (b) 010000101001 (c) 0010100101000111

(d) 0001011100110110

2. (a) 85 (b) 709 (c) 364

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Summary
HEX BINARY DECIMAL BCD OCTAL
0 0 0 0000 0000 0
1 1 1 0000 0001 1
2 10 2 0000 0010 2
3 11 3 0000 0011 3
4 100 4 0000 0100 4
5 101 5 0000 0101 5
6 110 6 0000 0110 6
7 111 7 0000 0111 7
8 1000 8 0000 1000 10
9 1001 9 0000 1001 11
A 1010 10 0001 0000 12
B 1011 11 0001 0001 13
c 1100 12 0001 0010 14
D 1101 13 0001 0011 15
E 1110 14 0001 0100 16
F 1111 15 0001 0101 17
10 1 0000 16 0001 0110 20
11 1 0001 17 0001 0111 21
12 1 0010 18 0001 1000 22
13 1 0011 19 0001 1001 23
14 1 0100 20 0010 0000 24
15 1 0101 21 0010 0001 25
16 1 0110 22 0010 0010 26
17 1 0111 23 0010 0011 27
18 1 1000 24 0010 0100 30
19 1 1001 25 0010 0101 31
1A 1 1010 26 0010 0110 32
18 1 1011 27 0010 0111 33
1C 1 1100 28 0010 1000 34
10 1 1101 29 0010 1001 35
1E 1 1110 30 0011 0000 36
1F 1 1111 31 0011 0001 37

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Simultaneous Equations

Methods of Solving

Method 1: By Substitution

Let 2x + 3y =11 (1)

and 4x + 2y = 10 (2)

11 -3y
Then from equation (1). x =

[
Let this expression for x be substituted into equation (2). Thus

11 - 3�
4 j + 2y = 10
2

This is now a simple equation in y and may be solved. Multiplying both sides of the equation by
2 gives

4 ( 11 - 3y ) + 4y = 20

Removing brackets gives

44 - 12y + 4y = 20

Rearranging gives

44 - 20 = 12y - 4y

24 = By

Hence y = 3

This value of y may be substituted into either equation (1) or equation (2). (The result should be
the same in both cases.)

Substituting in equation (1) gives

2x + 3(3) = 11

Therefore 2x + 9 = 11

2x = 11 -9
2x = 2
Hence x = 1

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Therefore the solution of the simultaneous equations 2x + 3y = 11 and 4x + 2y = 10 is x = 1

and y = 3. This is the only pair of values that satisfies both equations.

Method 2: By Elimination

let 2x + 3y = 11 (1)
and 4x + 2y = 1O (2)

If equation (1} is multiplied throughout by 2 the resulting equation will be

4x + 6y = 22 (3)

The reason that equation (1) is multiplied by 2 is that the coefficient of x (i.e. the number
multiplying x) in equation (2) and equation (3) is now the same. Sometimes it is necessary to
multiply both equations by constants chosen so that the coefficients of x or y in each equation
become the same.

Equation (2) can now be subtracted from equation (3). Thus

4x + 6y = 22 (3)
4x + 2y = 10 (2)

Subtracting 0 + 4y = 12
Hence 4y = 12
Therefore y = 3

This value of y may now be substituted in equation (1} or equation (2) exactly as in method 1 to
find the value of x.

It will be found from experience that in many cases method 1, that of substitution is
unnecessarily cumbersome, so that method 2, the elimination procedure will be employed.

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Worksheet

Solve the following equato

i ns for the unknowns:

1. x+y=S
x -y = 2

2. 2s + 3 t = 5
s + t= 2

3. 3g -2h =7
g + 2h = 5

4. 4x-3y = 1 8
x+ 2y= -1

5. 7a - 4b = 37
6a+ 3b = 5 1

6. 4c =2 -5d
3d + c + 3 = 0

7. 3a+ 4b -5 = a
12 = 5b -2a

8. a-b = 8
a+b = 12

9. d + e =3
3d + 2e = 7

10. x+ 3y= 11
x+ 2y= 8

11. 3m-2n = -4.5

4m +3n =2.5

12. 3x=2y
4x+ y=-1 1

13. 4x-3y=3
3x + 5y = 1 11

1 4 6m-19 = 3n
13 = Sm+ 6n

15 4a-Sb + 2.5 = 0
7a-Sb + 0 .25 = 0

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16 s + t = 15

s t
=
1
3 7

17
a
- 11 = -2b
2

3
-b =
9 - 3a
5

18 3 1
-p - 2q - -

2 2

3
p +-q =
6
2

19
1.2a - 1.8b =
-21
2.5a + 0.6b = 65

20
2.5x + 0.45 - 3y = O
1.6x + 0.8y - 0.8 = 0

21
1.2p + q =
1.8
p - 1.2q =
3.94

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Answers

1 x= 3%,y = 1%
2 s= 1,t= 1
3 g= 3, h= 1
4 x = 3,y= -2
5 a= 7, b= 3
6 c = 3, d = -2
7 a= -i, b= 2
8 a= 10, b= 2
9 d=1,e= 2
10 x = 2,y = 3
11 m= -%,n= 1%
12 x= -2,y= -3
13 x = 1 2,y = 15
14 m = 3, n = - 1/3
15 a = %, b = %
16 s= 8, t= 7
17 a= 2, b= 5
1 8 p= 3, q= 2
19 a= 20, b = 25
20 x = 0.30, y= 0.40
21 p= 2.50, q= -1.20

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Quadratic Equations

Introduction
A quadratic function is a function of the form

y = ax2 + bx + c (1 )

where a, b, c are constants, and a * O

Examples of the graphs of quadratic functions are given below:

�1g l Fig2

y y
y= x2-411 + 3 y =-x;i; ·+ 6x-8

3 3

2- 2

1 1

0 4 x 0 1 5 x

-l - 1

·2 -2

A quadratic equation may be written in the form

ax2+ bx+ c = 0 (2)

where a, b, c are constants, and a* O

Note that this corresponds to putting y = O in the quadratic function (1)

The solution of the quadratic equation (2) is given by

-b± �b2-4ac
x (3)
2a
=

N. B. The derivation of formula (3) is not considered here.

It should be noted that if b2- 4ac < O then (3) involves taking the square root of a negative
number. This is not possible in terms of real numbers and such cases are not considered here.

