Practice Test 1

READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 1 – 14, which are based on Reading
Passage 1 below.

Diabetes
Here are some facts that you probably didn't know about diabetes. It is the world’s
fastest-growing disease. In 2013, China had the highest number of diabetes sufferers
(over 98 million), with India in second place and the United States in third position. It
is Australia’s sixth leading cause of death. Over 1 million Australians have it, though
50 per cent of those are as yet unaware of the fact. So much for the statistics; what
exactly is diabetes?

Diabetes is the name given to different conditions in which there is too much glucose
in the blood. Here’s what happens: the body needs glucose as its main source of fuel
or energy and, through digestion, extracts it from foods that contain carbohydrate.
These include starchy vegetables (like potatoes or corn) and cereal foods (like bread,
pasta and rice) as well as fruit and milk. Glucose is carried around the body in the
blood to all the cells. In order for glucose to be converted into energy inside cells,
insulin must also be present in the blood. Insulin is a hormone made by the pancreas, a
gland sitting just below the stomach. It acts like a "key" to open cell walls and allow
glucose to enter the cells. If insulin is not present, glucose cannot enter cells and
remains inside the blood, a state known as "hyperglycaemia" (high blood sugar).
Insulin is also important when people consume more glucose than the body can use
immediately. When this occurs, insulin enables the body to convert the extra glucose
into a different substance that can be stored, in the liver or muscle tissues, for use
later. In diabetes, the pancreas either cannot make insulin or produces it in insufficient
quantities. Because of this, glucose builds up in the blood, causing hyperglycaemia,
which in turn produces unpleasant symptoms and can, in the long term, result in
severe health problems.

People refer to the disease as diabetes, but there are actually two distinctive types of
the disease. Type 1 diabetes is a condition characterised by high blood glucose levels
caused by a total lack of insulin. It occurs when the body’s immune system attacks the
insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas and destroys them. The pancreas then
produces little or no insulin. This form develops most often in young people but can
appear in adults. Type 2 diabetes is the most common form of diabetes. In this
version, either the body does not produce enough insulin or cells ignore the signals
given by the insulin that would normally "unlock the door" and allow glucose into the
cells for transformation into energy.
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The diagnosis of diabetes often depends on what type the patient is suffering from. In
type 1 diabetes, symptoms are usually sudden and sometimes even life-threatening -
severe imbalances in blood sugar levels can lead to comas - and therefore it is mostly
diagnosed quite quickly. In type 2 diabetes, many people have no symptoms at all,
while other signs can go unnoticed, being seen as part of "getting older". Therefore,
by the time symptoms are noticed, the blood glucose level for many people can be
very high. Common symptoms include being more thirsty than usual, passing more
urine, feeling lethargic or always feeling hungry. Other sufferers complain of bad
breath, blurred vision, unexplained weight change, mood swings, headaches, dizziness
and leg cramps.

At present there is no cure for diabetes, but there is a huge amount of research being
done to find a cure and on ways of providing superior management techniques and
products until a cure is found. Whether it is type 1 or type 2 diabetes, the aim of any
diabetes treatment is to get a patient's blood glucose levels as close to the non-diabetic
range as often as possible. For people with type 1 diabetes, this will mean insulin
injections every day as well as leading a healthy lifestyle. For people with type 2
diabetes, healthy eating and regular physical activity may be all that are required at
first; sometimes tablets and / or insulin may be needed later on. As blood glucose
levels need to be kept as close to the non-diabetic range as possible, frequent self-
testing is a good idea. This helps prevent the short-term effects of very low or very
high blood glucose levels as well as the possible long-term problems. If someone is
dependent on insulin, it has to be injected into the body. Insulin cannot be taken as a
pill. The insulin would be broken down during digestion just like the protein in food.

Diabetes can cause serious complications for patients. Short-term problems are similar
to the symptoms, but long-term high blood sugar levels can lead to heart attacks,
strokes, kidney failure, amputations and blindness. Patients whose blood pressure and
cholesterol levels are outside the recommended ranges face even higher risks of heart
attacks and strokes; in fact two out of three people with diabetes eventually die of
these complications. Adults aged 18 - 44 who get type 2 diabetes are 14 times more
likely to suffer a heart attack, and are up to 30 times more likely to have a stroke than
their peers without diabetes. Young women account for almost all the increase in heart
attack risk, while young men are twice as likely to suffer a stroke as young women.
This means that huge numbers of people are going to get heart disease, heart attacks
and strokes years, sometimes even decades, before they should.

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Question 1 – 7
Do the statements below (question 1-7) agree with the information given in Reading
Passage 1, Diabetes?
In answer boxes 1-7, write:
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

1. Consuming glucose is bad for the body

2. Everyone who suffers from diabetes is unable to produce insulin.
3. It is possible for alduts to get Type 1 diabetes, though it is more prevalent in
children.
4. Scientists are hopeful that a cure will be discovered in the future.
5. Suffers who need insulin should have multiple daily injections.
6. Frequent medical check-up can drastically reduce the chances of suffering from
problems related to diabetes.
7. For many diabetes suffers, higher than advised blood pressure and cholesterol levels
can be fatal.

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Question 8 – 11
Complete each sentences with the correct ending.
Choose the appropriate letter A-H, and write them in the boxes 8-11 on your answer
sheet.
8. Insulin is a hormone that…
9. Type 1 diabetes…
10. Some people who are diabetic…
11. Non-severe type 2 diabetes

A …can be controlled by adopting a healthy lifestyle.

B …never suffer any ill effects.
C …generally affects young people.
D …is more common in women.
E …allows glucose to be absorbed by cells.
F …can be diagnosed by tests done at home.
G …do not realize the fact.
H …is stored in the liver.
Questions 12 - 14
According to Reading Passage 1, Diabetes, which of the symptoms listed are
associated with the condition?
Choose THREE letters (A – G) and write them in boxes 12 – 14 on your answer
sheet.
12. 13. 14.
A hot flushes
B muscle pains
C nausea
D losing consciousness
E tiredness
F bleeding gums
G dilation of the eyes

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READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 15 – 27, which are based on Reading
Passage 2 below.

