Tutorial 3 (PHY 351)

July/February 2021

1. i) Three Basic Types of Defects in Metals:

- Point Defects:
- Description: Point defects involve irregularities at individual lattice sites. These defects include
vacancies, interstitial atoms, and substitutions. Vacancies occur when lattice sites are
unoccupied, interstitial atoms occupy positions between lattice sites, and substitutions involve
the replacement of one type of atom by another within the lattice.
- Line Defects (Dislocations):
- Description: Dislocations are linear defects that occur when there is a deviation from perfect
crystal packing along a line within the crystal lattice. Edge dislocations and screw dislocations
are common types of line defects. Edge dislocations involve a line of extra atoms or a line of
missing atoms, while screw dislocations involve a spiraled pattern of atoms.
- Planar Defects (Grain Boundaries):
- Description: Planar defects occur at interfaces between different crystallographic grains. These
boundaries are known as grain boundaries. Grain boundaries can affect the mechanical and
electrical properties of materials. They can be high-angle or low-angle boundaries depending on
the misalignment of the crystal lattices in adjacent grains.
ii) Three Techniques for Identification of Microstructure and Defects:
- Optical Microscopy:
- Principle: Optical microscopy uses visible light to observe the microstructure of materials. It
can reveal information about grain size, boundaries, and the presence of defects.
- Application: It is commonly used for routine examination of metallographic samples.
- Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM):
- Principle: SEM uses a focused beam of electrons to obtain high-resolution images of the
surface of a sample. It provides detailed information about surface topography and can be used
to identify defects and microstructural features.
- Application: SEM is widely used for imaging the microstructure of metals and other materials.
- Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM):
- Principle: TEM transmits electrons through a thin specimen to form detailed images of the
internal microstructure. It offers higher resolution than SEM and can reveal atomic-scale details.
- Application: TEM is particularly useful for studying defects at the atomic level and provides
information about dislocations, stacking faults, and other defects.
December 2019

1. i) Three Factors that Influence Diffusivity:

- Temperature: As temperature increases, the kinetic energy of atoms or molecules in a material
also increases. This higher kinetic energy promotes more frequent collisions and interactions,
leading to enhanced diffusion. In general, diffusivity tends to increase with temperature.
- Concentration Gradient: The concentration gradient, or the difference in concentration of the
diffusing substance across a distance, is a critical factor influencing diffusion. The greater the
concentration gradient, the higher the diffusive flux. Diffusivity is proportional to the
concentration gradient.
- Material Properties: The nature of the diffusing species and the host material significantly
affects diffusivity. Different materials exhibit different diffusion rates for a given substance.
Factors such as crystal structure, point defects, and the presence of impurities can influence the
ease with which atoms or molecules can move through the material.
ii) Fick's First Law:
Fick's First Law describes the diffusive flux (J) of a substance through a material and is given by
the equation: J=−D(dc/dx)
J is the diffusive flux (amount of substance crossing a unit area per unit time),
D is the diffusion coefficient (diffusivity) of the material,
dc/dx is the concentration gradient (change in concentration per unit distance).
June 2019

1. i) Edge Dislocation: An edge dislocation is a type of linear crystallographic defect where the
crystal lattice is locally distorted. It occurs when an extra half-plane of atoms is introduced into
the crystal structure, creating a region of increased density. Here's a description along with a
diagram:
- Description:

 In the diagram, the edge dislocation is represented by the extra half-plane of atoms. This
extra plane creates a region with a local increase in atomic density.
 The dislocation line is the line along which the extra half-plane of atoms is introduced. It
is indicated by the red arrow.
 The upper part of the crystal has one less atomic plane than the lower part, creating a
step or mismatch in the crystal lattice.
ii) Screw Dislocation: A screw dislocation is another type of linear crystallographic defect, but
unlike edge dislocations, it involves a shear distortion in the crystal lattice. Here's a description
along with a diagram:
- Description:
- In the diagram, the screw dislocation is represented by a spiral distortion in the crystal lattice.
This distortion creates a helical ramp along the dislocation line.
- The dislocation line is the axis around which the crystal is distorted in a helical manner. It is
indicated by the red arrow.