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Example:

Solve x2 - 4x +3 = O·

Comparing this equation with (2) we see that

a = 1; b = -4; c = 3

(a is the coefficient of x2; b is the coefficient of x; and c is the constant term)

Using (3) we obtain

4� -.j(-4)2 4(1 )(3)

r--

-b±Jb2-4ac --
X= =

2a 2(1)
--

4±.J16-12 4±.J4 4±2 2

= = .._ 6 and
2 2 2 2 2

x = 3and1

The solution of x2 - 4x + 3 = O is x = 1 and x = 3

This can be verified by looking at Fig. 1 (i.e. the solution occurs where the curve
y = x2 -4x + 3 cuts the x axis).

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...1••&...�-:-............__..........:...- ---··-- -� ....
UILOJVVtll U.\,Vfll \.fUC.,UVI I t•"Q\,11\,C:: CJIU

Solution by Factorisation
An alternative method of solving a quadratic equation is factorisation. However, this method is
only easily applied to some quadratic equations. The method is illustrated as follows:

2
x -4x + 3 = 0

To factorise the left hand side of this equation we require two numbers the sum of which is -4
(the coefficient of x) and the product of which is 3 (the constant term). These numbers are -3
and -1, and the factors are (x - 3) and (x - 1 ). We now have:

2
x -4x + 3 = O
(x - 3)(x - 1) = 0

The two terms (x - 3) and (x - 1) have a product of zero if either one of the terms equals zero.
Therefore the solution of our quadratic equation is

(x - 3) = O or (x - 1) = O

x = 3 or x = 1

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Example:

Solve -x2 + 6x - 8 = O

Comparing this equation with (2), we have

a= -1 ; b = 6; c = -8

Using (3 ) we obtain

X= --
.J
-b± b2 -4ac --
=
�
-6t 62 4(-1)(-8)
2a 2(-1)

-6±v36-32 -6±2 4
I
-6±J4
B
--

= = = and -
-2 -2
-

-2 -2 -2

x = 4 and 2

This can be verified by looking at Fig. 2.

Alternatively, using the method of factorisation described in example 1, we have:

-'t!- + 6x - B = O
x2-6x + 8 = 0
(x - 4) (x - 2) = 0

x = 4 and 2

Example:

Solve 4x2- 14x+12=0

The calculations can be made simpler here if the equation is first divided through (on both
sides) by 2.

Hence we obtain

2x2 - 7x + 6 = 0

In this case we have

a= 2; b = -7; c = 6;

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and hence

-b±vb2 -4ac 7±�49-4(2)(6)

X= =

2a 2(2)
------

7±J1 7±1 8 6
= = and
4 4 4 4

x = 2 and 11/z

Example:

Solve 3x2 - 48 = 0

Here we have
a = 3; b = O; c = -48

and hence

-b±-v'b2 -4ac 0±"0-4(3)(-48)

X= =
2a 2(3)
------

±.J576 =
±24
=
6 6

x= ±4

This example is a special case because b = 0. Whenever this case arises it is not necessary to
employ the quadratic formula given by (3). Instead we could have treated this example as
follows:

3x2 - 48 = 0

Moving -48 to the R.H.S. of the equation (i.e. by adding 48 to both sides of the equation) we
obtain

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3x2= 48

dividing through by 3 we obtain

x2= 48/3 = 16
x2= 16
Hence x = ±4

Example:

Solve x2- Bx = 0
Here we have
a = 1; b = -8; c= o

Hence

-b± ,Jb2 -4ac -- 8 ±�(-8)2 -4(1)(0)

X= -- =
2a 2(1)

8±.J64-0 =
8±8 16
= = and O
2 2 2

x = 8 and O

This example is a special case because c = 0. Whenever this case arises it is not necessary to
employ the quadratic formula given by (3). Instead we could have treated this example as
follows:

x2- 8x = 0

Because both terms on the L.H.S. contain x, we can write this equation as

x(x- 8) = 0
That is x = O or (x - 8) = O
Hence the solution is x = O and 8

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Example:

Solve (x - 2) (x - 3) = 2x - 6

The first step is to expand the brackets and we have:

(x - 2) (x - 3) = 2x - 6
x2 - 5x + 6 = 2x - 6

Rearranging this equation we have

x2- 7x + 12=0

We can now solve in the usual way. We have a= 1; b = -7; c = 12;

and hence

' 2
-b±-Jb -4ac 7±.J49-48
X= =
2a 2

7±1 8 6
= = and -
2 2 2

x = 4 and 3

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Worksheet

1. Solve the following

i) 2
x - 5x+4= 0
2
ii) x - 3x = 1 0
2
iii) 6x = 1 - x
iv) 2
x -4x +4= 0

2. Solve the following:

2
i) x - 25 =O
2
ii) x =49
2
iii) 4x - 576 = 0
2
iv) x - 1=0
2
v) 1 6x - 1=0

3. Solve the following:

2
i) x - 6x = 0
2
ii) -3x +6= 0
2
iii) 4x -12x= 0
2
iv) 3x -x= 0
2
v) 7x =-x

4. Solve the following:

2
i) x - 8x+7= 0
"'
ii) 3x" - 14x + 8= O
2
iii) -8x - 6x- 1=0
2
iv) 3x -300= 0
2
v) 10x -x = 0
2
vi) 42x = 1 3x- 1
vii) (x- 8)(x -4) +3 = 0
2
viii) -2z + 19z- 24= 0
ix)
.
y2. -
.,
IOy + 25= 0
-
x) -4x�= Jx

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Answers

1.

i) x=1, 4
ii) x=-2, 5
iii) x=-%, x
iv) x=2

2.
i) x=±5
ii) x=±7
iii) x=±12
vi) x=±1
v) x =±Y..

3.
i) x =0, 6
ii) x=±1.41
iii) x=0, 3
iv) x=O, 1J
v) x=0, - �

4.
i) x=1, 7
ii) x= %. 4
iii) x=-}'2, -Y..
iv) x =±10
v) x=0, .Ko
vi) x=rs,x
vii) x=5, 7
viii) z = 1%, 8

ix) y=5
x) x=0, -%

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Logarithms

Why Logs?
In the discussion of indices it was noted that whenever a number is "raised" to a power then we
write that in exponential notation and the meaning of it is that the number appearing in the base
is being multiplied by itself the number of times that is indicated by the exponent. The notation
3
used was such that if we write 5 , what we actually mean is "5 multiplied by itself 3 times".