Contaminating the Arctic

Our perception of the Arctic region is that its distance from industrial centres keeps it
pristine and clear from the impact of pollution. However, through a process known as
"transboundary pollution", the Arctic is the recipient of contaminants whose sources
are thousands of miles away. Large quantities of pollutants pour into our atmosphere,
as well as our lakes, rivers, and oceans on a daily basis. In the last 20 years, scientists
have detected an increasing variety of toxic contaminants in the north, including
pesticides from agriculture, chemicals and heavy metals from industry, and even
radioactive fall-out from Chernobyl. These are substances that have invaded
ecosystems virtually worldwide, but they are especially worrisome in the Arctic.

Originally, Arctic contamination was blamed largely on chemical leaks, and these
leaks were thought to be “small and localised". The consensus now is that pollutants
from around the world are being carried north by rivers, ocean currents, and
atmospheric circulation. Due to extreme conditions in the Arctic, including reduced
sunlight, extensive ice cover and cold temperatures, contaminants break down much
more slowly than in warmer climates. Contaminants can also become highly
concentrated due to their significantly lengthened life span in the Arctic.

Problems of spring run-off into coastal waters during the growth period of marine life
are of critical concern. Spring algae* bloom easily, absorbing the concentrated
contaminants released by spring melting. These algae are in turn eaten by zooplankton
and a wide variety of marine life. The accumulation of these contaminants increases
with each step of the food chain or web and can potentially affect northerners who eat
marine mammals near the top of the food chain. Pollutants respect no borders;
transboundary pollution is the movement of contaminants across political borders,
whether by air, rivers, or ocean currents. The eight circumpolar nations, led by the
Finnish Initiative of 1989, established the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy
(AEPS) in which participants agreed to develop an Arctic Monitoring and Assessment
Programme (AMAP). AMAP has established an international scientific network to
monitor the current condition of the Arctic with respect to specific contaminants. This
monitoring programme is extremely important because it will give a scientific basis
for understanding the scope of the problem.

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In the 1950s, pilots travelling on weather reconnaissance flights in the Canadian high
Arctic reported seeing bands of haze in the springtime in the Arctic region. It was
during this time that the term “Arctic haze” was first used, referring to this smog of
unknown origin. But it was not until 1972 that Dr Glenn Shaw of the Geophysical
Institute at the University of Alaska first put forth ideas concerning the nature and
long-range origin of Arctic haze. The idea that the source was long range was very
difficult for many to accept. Each winter, cold, dense air settles over the Arctic. In the
darkness, the Arctic seems to become more and more polluted by a build-up of mid-
latitude emissions from fossil fuel combustion, smelting and other industrial
processes. By late winter, the Arctic is covered by a layer of this haze the size of the
continent of Africa. When the spring light arrives in the Arctic, there is a smog-like
haze, which at times resembles the pollution that hangs over cities such as Los
Angeles. This polluted air is a well-known and well-characterised feature of the late
winter Arctic environment. In the North American Arctic, episodes of brown or black
snow had been blamed on continental storm tracks that deliver gaseous and
particulate-associated contaminants from Asian deserts and agricultural areas. It is
now known that the contaminants originate largely in Europe and Asia.

Arctic haze has been studied most extensively in Point Barrow, Alaska, across the
Canadian Arctic and in Svalbard (Norway). Evidence from ice cores drilled from the
ice sheet of Greenland indicates that these haze particles were not always present in
the Arctic, but began to appear only in the last century. The Arctic haze particles
appear to be similar to smog particles observed in industrial areas farther south,
consisting mostly of sulfates mixed with particles of carbon. It is believed that the
particles are formed when gaseous sulfur dioxide produced by burning sulfur-bearing
coal is irradiated by sunlight and oxidised to sulfate, a process catalysed by trace
elements in the air. These sulfate particles or droplets of sulfuric acid quickly capture
the carbon particles, which are also floating in the air. Pure sulfate particles or droplets
are colourless, so it is believed that the darkness of the haze is caused by the mixed-in
carbon particles.
The impact of the haze on Arctic ecosystems, as well as the global environment, has
not been adequately researched. The pollutants have only been studied in their aerosol
form over the Arctic. However, little is known about what eventually happens to them.
It is known that they are removed somehow. There is a strong possibility that the
contaminants end up in the ocean, most likely in the North Atlantic, the Norwegian
Sea and possibly the Bering Sea - all three very important fisheries.
Currently, the major issue among researchers is to understand the impact of Arctic
haze on global climate change. The contaminants absorb sunlight and, in turn, heat up
the atmosphere. The global impact of this is currently unknown, but the implications
are quite powerful.

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Question 15 – 21
Do the statements below (question 15-21) agree with the information given in Reading
Passage 2, Contaminating the Arctic?
In answer boxes 15-21, write:
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

15. Industry in the Arctic has increased over the last 20 years.
16. Arctic conditions mean that the decomposition of pollutants is much accelerated
17. Pollution absorbed by Arctic algae may eventually affect humans.
18. The AEPS has set up scientific stations in the Arctic to track pollution.
19. Arctic pollution can sometimes resemble US urban pollution.
20. The colour of Arctic haze is created by the presence of carbon.
21. Research has shown that airbone Arctic pollutants remain the air forever.

Questions 22 – 27
Choose words from the box below to complete the summary.
Write the correct letter, A – L, in answer boxes 22 – 27.
A ice cores B certain C darkness D density
E theories F sea G accepted H air
I terrible J originating K dissipating L unknown

Theories that the origins of spring, arctic haze, first seen over the ice cap in the 1950s,
came from far away were at first not (22) ________. This haze is a smog formed in
the dark, arctic winter by pollution delivered to the Arctic by storms (23) ________in
Europe and Asia. It is known to be a recent phenomenon as proof from (24) ________
shows it only starting to occur in the 20th Century. The smog consists of sulphates
and carbon, the latter creating the (25) ________ of the haze. Due to lack of research,
the final destination of the pollution is unknown but it probably ends up in the (26)
________ and therefore into the food chain. Scientists are presently more worried
about the (27) ________ effect it has on climate change.

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READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 28 – 40, which are based on Reading
Passage 2 below.