- The shear displacement between the upper and lower parts of the crystal is evident, creating a
spiral pattern.
December 2018

1. The arrangement of atoms or ions in engineered materials is indeed never perfect, and
various imperfections and defects can exist. These imperfections can significantly influence the
properties and performance of materials. Common types of imperfections include:
- Point Defects:
Vacancies: Missing atoms in the crystal lattice.
Interstitials: Extra atoms that occupy spaces between regular lattice sites.
Substitutional Defects: Atoms of one type are replaced by atoms of another type.
- Line Defects (Dislocations):
Edge Dislocations: Extra half-plane of atoms inserted into the crystal lattice, creating a step.
Screw Dislocations: Shear distortion along a helical path in the crystal lattice.
- Planar Defects:
Grain Boundaries: Interfaces between regions of different crystallographic orientation (grains).
Twin Boundaries: Planes along which atoms are mirror images of each other.
- Volume Defects:
Pores or Voids: Empty spaces or gaps in the material.
Inclusions: Foreign particles or phases embedded within the material.
June 2018

1. i) Schottky Defect: A Schottky defect is a type of point defect in a crystal lattice where equal
numbers of cations and anions are missing from their respective lattice sites, creating
vacancies. This typically occurs in ionic crystals. Here's a diagram to illustrate a Schottky defect:
Description:
The diagram represents an ionic crystal lattice with cations (positive ions) and anions (negative
ions).
In a Schottky defect, both a cation and an anion are missing from their regular lattice sites.
The vacancies create open spaces in the crystal lattice.
ii) Frenkel Defect: A Frenkel defect is another type of point defect in a crystal lattice where an
ion is displaced from its regular lattice site to an interstitial site within the crystal. This commonly
occurs in crystals with a large difference in the sizes of cations and anions. Here's a diagram to
illustrate a Frenkel defect:
Description:
The diagram represents an ionic crystal lattice with cations (positive ions) and anions (negative
ions).
In a Frenkel defect, a cation is displaced from its regular lattice site to an interstitial site.
The displaced cation creates a vacancy at its original lattice site.
January 2018

1. i) Planar Defect: A planar defect is a type of crystallographic defect that occurs on a specific
plane within the crystal lattice. This category includes defects such as grain boundaries and twin
boundaries. Here's a diagram to illustrate a grain boundary, which is a common type of planar
defect:
Description:
The diagram shows two adjacent grains in a crystal lattice, each with a different crystallographic
orientation.
The boundary between the grains is called a grain boundary, representing a planar defect.
At the grain boundary, there is a misalignment in the arrangement of atoms, leading to
discontinuities in the crystal lattice.
ii) Self-Interstitial Defect: A self-interstitial defect is a type of point defect where an atom from the
crystal lattice occupies an interstitial site within the lattice. This is illustrated in the following
diagram:
Description:
The diagram represents a crystal lattice with regularly arranged atoms.
In a self-interstitial defect, an atom is displaced from its regular lattice site and occupies an
interstitial position.
This introduces additional atomic density and can lead to distortions in the crystal lattice.
March 2017

1. i) Point Defect: A point defect is a type of crystallographic defect that occurs at a single lattice
site within a crystal structure. There are several types of point defects, including vacancies,
interstitials, and substitutional defects. Here's a general description:
Vacancy: A point defect where an atom or ion is missing from its regular lattice site, creating an
empty space or "hole" in the crystal structure.
Interstitial: A point defect where an extra atom or ion occupies an interstitial site, which is a
space between regular lattice sites.
Substitutional Defect: A point defect where an atom or ion is replaced by a different type of atom
or ion.
Point defects can significantly influence the physical and chemical properties of materials,
including their mechanical strength, electrical conductivity, and thermal conductivity.

ii) Line Defect: A line defect, also known as a dislocation, is a one-dimensional defect that
occurs along a line or axis within a crystal lattice. There are two main types of line defects: edge
dislocations and screw dislocations.
Edge Dislocation: This type of line defect occurs when an extra half-plane of atoms is
introduced into the crystal lattice, creating a step or mismatch. The edge dislocation is
characterized by a line along which the extra half-plane is inserted.
Screw Dislocation: In a screw dislocation, the atoms are displaced along a helical path around a
dislocation line. This results in a spiral distortion of the crystal lattice.

Line defects are crucial in understanding the plastic deformation and mechanical behavior of
materials. They affect the material's strength, ductility, and other mechanical properties.
October 2016

1. i) Factors that Influence Diffusivity:

Temperature: Diffusivity generally increases with temperature. As temperature rises, atoms or
molecules gain more kinetic energy, leading to higher mobility and increased diffusion rates.
Concentration Gradient: A steeper concentration gradient results in a higher diffusivity. The
greater the difference in concentration between two regions, the more rapid the diffusion of
atoms or molecules.
Material Properties: The nature of the material affects diffusivity. Different materials exhibit
different diffusion rates for a given substance. Factors such as crystal structure, point defects,
and the presence of impurities can influence the ease with which atoms or molecules can move
through the material

March 2016
(same question with June 2018)

September 2015
(same question with March 2017)

March 2015
(same question with March 2017)