Logarithms are mathematical inventions in order to answer a slightly different question (notice
the word "invention"; logarithms make certain operations easier to handle and that is all they do,
so you should think of them as a definition). Jn order to motivate why logarithms are introduced
in the first place, let us invent a scenario. Suppose someone asked you the following question:

What number do I have to raise to the power of 3 in order to get 1,000? Well ... this might seem
pretty simple and obvious. ff you multiply 10 x 10 you get 100, and if you multiply 100 10 you
x
3
get 1,000. So, you would say that 1O multiplied by itself 3 times - or, in our power notation, 10 -
is equal to 1,000.

Now, this is easy to answer by thinking about powers because the above example is simple
powers and simple number, and once can reason it out relatively quickly. However, things can
get more complicated. Suppose now that you were asked "what number do I have to raise 10 to
in order to get 735. All of a sudden the answer is not very obvious. What is so different about
this question?

There is actually nothing different about this question. You still can try doing the same process,
but now the number isn't that pretty and it's not exactly obvious how many times you should
multiply 10 by itself to get 735. If you multiply it by itself 2 times you get 100, but 3 times gives
1,000, and you have already exceeded 735! How do we "get out" this power that we need?

Logarithms are - at the most basic level - invented to answer the more general question of how
does one extract the base or exponent of an algebraic power when one of these is an unknown.

Definition
Continuing on the above reasoning, let us take our simple example again: what number raised
to the power of 3 gives 1,000? If we invent an unknown variable - call it 'y' and try to write out
our question in terms of the notation of algebraic powers we have the following situation:

1QY = 1 000
'

The question is: what is 'y' in the above formula? How do we solve for 'y'? We invent an
operation called the logarithm - abbreviated to Log - and we apply this operation to the above
relation.

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Thus:
If by= x then

This is the definition of a log.

How does this help us with anything? It seems like we went in a big loop, and we knew the
answer to begin with anyway! But ... now consider the slightly more complicated question that
we had above: "what number do I raise 10 to, in order to get 735?". Let us apply the logarithmic
process to this situation:

1QY= 735

Log10735 = y

If you take the Log of 735 on your calculator you get, 2.866 . . . ! So, 10 raised to the power of
2.866. .. gives you 735, and the question is answered. Recall that algebraic powers need NOT
be integers, and here we have a clear example of a non-integer power.

A series of logs can be drawn on a graph as shown below

1 10 100
1000

Thus it can be seen that

• Log101 = 0
• Log1010 = 1
• LOQ10100 = 2
• Log101000 = 3
• Log1010000 = 4
etc.

And the log of anything between 10 and 100 is between 1 and 2 (but not on a linear
relationship).

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It can be said then, that Log10150 = 2.xxx, where the x's are any numbers after the decimal
point. The '2' is known as the Characteristic of the Log, and the decimals are known as the
Mantissa. Hence, the characteristic of the Log of any number between 100 and 999 is 2. (The
'Characteristic' is in fact 'n-1' where 'n' is the quantity of digits you are taking a log of).

Common Logarithms
There are two basic types of logarithms that are important to know. In the previous section,
where logarithms were defined, you already saw the definition of one kind of logarithms; that
was the so called "log base 10".

The logarithmic operation that we have introduced serves the main purpose of extracting the
exponents in an algebraic power. This is true of the operation of "taking the logarithm".

The logarithm of base 10 is most often useful when powers of 10 are involved, but not
necessarily. It can be used in many other situations. For instance, suppose you were asked the
following question: 3 raised to what power gives 16.8? Again, applying our definition of
logarithm of base 10 - as defined in the previous section - we can answer this question ... but, in
order to do this we need to define some rules of operation for logarithms (this is outlined in the
next few pages).

Logarithms having a base of 10 are called common logarithms and log10 is often abbreviated to
'lg'.

Natural Logarithms
There is another logarithm that is also useful (and i n fact more common in natural processes).
Many natural phenomenon are seen to exhibit changes that are either exponentially decaying
(radioactive decay for instance) or exponentially increasing (population growth for example).
These exponentially changing functions are written as ex, where x represents the rate of the
exponential.

In such cases where exponential changes are involved we usually use another kind of logarithm
called natural logarithm. The natural log can be thought of as Logarithm Base-e. What this
means is that it is a logarithmic operation that when carried out on e raised to some power gives
us the power itself. This logarithm is labelled with Ln (for "natural log") and its definition is:
Ln(ex) = x

Logarithms having a base of e (where 'e' is a mathematical constant approximately equal to

2.7183) are called hyperbolic or natural logarithms, and loge is often abbreviated to 'In'.

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Rules of Logarithms
There are three rules of logarithms, which apply to any base.

Rule 1. To multiply two numbers:

log AB = log A + log B

The following may be checked by using a calculator:

lg 10 = 1

Also lg 5 + lg 2 = 0.69897 + 0.301029 = 1

Hence lg(S x 2) =lg 10 =lg 5 +lg 2

Rule 2. To divide two numbeis:

A
1-- - 1-- A 1-- I.
1uy - - ruy ""' - ruy u

The following may be checked using a calculator:

5
In - = In 2.5 = 0.91629...
2

Also In 5 - In 2 = In 2.5 = 1.60943 - 0.69314 = 0.91629

5
Hence In - = In 5 - In 2
2

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Rule 3. To raise a number to a power

log A" = n log A

The following may be checked using a calculator:

lg52 = lg 25 = 1.39794

Also 2 lg 5 = 2(0.69897) = 1.39794

Hence lg 52 = 2 lg 5

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Further Logarithms

Example
1 2
Solve the equation 3 x + = 2 x - 3

Ta king logarithms to base 1 O of both sides gives

(x + 1) 10910 3 = (2x- 3) IOQ10 2

x 10910 3 + 10910 3 = 2x 10910 2 - 3 10910 2

A calculator or log tables are required for the next line. It is given here as an example only.
However the CAA question may give you the values of 109103 and 109102

x(0.4771) + 0.4771 = 2x(0.3010) - 3(0.3010)

x = 11.05

Example
25
Solve the equation x · = 37.5

Taking logarithms to base 10 of both sides gives

5
log10 x2· = 10910 37.5

2.5 10910 x = IOQ10 37.5

log10 x = 10910 37.5 + 2.5

A calculator or log tables are required for the next line. It is given here as an example only.
However the CAA question m a y give you the values of 1091037.5

IOQ10X = 0.6296

x = antilog 0.6296 = 4.262

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Some special properties of logarithms

(i) logb 1 = 0

Let logb 1 = x then bx= 1 from the definition of a logarithm.