THE STORY OF COFFEE

A
Coffee was first discovered in Eastern Africa in an area we know today as Ethiopia.
There are several different legends concerning its origins; one of the most popular
refers to a goat herder by the name of Kaldi, who observed his goats acting unusually
friskily after eating berries from a bush. Curious about this phenomenon, Kaldi tried
the berries himself and found that they gave him renewed energy.

B
The news of this energy-laden fruit quickly moved throughout the region. Coffee
berries were transported from Ethiopia to the Arabian Peninsula, and were first
cultivated in what today is the country of Yemen. Coffee remained a secret in Arabia
before spreading to Turkey and then to the European continent by means of Venetian
trade merchants.

C
Coffee was first eaten as a food but later people in Arabia made a drink by boiling the
beans, creating a drink known as “qahwa”, a word which, literally translated, means
“that which prevents sleep”. It was much later, in Turkey, that the notion of roasting
the beans before boiling them came about, possibly more by accident than by design.
The roasted beans were first crushed, and then boiled in water, creating a crude
version of the beverage we enjoy today. The first coffee houses were opened in
Europe in the seventeenth century, and in 1675 the Viennese established the habit of
refining the brew by filtering out the grounds, sweetening it and adding a dash of
milk.

D
If you were to explore the planet for coffee, you would find about 60 species of coffee
plants growing wild in Africa, Malaysia and other regions. But only about ten of them
are actually cultivated. Of these ten, two species are responsible for almost all the
coffee produced in the world: Coffea Arabica and Coffea Canephora (usually known
as “Robusta”). Because of ecological differences existing among the various coffee-

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producing countries, both types have undergone several mutations and now exist in
many subspecies.

E
Although wild coffee plants can reach 10 - 12 metres, the plantation varieties grow to
a height of around 4 metres only. This makes harvesting easier and cultivation more
economical. The flowers are white and sweet-scented like Spanish jasmine. These
later give way to dark red berries. At first sight, the fruit is like a big cherry both in
size and in colour. The berry is coated in a thin, red film (epicarp) that contains a
white, sugary mucilaginous flesh (mesocarp). Inside this pulp are the seeds, in the
form of two beans coupled at their flat surface. The beans are in turn coated with a
kind of resistant, golden-yellow parchment (endocarp). When this is peeled off, the
real bean appears with another very thin silvery film surrounding it. The bean is bluish
green, verging on bronze, in colour and is at the most 11 millimetres long and 8
millimetres wide.

F
Coffee plants require special conditions in order to yield a satisfactory crop. The
climate needs to be hot-wet or hot-temperate, with frequent rains and temperatures
varying from 15 - 25 degrees centigrade, conditions which are usually found between
the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. The soil should be deep, hard, permeable and
well irrigated, with well-drained subsoil. The perfect altitude for a coffee plantation is
between 600 and 1,200 metres, though some varieties thrive as high as 2,000 - 2,200
metres above sea level. Cultivation aimed at protecting the plants at every stage of
growth is needed. Sowing should be in sheltered nurseries from which, after about 6
months, the seedlings should be moved to plantations in the rainy season where they
are usually alternated with other plants to shield them from wind and excessive
sunlight. Only when the plant is 5 years old can it be counted upon to give a regular
yield. This is between 400 grams and two kilos of arabica beans for each plant, and
600 grams and two kilos for robusta beans.

G
Harvesting time depends on the geographic situation, and it can therefore vary greatly
according to the particular environment. During harvesting, the ripe beans are first
picked from the branches. Pickers can selectively pick 250 - 300 pounds of coffee
cherries a day. At the end of the day, the pickers bring their heavy burlap bags to
pulping mills where the coffee cherries can be pulped (or wet milled). The pulped
beans then rest, covered in pure rainwater to ferment overnight. The next day the wet

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beans are hand-distributed on the drying floor to be sun dried. This drying process
takes from 1 - 2 weeks depending on the number of sunny days. To make sure they
dry evenly, the beans have to be raked many times during this drying time. Two
weeks later the sun-dried beans, now called parchment, are scooped up, bagged and
taken to be milled. Huge milling machines then remove the parchment and silver skin,
a process that renders the green beans suitable for roasting. These are then roasted
according to the customers’ specifications and, after cooling, are packaged and
dispatched to customers.

Questions 28 – 33
Reading Passage 3, The Story of Coffee, has seven paragraphs A – G
From the list of headings, choose the most suitable headings for paragraphs B – G.
Write the appropriate number (i – xi) in boxes 28 – 33 on your answer sheet.
NB There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will not use them all.

i. Growing Coffee
ii. Problems with Manufacture
iii. Processing the Bean
iv. First Contact
v. Arabian Coffee
vi. Coffee Varieties
vii. Modern Coffee
viii. The Spread of Coffee
ix. Consuming Coffee
x. Climates for Coffee
xi. The Coffee Plant

Example Answer
Paragraph A iv
28. Paragraph B
29. Paragraph C
30. Paragraph D
31. Paragraph E
32. Paragraph F
33. Paragraph G

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Questions 34 - 36
Label the diagram of a coffee bean using words from Reading Passage 3, The Story of
Coffee.
Write ONE WORD from the text in each answer box, 34 – 36.

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Questions 37 – 40
Complete the flow chart below using words from Reading Passage 3, The Story of
Coffee.
Write NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the text in each answer box, 37 –
40.

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 Practice Test 2
READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 1 – 14, which are based on Reading
Passage 1 below.
INSOMNIA – THE ENEMY OF SLEEP
A
It is not unusual to have sleep troubles from time to time. But, if you feel you do not
get enough sleep, or satisfying sleep, you may have insomnia, a sleep disorder. People
with insomnia have one or more of the following: difficulty in falling asleep, waking
up often during the night and having trouble going back to sleep, waking up too early
in the morning, and unrefreshing sleep. Insomnia is not defined by the number of
hours you sleep every night. The amount of sleep a person needs varies. While most
people need between 7 and 8 hours of sleep a night, some people do well with less,
and some need more.

B
Insomnia occurs most frequently in people over the age of 60, in people with a history
of depression, and in women, especially after the menopause. Severe emotional
trauma can also cause insomnia, with divorced, widowed and separated people being
the most likely to suffer from this sleep disorder. An irregular work schedule, jet lag
or brain damage from a stroke or Alzheimer’s disease can also cause insomnia as can
excessive use of alcohol or illicit drugs. However, stress, anxiety, illness and other
disorders such as restless legs syndrome are the most common causes of insomnia.