If bx= 1 then x = 0, from the laws of indices.

Hence logb 1 = 0.

(log10 1 = 0, for example)

(ii) logb b = 1

Let logb b = x then bx= b from the definition of a logarithm.

If bx= b then x = 1, from the laws of indices

Hence logb b = 1.

(10910 10 = 1, for example)

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Complex Numbers

The Number i
Consider the Equations 1 and 2 below.

Equation 1 Equation 2
x2 -1 = 0. x2 + 1 = 0.
x2 1.= x2 = -1.

Equation 1 has solutions because the number 1 has two square roots, 1 and -1. Equation 2 has
no solutions because -1 does not have a square root. In other words, there is no number such
that if we multiply it by itself we get -1. If Equation 2 is to be given solutions, then we must
create a square root of -1 .

Definition: The imaginary unit i is defined by

The definition of i tells us that i2 = -1. We can use this fact to find other powers of i.

Example:

13 - - -1
- 12 x 1- . x 1 -
.
.
- - J.

i
4
= i2 x 12 = (-1) x (-1) = 1.

We treat i like other numbers in that we can multiply it by numbers, we can add it to other
numbers, etc. The difference is that many of these quantities cannot be simplified to a pure real
number.

For example, 3 i just means 3 times i, but we cannot rewrite this product in a simpler form,
because it is not a real number. The quantity 5 + 3 i also cannot be simplified t o a real number.

However, (-1)2 can be simplified. (-i)2 = (-1 x 1)2 = (-1 ) 2 x i2 = 1 x (-1) = -1.

Because i2 and (-i)2 are both equal to -1, they are both solutions for Equation 2 above.

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The Complex Plane

Definition: A complex number i s one of the form a + b i, where a and b are real numbers. a is
called the real part of the complex number, and b is called the imaginary part.

Two complex numbers are equal if and only if their real parts are equal and their imaginary
parts are equal. Le., a+b i= c+d i if and only if a= c, and b= d.

Examples�

2 -5i

0+2i=2i
4+0i=4

The last example above illustrates the fact that every real number is a complex number (with
imaginary part 0). Another example: the real number -3.87 is equal to the complex number
-3.87 + 0i.

It is often useful to think of real numbers as points on a number line. For example. you can
define the order relation c < d, where c and d are real numbers, by saying that it means c is to
the left of d on the number line.

We can visualize complex numbers by associating them with points in the plane. We do this by
letting the number a + b i correspond to the point (a, b ).

�3+ Si

0 2+i

5 5i
0

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Complex Arithmetic
When a number system is extended the arithmetic operations must be defined for the new
numbers, and the important properties of the operations should still hold. For example, addition
of whole numbers is commutative. This means that we can change the order in which two whole
numbers are added and the sum is the same: 3+ 5 = 8 and 5+ 3 = 8.

We need to define the three arithmetic operations on complex numbers.

1. Addition and Subtraction

To add or subtract t-vvo complex numbers, you add or subtract the real parts and the imaginarf
parts.
(a+ bi)+ (c+ d 1) =(a+ c)+ (b+ d) i.
(a + b i) - (c+ d i) =(a - c)+ (b - d) i.
Example:

(3 - 5 i)+ (6 +7 i) =(3+6)+ (-5+7) i =9+ 2 i.

(3 - 5i) - (6+ 7i) = (3 - 6)+ (-5 - 7)i = -3 - 12 i.

Note: These operations are the same as combining similar terms in expressions that have
a variable. For example, if we were to simplify the expression (3 - 5x)+ (6+7x) by
combining similar terms, then the constants 3 and 6 would be combined, and the terms -5x
and 7x would be combined to yield 9+ 2x.

2. Multiplication

The formula for multiplying two complex numbers is

(a +bi) x (c+di)= (ac - bd)+(ad +be) ;

You do not have to memorize this formula, because you can arrive at the same result by
treating the complex numbers like expressions with a variable, multiply them as usual, then
simplify. The only difference is that powers of i do simplify, while powers of x do not.

Example
(2+ 3i)(4+ 7 i) = 2x4+ 2x7 i+ 4x3i + 3x7xi 2

= 8+ 14 i+ 12 J+ 21x(-1)
= (8 � 21)+ (14+ 12) i
=-13+ 26 i.

Notice that in the second line of the example, the i2 has been replaced by -1.

Using the formula for multiplication, we would have gone directly to the third line.

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3. Division

Definition: The conjugate (or complex conjugate) of the complex number a+ bi is a - bi.

Conjugates are important because of the fact that a complex number times its conjugate is real;
i.e., its imaginary part is zero.

(a + b i)(a - b 1) (a2+ b ) + 0 i = a2 + b
2 2
=

Examp le:
Number Conjugate Product
2+ 3 i 2 -3 i 4+ 9 = 13
3-51 3+5 j 9+ 25 = 34
4i -4 i 16

Suppose we want to do the division problem (3 + 2 i) + (2 + 5 i). First, we want to rewrite this as
. 3+ 2i
a �1ract·1ona I expression --
2+5i

Even though we have not defined division, it must satisfy the properties of ordinary division. So,
a number divided by itself will be 1, where 1 is the multiplicative identity; i.e., 1 times any
number is that number.

3+ 2-5
So, when we multiply 2i by 1 , we are multiplying by 1 and the number is not changed.
2+51 2-51

Notice that the quotient on the right consists of the conjugate of the denominator over itself. This
choice was made so that when we multiply the two denominators, the result is a real number.

Here is the complete division problem, with the result written in standard form.

3+2i 3+2i 2-5i

-- = -- x
2 + 5.i 2 + 51 2 -5.t

_ (3 + 2i)(2 -Si)
(2 + 5i)(2 -Si)

16-11i
::::: ---
29

16 11
i
29 29
= ---

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Worksheet

1. Evaluate the following complex expressions:

(a) (8 7 /) + (2 +
- 3 i)

(b) (3 - 4 i) - (6 + 5 i)

2. Perform the following operations:

(a) (-3 + 4 1) + (2 - 5 i).

(b) 3i-(2-4J).
(c) (2 - 7 i)(3 + 4i).
(d) (1 + 1)(2 - 3 1).

3. Write (2-i) + (3 + 2 i) in standard form.

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Answers

1.
(a) 10-4 j
(b) -3-9 i

2.
(a) -1 - j
(b) -2 + 7 i
(c) 34 - 13 j
(d) 5- j

4 --1
7 .
3. -

13 13

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TTS Integrated
Training System

Module 1
Licence Category 81 and 82

Mathematics

1 .3 Geometry

Module 1.3 Geometry 3-·

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Copyright Notice

© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Total Training Support Limited.

Knowledge Levels -Category A, 81, 82 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence

Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or
3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2
basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are de·fined as follows:

LEVEL 1
A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.

LEVEL 3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
and specific examples.
The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manutacturer's
instructions.
The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.

3-2 Module 1.3 Geometry

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Table of Contents

Module 1.3 Geometry ______ 5

Trigonometry ______ 5
Trigonometrical Relationships 5
The Sine Curve 10
The Cosine Curve 1O
The Tan Curve 11
Other Trigonometric Functions 12
To Find the Length of an Unknown Side 13

Coordinates and Graphs 21

The x and y Axis 21
Graphical Representations of an Equation 27
The Straight Line 39
Derivation of the Equation y = mx + c 45

Cartesian and Polar Coordinates 51

Cartesian Coordinates 51
Polar Coordinates 51

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············'

Module 1.3 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement

Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation 2042/2003 Annex Ill (Part-66)
. ted KnowI ed1qe L eveI s as spec1T1ed beI ow:
A,ppen d"1x I , and the assoc1a
EASA66 Level
Objective I
Reference 81 82
Geometry 1.3
(a) 1 1
Simple Qeometrical constructions
(b) 2 2
Graphical representations; nature and uses of
graphs, graphs of equations/functions
�) 2 2
Simple trigonometry; trigonometrical
relationships, use of tables and rectangular and
polar coordinates

3-4 Module 1.3 Geometry

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Module 1.3 Geometry

Trigonometry

Trigonometrical Relationships

1. By using Pythagoras, you are now able to partially solve right-angled triangles, i.e. you
can find the third side of a right-angled triangle when given its other 2 sides. This
chapter is concerned with establishing the basic trigonometrical concepts which will later
enable you to completely solve right-angled triangles, i.e. to find all their 6 elements
(angles and sides).

2. Similar triangles are triangles which are the same shape, one is simply an enlargement
of the other. Two important properties of similar triangles are:

a) their corresponding angles are equal.

b) their corresponding sides are proportional.

Consider the triangles:

(1) (2)

4 8

3. The above triangles are similar since they are equiangular and the ratios of their
corresponding sides are constant, i.e.

BC 3 EF 6 3
a) -=-=-=-=-

AB 5 DE 10 5

AC 4 DF 8 4
b) -=-=-= - = -

AB 5 DE 10 5

BC 3 EF 6 3
c) -==-=-=-=-

AC 4 DF 8 4

Module 1.3 Geometry 3-5

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c A
b b

4. Now consider the following similar triangles:

In both cases side 'c' is the hypotenuse.

Taking angleA as the reference: Taking angle Bas the reference:

a) Side 'a' is the side opposite a) Side 'b' is the side opposite
b) Side 'b' is the adjacent side b) Side 'a' is the adjacent side

Since the triangles are similar, the ratios of corresponding sides are constant, i.e., the
b a
ratios�, and are the same for all similar right-angled triangles.
c c b

5. In a right-angled triangle the ratio:

side opposite the angle

a) is called the SINE of the reference angle
hypotenuse

opposite a
sinA =
hypotenuse c

side adjacent to the angle

b) is called the COSINE of the reference angle
hypotenuse

adjacent b
cosA = =

hypotenuse c

side opposite the angle

c) is called the TANGENT of the angle.
side adjacent that angle

opposite a
tanA = =

adjacent b

The above are the fundamental trigonometrical ratios for right-angled triangles and must
be remembered. A convenient method to help you to remember them is 'SOHCAHTOA'
or 'SoHCAHTOA' where S=sin, C=cos and T=tan

3-6 Module 1.3 Geometry

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Example:

For the triangle shown find:

a) sine of angle B b) cosine of angle B c) tangent of angle B

BA

A 3
c

opp 3
a) sin B = = = 0.6
hyp 5

adj 4
b) cos B = = - = 0.8
hyp 5

opp 3
c) tan B = = = 0.75
adj 4

6. We will now investigate how the values of sin, cos and tan vary with the magnitude of the
angle.

a) When angle A is very small:

a
A
b C

opp a
(1) sin A = = and is very small.
hy p c
When angle A is zero, sin A = O

adj b
(2) cos A = = and b.= c.
hyp c
When angle A is zero, cos A = 1

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opp a
(3) tan A= = and is very small.
adj b
When angle Ais zero, tan A = 0

b) When angle Ais large:

A c
b

= opp a
(1) sin A = and a c.
hyp c

adj b
(2) cos A = = and is small.
hyp c
When angle A= 90°, cos A= 0.

opp a
(3) tan A= = and is very large.
adj b
When angle A .;;;; 90°, tan A - 00

We can summarise the above:

ANGLE 90°

sin 0 1

cos 1 0

tan 0 00

Note: The maximum value of sin and cos is 1 , but the maximum value of tan is infinity
(oo).

3-8
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8. We have seen that trigonometrical ratios vary as the angle varies and have calculated
values for 0° and 90°. We will now calculate the values for 30° and 60°. Consider the
equilateral triangle ABC of sides 2 units.

Line BD bisects ABC and is

perpendicular to AC

In triangle ABD, A= 60°, B= 30° and D= 90°

B
side d = 2 (given)

side b = 1 (half of AC)

side a = �22 12 (Pythagoras)

a = ../3

Thus, in right-angled triangle ABD:

opp ../3 1.7321

= 0.8660
a) sin 60° =
= =

hyp 2 2

adj 1
b) cos 60° = = = 0.5000
hyp 2

c) tan 60° =
opp
=
.J3 =
1.7321
adj 1

opp
d) sin 30° = =
_! =
0.5000
hyp 2

adj ../3 1.7321

e) cos 30° = = = =
0.8660
hyp 2 2

opp 1
f) tan 30° = = =
0.5774
adj ../3

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9. We can now collect all our information and show graphically how the basic
°
trigonometrical ratios change as the angle increases from zero to 90 .

The functions all give graphs which are important. You should know how to sketch them
all and know how to use them.