C
The mechanism that induces sleep and the reason why sleep is necessary for good
health and efficient mental functioning is not fully understood. We do know that sleep
consists of two very different states: rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and non-REM
sleep. In REM sleep, dreams occur, the eyes move under the closed lids and there is
an increase in oxygen consumption, blood flow and neural activity. REM sleep occurs
four or five times during a night. Beginning periods last about 10 to 15 minutes but
the periods get longer as the night goes on. These interludes alternate with longer
periods of non-REM sleep, when body functions slow down. Non-REM sleep has four
stages. During the deepest stages (3 and 4) it is hard to rouse a sleeper. As the night
goes on, the periods of non-REM sleep become progressively lighter. Sleep in stages 1
and 2 is felt to be restorative, as during this time the body repairs itself, utilising a
hormone called “somatostatin”.

13
D
Researchers and healthcare providers define insomnia in several ways. One way is to
categorise insomnia by how often it occurs. Another way is to identify the insomnia
by what is causing the sleep deprivation. The two main types of insomnia have been
described as “primary insomnia” and “secondary insomnia”. Primary insomnia is a
chronic condition with little apparent association with stress or a medical problem.
The most common form of primary insomnia is psychophysiological insomnia.
Secondary insomnia is caused by symptoms that accompany a medical condition such
as anxiety, depression or pain.

E
Improving one’s sleep hygiene helps improve insomnia in all patients. Relaxing
during the hour before you go to sleep and creating a comfortable environment suited
for sleep can be helpful. Older people who wake up earlier than normal or have
trouble falling asleep may need less sleep than they used to. Changing one’s sleep
pattern, either by going to bed later or waking up earlier, can be effective in dealing
with insomnia in older people. Therapy also depends on the cause and severity of the
insomnia. Transient and intermittent insomnia may not require any direct action since
these conditions last only a few days at a time. However, if insomnia interferes with a
person’s daily activities, something should be done. Usually the best method of
dealing with insomnia is by attacking the underlying cause. For example, people who
are depressed often have insomnia and working on this problem may eliminate the
sleeping difficulties.

F
Not getting enough sleep can make you less productive, irritable and unable to
concentrate. Lack of sleep can make it seem as if you “got out of the wrong side of
bed". Waking up with a headache or feeling as if you never went to sleep can result in
frustration. Stress can cause insomnia but insomnia also increases stress. Insomnia can
make driving unsafe and can cause you to become less productive at work. It may
leave you feeling as if you just can’t get enough done. Insomnia can also mask serious
mental disorders. People with insomnia may think that not getting enough sleep is
their only problem, but the insomnia may actually be one symptom of a larger
disorder, such as depression. Studies show that people with insomnia are four times
more likely to be depressed than people with a healthy sleeping pattern. In addition,
lack of sleep can tax the heart and lead to serious conditions like heart disease

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G
Establishing certain set routines can help insomniacs get better sleep. Examples of
these routines include: going to bed and getting up at the same time every day,
avoiding naps, avoiding caffeine, nicotine, alcohol and eating heavily late in the day,
exercising regularly and making your bedroom comfortable in terms of the bed, noise
and temperature. Insomniacs should also only use their bedroom for sleep so that their
bodies associate the room with sleep. Finally, if you can’t get to sleep, don’t toss and
turn all night. Get up and read or do something that is not overly stimulating until you
feel really sleepy again.

Question 1 – 6
Reading Passage 1, Insomnia – The Enemy of Sleep, has seven paragraphs A – G
From the list of headings, choose the most suitable headings for paragraphs B – G.
Write the appropriate number (i – xi) in boxes 1 – 6 on your answer sheet.
NB There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will not use them all.

i. Normal Sleep Patterns

ii. What Medication is Available?
iii. Habits to Promote a Good Night’s Sleep
iv. What is Insomnia?
v. Complications for Insomniacs
vi. Government Action
vii. When Should Insomnia be Treated?
viii. The Roots of Insomnia
ix. Classess of Insomnia

Example Answer
Paragraph A iv
1. Paragraph B 4. Paragraph E
2. Paragraph C 5. Paragraph F
3. Paragraph D 6. Paragraph G

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Question 7 – 14
Do the statements below (question 7-14) agree with the information given in Reading
Passage 1, Insomnia – The Enemy of Sleep?
In answer boxes 7-14, write:
YES if the statement agrees with the information
NO if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

7. Someone who only gets four hours of sleep a night must be suffering from
insomnia.
8. Flying over long distances can cause insomnia.
9. REM sleep is thought to be the most important for the body’s rest.
10. Secondary insomnia is far more common than primary insomnia.
11. Some sufferers of chronic insomnia may find changing the hours they sleep
helpful.
12. Many people who suffer from insomnia don’t realize that they suffer from it.
13. There is no correlation linking insomnia and depression.
14. Sleeping during the day can make insomnia worse.

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READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 15 – 27, which are based on Reading
Passage 2 below.

Pollution in the Oceans

A
Everybody uses the sea directly or indirectly as a rubbish bin. Most of the substances
thrown into the sea cannot be reused or broken down by nature and they cause soiling,
destruction and death to the sea’s inhabitants. The marine protection organisation,
Oceana, estimates that worldwide about 680 tonnes of waste are thrown directly into
the oceans every hour, and more than half of this waste is made of plastic.

B
Between Hawaii and California, the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, an accumulation of
small floating plastic pieces derived from bottle caps, carrier bags, fishing nets and so
on, covers an area of the ocean’s surface as big as Western Europe. Due to its constant
growth, the exact size of the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is unknown. The garbage
patch developed in this area because of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre, one of
many oceanic gyres created by a convergence of ocean currents and wind. As the
currents meet, the earth’s coriolis effect causes the water to slowly rotate, acting like a
funnel* that pulls together any rubbish that is floating in the water. The existence of a
garbage patch was predicted in 1988 by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Association (NOAA), but it was not officially discovered until 1997, because of its
remote location and harsh conditions for navigation. The North Pacific gyre is one of
five major ocean gyres, and it is likely that this trash vortex problem is present in
other oceans as well.