The Sine Curve

XO 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

sin x0 0.00 0.50 0.86 1.00 0.86 0.50 0.00 -0.50 -0.86 -1.00 -0.86 -0.50 0.00

This is the curve drawn when you put all

o.5 - -
-
+···············#-----!- --+- + --""-- -11---
1 ·
·············· ·

---+!, ·-·· ·· ·--II--+--

-+--
the figures on the graph from the table
above. As you can see, this curve is in a
wave form. This wave can continue past
o ______. _,__
_-i. �-------_.... 360°and go into the negatives.
1�1r
_

�
-0.5 r
!

The Cosine Curve

XO 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

cos X0 1.00 0.86 0.50 0.00 -0.50 -0.87 -1.00 -0.87 -0.50 0.00 0.50 0.87 1.00

If you look at this curve you can see it is

I actually the same as the sine curve

-1 --1 except it is a different section (i.e. this

��;�s at 0°where the sine curve peaks at
+- I ��'-•r---t----il
---1--1-----------+--+- ·

t ,
0

3 ··+ · + - _Jo 300 3 o 3 0

05
-- -'lr--t--
-
.

--
���J

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The Tan Curve

XO 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

tan x0 0.00 0.58 1.73 00

-1.73 -0.58 0.00 0.58 1.73 00 -1.73 -0.58 0.00

10 r >- --.- l :
- · · -, · -
-
-- 1 The tan curve is very different from the
8 � · · · '· -++---
+.- � ·-· ··· · · i__----1
others. It is a non-continuous which
� ----_.,. __,__
....
___,
.. ,.._....
_ __,_ .. _, ,_ _,!
_ ___,
breaks as the value at the breaking point
2 J :/
: ----l (when x=90° or x=270°) is infinity. Again

,: :;:�(-���,
o _,.,- ! -� this curve can be continued with the
: c section from x=90° to x=270° repeated.
�� ---l--= � -f�-.: ,� :
_ _
.. u

8
-s
>---t-- - - - ·-1-c- -
>-- I . · ···1--+--+--- -4 -- -·>-········+··· - •+-J ·-········-+·--4
1o
- - - -
-

-- - I
.

· ·· · ·-·-· ·· ·--�-. .-.-.1.. -1...L- -·�·-'----'

,

From the curves we can see there is always more than one possible value for any
1
number you are working out the inverse of ( sin· 0.5 = 30°or 150°). The problem is that
your calculator only gives you one of the values ( the one below 90). You must
remember the curves to find the position of the second angle.

10. You can, of course, use a graph to find the sin and cos of angles between 0 and 90°. For
tan, this is only practical (because of length of axis) up to about 45°. You should note
from the curves of y = sin and y = cos that there is a definite relationship between
sin and cos, e.g.:

a) sin 30° = cos 60° = 0.5000

b) sin 45° = cos 45° == 0.7071

c) sin 60° = cos 30° == 0.8660

d) sin 80° = cos 10° and so on.

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Other Trigonometric Functions

Although less often used, other trigonometrical terms can be derived from the basic terms sin
and cos. These terms are called cot (cotangent), sec (secant) and cosec (cosecant). They are
determined as follows:

sin
tan ==
cos

cos
cot ::::--

sin

Reciprocal relations:

1
sin == ---

cosec

1
cosec ==
sin

1
cos =
sec

1
sec =
cos

1
tan ==

cot

1
cot == -

tan

Square relations (also known as the Fundamental Identities):

sin2 + cos2 = 1

sec2 - tan2 = 1

cosec2 - cot2 = 1

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To Find the Length of an Unknown Side

1. So far we have evaluated the sine, cosine and tangent of angles, given the 3 sides of a
right-angled triangle. In the following text it is shown how to solve completely a right­
angled triangle, given any side and 2 angles.

2.
B

A c

From the triangle shown:

opp adj
a) sin = b) cos =--
hyp hy p

a b
sin = cos =
c c

a = c sin b = c cos

o pp
c) tan = d) By Pythagoras:
adj

a
tan = c2 = a2 + b2
b

a = b tan

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3. The following examples involve the use of trigonometry, or combinations of trigonometry

and Pythagoras, to solve right-angled triangles.

a) In the right-angled triangle ABC, find angle A and side c

11 12

A
5

(1) To find angle A.

Note: In terms of angle a, we are given the side opposite and the side
adjacent.

opp
Since :::: tan, this is the ratio we use.
adj

opp
tan A =

adj

12
tan A =
5

tan A = 2.4

A = 67° 23' (after using a calculator or tables)

(2) To find side c

Note: If we use trig. to find side 'c', it necessitates our using angle A which we have just
found. If we have made an error in calculating angle A, this would also result in an error
in side 'c'. By using Pythagoras, we use only given information and thus the possibility of
'carrying' an error is eliminated.

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c2 = a2 + b2

c �a2 +
b2

c = �122 52 +

1... ...
c =
... l"'IC'
VI'+'+
•

-r �J

c =

c = 13

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Worksheet

1. For the triangle shown, find the sine, cosine and tangent of A and C.

B c

,., .......

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Answers

1. sin A = 0.6 sin C = 0.8

cos A = 0.8 cos c = 0.6

tan A = 0.75 tan C = 1.33

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�
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Coordinates and Graphs

The x and y Axis

An equation involving two variables can be represented by a graph drawn on 'Coordinates
Axes'. Coordinate axes (illustrated below) consist of a horizontal line (usually referred to as the
x axis) and a vertical line (usually referred to as the y axis). The point of intersection of these
two lines is called the origin (usually denoted by the letter 'O').

x axis

Along the x and y axes we can mark off units of measurement (not necessarily the same on
both axes). The origin takes the value zero on both axes. The x axis takes positive values to the
right of the origin and negative values to the left of the origin. The y axis takes positive values
above the origin and negative values below the origin.

Any point on this diagram can be defined by its coordinates (consisting of two numbers). The
first, the x coordinate, is defined as the horizontal distance of the point from the y axis; the
second, the y coordinate, is defined as the vertical distance of the point from the x axis.

In general, a point is defined by its coordinates which are written in the form (a, b).

Example:

The point (3, 2) may be plotted on the coordinate axes as follows:-

y
2 -----------.,(3,2)
I
[
I
I
I

0 2 3 4 5

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Example:

Consider the following diagram

y
.A

2 'H.

.D l ·C

I I I L
-ti -5 A . :; -2 .j 0 1 2 3 4 s {°) ll

- 1

. 2 ·F

'f: -3

-4

The points A, B, C, D, E and F above are defined by their coordinates as follows:

A (1, 4) D (-4, 1)
B (3, 2) E (-5, -3)
c (2, 1) F (3, -2)

3-22
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Worksheet

1. Plot the following points on coordinate axes.

i) (2, 3) ii) (1 4)
, iii) (5, 0)

iv) (0, 2) v) (3,-1) vi) (-2, 4)

vii) (-1, -3) viii) (0,-4) ix) (-5, 0)

x) (-4, 1) xi) (-3, -1) xii) (3, -3)

Module 1.3 Geometry 3-23

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Answers

1.

)'

.)

JC ·1 11t(l. 4)
{-2, 4)
'" .,'i.
3 �\ .::... �}

2 (0, 2)

�(-4, 1)
(S, 0)

..t, -5 -4 -3 -:! -t 0 1 2 3 4 s n

;)( -1 "(J,-1)
(-3> -·n
-2

(-l,-3)x 3 - ' x(�.-3)

-4 (0�-4)

Module 1.3 Geometry 3-25

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Graphical Representations of an Equation

An equation involving two variables can be represented, on coordinate axes, by means of a
graph.

For a given range of values of x, the corresponding y values can be calculated from the
equation being considered. The points obtained can then be plotted and joined together to form
the graph.

Before plotting the points on a graph, the axes must be drawn in a way that takes into account
the range of the x-values and the range of the y-values. If graph paper is used (which is
desirable) you should use a scale that involves a sensible number of units per square i.e. you
should use steps of, for example, 1, 2, 5 or 1 O etc. units per square depending on the question.
You should avoid using steps along the axes of, for example, 7 or 9 units per square as this can
complicate the graph unnecessarily.

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Example

Draw the graph of y = 2x + 1 for 0 � x � 5.

By taking x values of 0, 1, 2, ........5, we can calculate the corresponding y values, as shown

below, by first evaluating the component pa.rts of the equation.

x: 0 1 2 3 4 5
2x 0 2 4 6 8 10
+1 1 1 1 1 1 1
y: 1 3 5 7 9 11

We then plot the points obtained, each point being defined by its x coordinate and its
corresponding y coordinate. The points are then joined together to form the graph.

In this example the points to be plotted are (0, 1 ), (1, 3), (2, 5), (3, 7), (4, 9), (5, 11).

Graph of y = 2x + I

y y=2x+l

11

10

0 1 2 3 4 5 x

3-28 Module 1.3 Geometry

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Example:

Draw a graph of y = x2 • 8x + 12 for 0 � x� 6

We again take x values covering the given range, and calculate the corresponding y values
from the given equation.

x: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2
x 0 1 4 9 16 25 36
-Bx 0 -8 -16 -24 -32 -40 -48
+12 +12 12 +12 +12 +12 +12 +12
y: 12 5 0 -3 -4 -3 0

We now plot the points obtained and join them together to form the graph. In this example the
points to be plotted are (0, 12), (1, 5), (2, 0), (3, -3), (4, -4), (5, -3), (6, 0).
Gra1th or y = xl-�x + 12

) '

1�

IO

2
Y=X -8x+12
6

2
\
() 1 4
·2

-4

-(i

N. 8. For a more detailed graph we could, of course, include more points. e.g. by taking x
values of
0, Y2, 1, 1Y2, 2, 2Y2, ..........5%, 6

and calculating the corresponding y values, we could plot nearly twice as many points as we did
in the above example

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Example:

2
Draw a graph of y = x + 1 for -3 :o:: x :o:: + 3

Again, taking x values covering the given range, we first calculate the corresponding y values
from the given equation.

x: -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
x 9 4 1 0 1 4 g
+1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1

y: 10 5 2 1 2 5 10

We now plot the points obtained and join them together to form the graph.

Graph of y= x2 + l

y x2 + 1
10
=

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x

3-30 Module 1 .3 Geometry

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Worksheet

1. Draw graphs of the following functions for 0 � x .s;; 5

i) y = 2x +5
ii) y = Sx + 1
iii) y = 3x - 5
iv) y = x2 - 6x + 5
v) y = x2 - 7x + 12
vi) y = 3x2- 21x + 30

2. Draw grap h s of the following f unctions for -3 .:s; x � 3

i) y = 2x2+ 7
:>
ii) y 12 = 3x -

iii) yx3 7 = -

iv) y
= 4x3 - 1 6x2 - 16x + 64
1
v) y= ­ -

x+o

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....... .......,.,., .... . ..... .. ............... ,.......
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�
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1.
i) y=2x+5 x: 0 l 2 3 4 5

y: 5 7 9 11 13 15

y = 2x + 5
16

14

12

10

0 l 2 3 4 5 6 x

I;�
ii) y = 5x + 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
l 6 11 16 21 26

30

25

20

15

IO

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x

Module 1.3 Geometry 3-33

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iii) �· = 3" - 5
�· ·
_
_
-
,,...
2 .
- 2-- _-_!::�--=�;_-;E...,...1:�}
....,.

y = 3�-5

�--l--+---1---...:.....l---'--.L..--L-�--
3 4 5 x

y = x2 -6x + 5
<-1-�;--�--0-1
--
-
- � _

-4_J
____ ;·31
5

y = x2 -6x + 5

'\
"- 3 x

-I

-2

-3

-4

-5

3-34 Module 1.3 Geometry

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y=xL 7x 03 �I
v) + 12 0 l 2 4
12 6 2

y
()

12

10

4
/,y=x2-7x +
:1
12

I
l "f5 � �x
y=3x2 30 0
I;� �·31
vi) 2lx + 0 1 2 3
30 12 -6

y
35
30

25

20

is�

10

5
y=3x2-21x 30 +

0 1 3 4 6 x

- 5

-1

Module 1.3 Geometry 3-35

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2.

I;;
i) y = 2x2 + 7 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
25 15 9 7 9 15 25

y
30
y = 2x2 + 7
25

20

15

10

-3 -2 -1 0 l 2 3 x

ii) y ·- 3x� 12 x: -3 -2 -1 0 2 3

y: 15 0 -9 -12 -9 0 15

y
20
y = 3x2- 12

15

10

-3 -1 0 1 x

-5

-10

-15

-20

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3
Y=X -7

y
3
:?.o y=x -7
15

11)

.1...
-4 -� -2 -1 (I '.'l � x

-.';

/ -10

/
/ ·15

I -

-25
20

I -:\(}

-15-

iv) y""' 4xL 16xL 16x + M

I
;� -3 -2
-140 0
·

60
1 0
64 3
1
6 ;;
bhl

40

20

-1 0 x

-20

-4U

-60

-80

-LOU

-120

-140

-160

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v) y = 1
" + 5
.'( ;

y:
-

v.:
�
- -2
�
-1
!Ii
0
i1s
··
J,r�;
2
lf
:
. .a1
y

CJ.9

0.lj.