C
Plastics can soak up and concentrate damaging pollutants, known as persistent organic
pollutants (POPs), chemicals that can cause different cancers, increased infertility and
brain and nervous system abnormalities. Any organism eating pieces of plastic debris
will also take in these highly toxic pollutants. This leads to biomagnification, whereby
the concentration of POPs increases greatly at every step in the food chain, and top
predators end up with extremely high levels. Killer whales, for example, acquire the
lifetime accumulation of POPs of the animals they eat. These toxins are also passed
from female to calf during gestation* and nursing.

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D
In addition to these hazards, the floating plastics can also affect marine ecosystems by
providing a ready surface for organisms to live on. These plants and animals can then
be transported on the plastic far outside their normal environments, populating new
ones and becoming possible nuisance species by interfering with the food chains or
breeding pools in these new ecosystems.

E
Not all plastic floats; approximately 70 per cent of discarded plastic sinks to the
bottom. In the North Sea, Dutch scientists have counted around 110 pieces of litter for
every square kilometre of the seabed, which represents a staggering 600,000 tonnes in
the North Sea alone. These plastics can smother the sea bottom and kill the marine life
that is found there. A lot of this underwater rubbish comes from rivers, which also
carry the rubbish underwater and is therefore unseen. The UK’s River Thames, for
example, has recently undergone an experiment. Scientists used crab nets to catch
underwater rubbish and retrieved more than 8,000 pieces of plastic over 3 months. All
this rubbish would have ended up in the North Sea.

F
The idea of sea water rubbish processors being placed in the ocean to gather trash is
currently under development. The processors would float on the surface of oceans and
use long arms, known as "booms", to divert rubbish into the main body of the
processor where small pieces of plastic debris would be filtered out of the water. The
use of booms rather than net meshes would mean that even the smallest particles
would be diverted and extracted, but virtually no by-catch would occur. The platforms
would be completely self-supporting, receiving their energy from the sun, currents and
waves. According to the inventor, reprocessing and selling the plastic retrieved by
rubbish processors from the world’s gyres could potentially even be profitable.

G
Many campaigners against marine debris are sceptical about this suggestion, however.
They point out that the size of the world’s oceans is so vast and the scope of the
plastic trash problem so great that, even if they worked efficiently, processors of this
type would have a negligible effect on the amount of trash in the oceans. What’s
more, the sceptics say that recycled ocean plastic waste has very little commercial
value, as it requires cleaning to remove sea life and toxins before it can be used. They
also assert that it is extremely brittle, making it unsuitable for many of the purposes
for which plastic is normally used.

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H
Environmentalists like these believe that ocean clean-up solutions are pointless and
futile and that the answer to the problem lies in prevention rather than cure. At a
personal level, everyone can contribute by avoiding plastics in the things they buy and
by disposing of their plastic waste responsibly. Publicity campaigns can make ship
owners and operators, offshore platforms and fishing boat operators more aware of the
consequences of the irresponsible disposal of plastic items at sea. Furthermore, by
signing petitions, contributing to environmental organisations, taking part in beach
clean-ups and exerting pressure on locally elected officials, members of the public can
make their concerns known and contribute to the goal of preventing plastic waste ever
reaching the sea.

Question 15 - 21
Reading Passage 2, Pollution in the Oceans, has eight paragraphs A – H
Which paragraph contains the information below?
Write the correct letter, A – H in answer boxes 15 – 21 on your answer sheet.
NB You can use any letter more than once.

15. Food poison in marine animals

16. Renewable energy powering marine rubbish collectors
17. The public’s role in marine pollution solutions
18. The ineffectiveness of marine rubbish collectors
19. Problematic travel area for ships
20. Negative effect on breeding in marine organisms
21. The spreading of species to new areas of the ocean

19
Question 22 – 24
Complete each sentence with the correct ending.
Choose from the list, A – D, below.
Write the approriate letters, A – D, in answer boxes 22 – 24.
22. Oceana has claimed that more than 50 per cent of all marine rubbish…
A …originates in the United States.
B …is plastic
C …ends up in the Great Pacific Grabage Patch
D …comes from ships
23. People do not know how big the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is because…
A …the research to determine this qould be too expensive.
B …its exact location is not known.
C …it is continually expanding.
D …the earth’s coriolis effect makes the water move.
24. Scientists have recently discovered that rubbish in the River Thames …
A ...travels downstream below the surface of the river.
B …has damaged the river’s crab stocks.
C …is now always caught by nets before it reaches the open sea.\
D …is responsible for the majority of marine pollution in the North Sea.

20
Question 25 – 27
Do the statements below (questions 25-27) agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 2, Pollution in the Ocean?

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

25. The person who came up with the ideafor the sea water rubbish processors believes
that sales of his machine could be profitable.
26. Critics of marine clean-up operations claim that plastic recover from the oceans is
not appropriate for recycling.
27. Many campaigners believe that the most effective solution to marine pollution is to
deal with plastic waste on land.

21
READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 28 – 40, which are based on Reading
Passage 3 below.

Alternative Farming Methods in Oregon

Onion growers in eastern Oregon are adopting a system that saves water and keeps
topsoil in place, while producing the highest quality “super colossal” onions. Pear
growers in southern Oregon have reduced their use of some of the most toxic
pesticides by up to two-thirds, and are still producing top-quality pears. Range
managers throughout the state have controlled the poisonous weed, tansy ragwort,
with insect predators and saved the Oregon livestock industry up to $4.8 million a
year.

These are some of the results Oregon growers have achieved in collaboration with
Oregon State University (OSU) researchers as they test new farming methods
including Integrated Pest Management (IPM). Nationwide, however, IPM has not
delivered results comparable to those in Oregon. A recent US General Accounting
Office (GAO) report indicates that while Integrated Pest Management can result in
dramatically reduced pesticide use, the federal government has been lacking in
effectively promoting that goal and implementing IPM. Farmers also blame the
government for not making the new options of pest management attractive.
“Wholesale changes in the way that farmers control the pests on their farms is an
expensive business,” Tony Brown, of the National Farmers Association says. “If the
farmers are given tax breaks to offset the expenditure, then they would willingly
accept the new practices.” The report goes on to note that even though the use of the
riskiest pesticides has declined nationwide, they still make up more than 40 per cent of
all pesticides used today; and national pesticide use has risen by 40 million kilograms
since 1992. “Our food supply remains the safest and highest quality on Earth but we
continue to overdose our farmland with powerful and toxic pesticides and to underuse
the safe and effective alternatives,” charges Patrick Leahy, who commissioned the
report. Green action groups disagree about the safety issue. “There is no way that
habitual consumption of foodstuffs grown using toxic chemicals of the nature found
on today’s farms can be healthy for consumers,” notes Bill Bowler, spokesman for
Green Action, one of many lobbyists interested in this issue.

The GAO report singles out Oregon’s apple and pear producers who have used the
new IPM techniques with growing success. Although Oregon is clearly ahead of the
nation, scientists at OSU are taking the Government Accounting Office criticisms
seriously. “We must continue to develop effective alternative practices that will
22
reduce environmental hazards and produce high-quality products,” says Paul Jepson, a
professor of entomology at OSU and new director of OSU’s Integrated Plant
Protection Center (IPPC). The IPPC brings together scientists from OSU’s
Agricultural Experiment Station, OSU Extension service, the US Department of
Agriculture and Oregon farmers to help develop agricultural systems that will save
water and soil, and reduce pesticides. In response to the GAO report, the Center is
putting even more emphasis on integrating research and farming practices to improve
Oregon agriculture environmentally and economically.

“The GAO report criticises agencies for not clearly communicating the goals of IPM,”
says Jepson. “Our challenge is to greatly improve the communication to and from
growers, to learn what works and what doesn’t. The work coming from OSU
researchers must be adopted in the field and not simply languish in scientific
journals.”

In Oregon, growers and scientists are working together to instigate new practices. For
example, a few years ago scientists at OSU’s Malheur Experiment Station began
testing a new drip irrigation system to replace old ditches that wasted water and
washed soil and fertiliser into streams. The new system cut water and fertiliser use by
half, kept topsoil in place and protected water quality. In addition, the new system
produced crops of very large onions, rated “super colossal” and highly valued by the
restaurant industry and food processors. Art Pimms, one of the researchers at Malheur
comments: “Growers are finding that when they adopt more environmentally benign
practices, they can have excellent results. The new practices benefit the environment
and give the growers their success.”

OSU researchers in Malheur next tested straw mulch* and found that it successfully
held soil in place and kept the ground moist with less irrigation. In addition, and
unexpectedly, the scientists found that the mulched soil created a home for beneficial
beetles and spiders that prey on onion thrips – a notorious pest in commercial onion
fields – a discovery that could reduce the need for pesticides. “I would never have
believed that we could replace the artificial pest controls that we had before and still
keep our good results,” comments Steve Black, a commercial onion farmer in Oregon,
“but instead we have actually surpassed expectations.”

OSU researchers throughout the state have been working to reduce dependence on
broad-spectrum chemical sprays that are toxic to many kinds of organisms, including
humans. “Consumers are rightly putting more and more pressure on the industry to
change its reliance on chemical pesticides, but they still want a picture-perfect

23
product,” says Rick Hilton, entomologist at OSU’s Southern Oregon Research and
Extension Center, where researchers help pear growers reduce the need for highly
toxic pesticides. Picture-perfect pears are an important product in Oregon, and
traditionally they have required lots of chemicals. In recent years, the industry has
faced stiff competition from overseas producers, so any new methods that growers
adopt must make sense economically as well as environmentally. Hilton is testing a
growth regulator that interferes with the molting of codling moth larvae*. Another
study used pheromone dispensers to disrupt codling moth mating. These and other
methods of Integrated Pest Management have allowed pear growers to reduce their
use of organophosphates by two-thirds and reduce all other synthetic pesticides by
even more and still produce top-quality pears. These and other studies around the state
are part of the effort of the IPPC to find alternative farming practices that benefit both
the economy and the environment.

24
Question 28 – 35
Look at statements 28 – 35 and the list of people below.
Match each statement with the correct person.
Write the appropriate initials of the people in answer boxes 28 – 35.

28. There is a double advantage to the new techniques.

29. Expectations of end-users of agricultural goods affect the products.
30. The work on developing these alternative techniques is not finished.
31. Eating food that has had chemincals used in its production is dangerous to our
health.
32. Changing current farming methods is not a cheap process.
33. Results have exceeded anticipations.
34. The research done should be change into practical projects.
35. The US produces the best food in the world.

TB Tony Brown
PL Patrick Leahy
BB Bill Bowler
PJ Paul Jepson
AP Art Pimms
SB Steve Black
RH Rick Hilton

25
Question 36 – 40
Do the statements below (questions 36 - 40) agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 3, Alternative Farming Methods in Oregon?

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

36. Integrated Pest Management has generally been regarded as a success in the US.
37. Oregon farmers of apples and pears have been promoted as successful examples of
Integrated Pest Management.
38. The IPCC uses scientists from different organisations.
39. Straw mulch experiments produced unplanned benefits.
40. The apple industry is now facing a lot of competition from aboard.

26
 Practice Test 3
READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 1 – 14, which are based on Reading
Passage 1 below.

Cleaning up the Thames

The River Thames, which was biologically “dead” as recently as the 1960s, is now the
cleanest metropolitan river in the world, according to the Thames Water Company.
The company says that thanks to major investment in better sewage treatment in
London and the Thames Valley, the river that flows through the United Kingdom
capital and the Thames Estuary into the North Sea is cleaner now than it has been for
130 years. The Fisheries Department, which is responsible for monitoring fish levels
in the River Thames, has reported that the river has again become the home to 115
species of fish including sea bass, flounder, salmon, smelt, and shad. Recently, a
porpoise was spotted cavorting in the river near central London.

But things were not always so rosy. In the 1950s, sewer outflows and industrial
effluent had killed the river. It was starved of oxygen and could no longer support
aquatic life. Until the early 1970s, if you fell into the Thames you would have had to
be rushed to hospital to get your stomach pumped. A clean-up operation began in the
1960s. Several Parliamentary Committees and Royal Commissions were set up, and,
over time, legislation has been introduced that puts the onus on polluters - effluent-
producing premises and businesses - to dispose of waste responsibly. In 1964 the
Greater London Council (GLC) began work on much enlarged sewage works, which
were completed in 1974.