0.7

O.n

0.1

__l_ _ _ _ __ ....
_ ...., L---i----'---'-
--J 2 -1 2 3

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The Straight Line

A straight line is defined as the shortest distance between two points.

The equation of a straight line is given by

y = mx+ c

where m represents the slope of the line and c is the point where the line crosses the y-axis (i.e.
they intercept). The point where the line crosses the x-axis is called the x intercept.

Example:
Graph of y = 2x

y = 2x

2 3 4 x

In this example, m= 2 and c= O

Note that whenever c = 0, the line will pass through the origin.

Example:
Graph of y = 6-3x

..y
6
4
y = 6-3x
2

0 1 3 4 x

In this example, m = -3 and c =6

As c =6, we know that this line cuts the y axis at y =6 (this can be verified by substituting x = O
into the equation of the line, as x = O along the y axis).

Similarly, as y = 0 along the x axis, we can substitute y = 0 into the equation of the line to find
where the line intersects with the x axis (i.e. the x intercept).

We have, when y = 0

6 -3x = 0
3X=6
X=2

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Hence the line cuts the x axis at x =2

We can now say that the y intercept= 6 and the x intercept= 2

Example:
Graph of y"" -2+ 4it

2 v=-2 + 4x

-1 y 1 2- 3 4 x

-1

-2

In this example, m=4 and c= -2

We know, immediately, that they intercept is -2 (i.e. the value of c)
To find the x intercept, we substitute y= O into the equation of the line.

i.e. 0=-2+4x
4X =+2
X= Y2

Hence the x intercept is x= Y2

Special Cases
A straight line parallel to the x-axis takes the form y =constant.
Similarly, a straight line parallel to the y-axis takes the form x =constant.

These cases are illustrated below:

Straight line parallel to the x axis Straight line parallel to they axis

y y x=3

___ ..;:;s-1----- y = s

0 x 0 3 x

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Worksheet

For each of the following equations identify the gradient and they-intercept.

i) y= 4x+ 5
ii) y= 9x
iii) y=8
4 3x
-
iv) Y=
5 7

6 5x
v) y= ......
·�

vi) 3y = 9x+ 6

vii) 8y=x-8

Module 1.3 Geometry 3-41

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Answers

m =gradient, c = y-intercept

i) m =4, C= 5

ii) m = 9, C= 0

iii) m = 0, C= 8

iv) m - 7'
-
- -..2. c - ..i.
5

v) m- s
- -13, c- s
13

vi) ,
m = 3, C= 2

.!
vii) m -
- 8' c-
- -1

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Derivation of the Equation y = mx + c

Given the coordinates of two points, (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) say, we can calculate the equation of ·

the straight line that passes through these points.

Two methods of calculating this equation are illustrated below:

Example:

The question is:

Find the equation of the straight line that passes through the points (1, 4) and (3, 10).

Method 1
The general equation of a straight line is given by y = mx + c
and it is necessary to find numerical values for m and c.

If the straight line in question passes through the two given points, then each of these points
must satisfy the equation of this straight line. That is, we can substitute the coordinates of each
point as follows:

Y= mx+c

substituting (1, 4) we have

4=m+c (1)

likewise, substituting (3, 10) we have

10 = 3m +c (2)

Now (1) and (2) give us two equations in two unknowns, m and c, (i.e. simultaneous equations)
which we can solve.

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Answers

1.
i. y= 2x+ 1
ii. y = 4x+ 2
iii. y = 2x - 7

2.
i. y= 2x+ 5
ii. y=6x
iii. y=-7x+2
iv. y=-4x
v. y= x 5 -

vi. y= -2x - 3
vii. Y=6
viii. y= 7x - 12
ix. x = 3 (y = mx+ c does not work with lines of infinite gradient)
x. y= 3 �-�

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Converting
To convert from one to the other, you need to solve the triangle:

_,
x

To Convert from Cartesian to Polar

If you have a point in Cartesian Coordinates (x, y) and need it in Polar Coordinates (r, 8), you
need to solve a triangle where you know two sides.

Example: What is (12, 5) in Polar Coordinates?

\
_,/"' ,.,.A

�
r ..

�
�,,,..-

\
. . e
. "
·

I
-�t..

Use Pythagoras Theorem to find the long side (the hypotenuse):

r2=122 + 52
r=-V(122+52)
r=.J (144 + 25) = '1(169)=13

Use the Tangent Function to find the angle:

tan B= �
12
5
e = t an-1 - = 22.6°
12

So, to convert from Cartesian Coordinates (x, y) to Polar Coordinates (r, 9):

r ="-1 (x� + y-2)

8 = tan-1 J_
x

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To Convert from Polar to Cartesian

If you have a point in Polar Coordinates (r, 9), and need it in Cartesian Coordinates (x, y) you
need to solve a triangle where you know the long side and the angle:

Example: What is (13, 23� in Cartesian Coordinates?

x
I- •••• • �••·�hM .... !
•

Use the Cosine Function for x:

x
cos (23� = -
13

Rearranging and solving:

x = 13 x cos (23� = 13 x 0.921 = 11.98

Use the Sine Function for y:

sin (23� = _J_

13

Rearranging and solving:

y = 13 x sin (23� = 13 x 0.391 = 5.08

So, to convert from Polar Coordinates (r, B) to Cartesian Coordinates (x, y) :

x= r x cos( 9)
y= r x sin( 9)

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Worksheet

1 . Convert the following cartesian coordinates into polar coordinates:

(a) (3, 4)
(b) (10, 10)
(c) (1 O, 0)

2. Convert the following polar coordinates into cartesian coordinates

(a) 13 cm,67.4°
(b) 50 m, 60°
(c) "18 ft, rr/2 radians

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Answers

1.
(a) 5, 53°
(b) 14.14, 45°
(c) 10, 0°

2.
(a) x = 5 cm, y = 12 cm
(b) x = 25 m, y = 43.3 m

(c) x = 2 m. y = 2 m

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