The Thames clean-up is not over though. It is still going on, and it involves many
disparate arms of government and a wide range of non-government stakeholder
groups, all representing a necessary aspect of the task. Each of the urban and non-
urban London boroughs that flanks the river has its own reasons to keep the river
clean, and if these reasons do not hold out a sufficiently attractive carrot, the
government also wields a compelling stick. The 2000 Local Government Act requires
each local borough to “prepare a community strategy for promoting or improving the
economic, social and environmental well-being of their area". And if your area
includes a stretch of river, that means a sustainable river development strategy.

27
Further laws aimed at improving and sustaining the river’s viability have been
proposed. There is now legislation that protects the River Thames, either specifically
or as part of a general environmental clause, in the Local Government Act, the
London Acts and the law that created the post of the mayor of London. And these are
only the tip of an iceberg that includes industrial, public health and environmental
protection regulations. The result is a wide range of bodies officially charged, in one
way or another, with maintaining the Thames as a public amenity. For example,
Transport for London - the agency responsible for transport in the capital - plays a role
in regulating river use and river users. It is now responsible for controlling the
effluents and rubbish coming from craft using the Thames. This is carried out by
officers on official vessels regularly inspecting craft and doing spot checks.

Another example is that Thames Water (TW) has now been charged to reduce the
amount of litter that finds its way into the tidal river and its tributaries. TW’s
environment and quality manager, Dr Peter Spillett, said: “This project will build on
our investment which has dramatically improved the water quality of the river.
London should not be spoiled by litter which belongs in the bin not the river.”
Thousands of tons of rubbish end up in the river each year, from badly stored waste,
people throwing litter off boats, and rubbish in the street being blown or washed into
the river. Once litter hits the water it becomes too heavy to be blown away again and
therefore the river acts as a sink in the system.

While the Port of London already collects up to 3,000 tons of solid waste from the
tideway every year, Thames Water now plans to introduce a new device to capture
more rubbish floating down the river. It consists of a huge cage that sits in the flow of
water and gathers the passing rubbish. Moored just offshore in front of the Royal
Naval College at Greenwich, southeast London, the device is expected to capture up
to 20 tons of floating litter each year. If washed out to sea, this rubbish can kill marine
mammals, fish and birds. This machine, known as the “Rubbish Muncher”, is hoped
to be the first of many, as the TW is now looking for sponsors to pay for more cages
elsewhere along the Thames.

Monitoring of the cleanliness of the River Thames in the past was the responsibility of
a welter of agencies - British Waterways, Port of London Authority, the Environment
Agency, the Health and Safety Commission, Thames Water - as well as academic
departments and national and local environment groups. If something was not right,
someone was bound to call foul and hold somebody to account, whether it was the
local authority, an individual polluter or any of the many public and private sector
bodies that bore a share of the responsibility for maintaining the River Thames as a
public amenity. Although they will all still have their part to play, there is now a

28
central department in the Environment Agency, which has the remit of monitoring the
Thames. This centralisation of accountability will, it is hoped, lead to more efficient
control and enforcement.

29
Question 1 – 6
Look at the list of actions, 1 – 6, that are involved in managing the River Thames.
Match each section with agency that is responsible for it.
Write the appropriate letter A-F, and write them in the boxes 1-8 on your answer
sheet.
1. Operating the rubbish muncher
2. Creating community strategies
3. Monitoring the cleanliness of the river
4. Collecting solid waste from the tideway
5. Creating enlarged sewage works
6. Controlling traffic on the river

A The Environment Agency

B Transport for London
C The Greater London Council
D Thames Water
E Port of London
F Local Boroughs

30
Question 7 – 14
Do the statements below (questions 7 - 14) agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 1, Cleaning up the Thames.

YES if the statement agrees with the information

NO if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

7. The Thames is now cleaner than it was in 1900.

8. Swimming in the Thames now poses no health hazards.
9. Companies that pollute the river now have a responsibility to clean it.
10. All London boroughs that the Thames passess through are now partly responsible
for keeping the river clean.
11. Transport for London now employs a type of River Police to enforce control of
their regulations.
12. Rubbish Munchers are now situated at various locations on the Thames.
13. Previously no one department had overall responsibility or control for monitoring
the cleanliness of the Thames.
14. British Waterways will no longer have any part in keeping the Thames clean.

31
READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 20 – 27, which are based on Reading
Passage 2 below.

Persuasion and Smell

The link between smell and memory is well established; most people have
experienced the phenomenon of unexpectedly encountering a smell, perhaps the scent
of a particular flower or a specific cooking odour, which brings back a flood of long-
forgotten memories. The fact that smell can conjure up feelings, whether enjoyable or
unpleasant, is also undeniable; the perfume industry is built upon the premise that
certain scents make us feel good about ourselves and, hopefully, also make us more
attractive to others. But can smell do more than just evoke feelings and memories?
Can it in fact alter people’s behaviour and decisions?

A tip offered by property magazines and estate agents to people trying to sell their
house is to bake a batch of bread or cakes shortly before a prospective buyer arrives.
The smell of freshly-baked produce is said to evoke feelings of comfort and happiness
that the purchaser will associate with the house, thus making him or her more likely to
buy it. The advice is well known, but is there any truth in it? Research into smell and
how it is processed by the brain has come up with some interesting answers.

The olfactory system is the oldest sensory system in mammals and can process about
10,000 different odours. When people smell something, its scent enters the nose and is
transmitted to the olfactory bulb, which forms part of the limbic system. Briefly put,
the limbic system is a set of structures in the brain that govern emotional responses
and memories, as well as regulating autonomic functions such as breathing and heart
rate. Thus the sensory input from odours that enter the limbic system can trigger
memories or involuntary emotional reactions, and these responses can be exploited by
advertisers to influence potential customers. However, that is not the entire picture.
The olfactory system also sends information to other parts of the brain that are
responsible for more complex functions like language, abstract thought, judgement
and creativity. In other words, smells not only provoke automatic emotional reactions,
but also hold messages that may help people to generate mental models, form attitudes
and make decisions.

A number of behavioural studies validate this hypothesis. Research conducted in

France used scents like coffee, cinnamon and perfume to influence people’s reactions.
The researchers chose a store front either on a street or in a mall and the area was
misted with one of the aforementioned odours. As individuals walked past the misted

32
store front, hired actors would drop wallets from a bag or purse. When the area was
scented with one of the three scents, passers-by were more likely to pick up and return
the object than when the area was not scented.

A commercial rather than moral experiment was undertaken with footwear. Two
identical pairs of branded running shoes were placed in two different rooms, one of
which contained scent previously shown to create positive feelings and one which had
no scent added. Eighty-four per cent of participants in the study reported back that
they were more likely to buy the running shoes in the room with the scent. An
interesting additional finding was that the study’s participants estimated that the
running shoes in the scented room were $10 more expensive.

Scent research also indicated a direct influence on improving sociability. A recent

study in the US showed that when environments were sprayed with scents linked with
hygiene, such as citrus, individuals reported a desire to connect with those who were
in the vicinity of the scent. The respondents in that study also indicated that they were
more willing to give money to charity and to help others. This again shows that scent
holds messages that we incorporate and process alongside other sensory input to
create mental models, make decisions, and alter our behavioural responses.

These findings may raise worries as they suggest that advertisers have greater power
to influence consumers’ choices and behaviour than was previously thought.
However, these fears are probably exaggerated. One of the other sections of the brain
that processes input from odours is the prefrontal cortex. This structure is the
reasoning centre of the brain and it enables people to think analytically before making
choices. Its effect on regulating thoughts and behaviour is dependent upon each
person’s character and levels of self-awareness. Although there are some individuals
who receive external messages and react emotionally without thought, many others
process and evaluate them before accepting or rejecting them. The majority of people
are unlikely to be guided solely by odours when making significant choices; a
persuasive argument or strategy would need to be added in order to influence their
choices. Furthermore, scenting an area does not mean people snap into a certain mode
of action that would normally be wholly uncharacteristic for them; achieving that
result would require a greater limbic system influence. Odours in certain environments
can affect emotions, thoughts and behaviour, but the influence is contextual; the
effects are immediate and dissipate once the surroundings have changed. It seems that
a pleasant aroma might influence our choice of running shoes, but neither house
sellers nor advertisers are about to take over our thoughts, decisions and actions by
means of scents alone.

33
Question 15 – 19
Complete each sentence with the correct ending.
Choose from the list, A – D, below.
Write the approriate letters, A – D, in answer boxes 15 – 19.
15. The limbic area of the brain is NOT responsible for…
A …feelings.
B …respiration.
C …the pulse.
D …decision making.
16. A French study on smell…
A … measured how smell made people take less care of their belongings.
B … measured how smell made people more aware of their surroundings.
C … measured how smell affected people’s honesty.
D … measured how smell distracted people.
17. An experiment on footwear and scented environments showed that smell…
A ...can change people’s perception of the price of the footwear.
B …made people buy more shoes.
C …creates postitive feelings in participants.
D …can make people want to spend more money.
18. A US study on smell showed…
A …that citrus scents are hygenic.
B …how smell can increase the likelihood of people acting less selfishly.
C …how smell can develop better family relationships.
D …how smell can help people make more friends.
19. The prefrontal cortex can …
A ...limit the effect smells have on our actions.
B …make people act emotionally and without thought.
C …change levels of self awareness.
D …add a persuasive agrument.

34
Question 20 – 27
Do the statements (questions 20 - 27) below agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 2, Persuasion and Smell?

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

20. Research has shown that smells associated with cleanliness can make people act in
a more friendly and generoud way.
21. The prefrontal cortex has a stronger effect on people who are more self aware.
22. Smell has been used in some countries’ legal systems in order to influence people
to tell the truth.
23. Personality and self awareness determine how the prefrontal cortex deals with
input.
24. Human behaviour can be influenced by smell when it is combined with other
factors.
25. The sense of smells is one of the most studied human senses.
26. Smell can change buying decisions in any situation that a customer might be in.
27. The temporary influence of odour may inform the footwear we choose.

35
READING PASSAGE3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 28 – 40, which are based on Reading
Passage 3 below.

Deer Farming In Australia

A
Deer are not indigenous to Australia. They were introduced into the country during the
nineteenth century under the acclimatisation programmes governing the introduction
of exotic species of animals and birds into Australia. Six species of deer were released
at various locations. The animals dispersed and established wild populations at various
locations, mostly depending upon their points of release into the wild. These animals
formed the basis for the deer industry in Australia today. Commercial deer farming in
Australia commenced in Victoria in 1971 with the authorised capture of rusa deer
from the Royal National Park, NSW. Until 1985, only four species of deer, two from
temperate climates (red, fallow) and two tropical species (rusa, chital) were confined
for commercial farming. Late in 2005, pressure from industry to increase herd
numbers saw the development of import protocols. This resulted in the introduction of
large numbers of red deer hybrids from New Zealand, and North American elk
directly from Canada. The national farmed deer herd is now distributed throughout all
states, although most are in New South Wales and Victoria.

B
The number of animals processed annually has continued to increase, despite the
downward trend in venison prices since 2007. Of concern is the apparent increase in
the number of female animals processed and the number of whole herds committed
for processing. With more than 40,000 animals processed in 2011/12 and 60,000 in
2012/13, there is justified concern that future years may see a dramatic drop in
production. At least 85 per cent of all venison produced in Australia is exported,
principally to Europe. At least 90 per cent of all velvet antler produced is exported in
an unprocessed state to Asia. Schemes to promote Australian deer products continue
to have a positive effect on sales that, in turn, have a positive effect on prices paid to
breeders. The industry appears to be showing limited signs that it is emerging from a
state of depression caused by both internal and external factors that include: (i) the
Asian currency downturn; (ii) the industry’s lack of competitive advantage in
influential markets (particularly with respect to New Zealand competition); and (iii)
within industry processing and marketing competition for limited product volumes of
venison.

36
C
From the formation of the Australian Deer Breeders Federation in 1979, the industry
representative body has evolved through the Deer Farmers Federation of Australia to
the Deer Industry Association of Australia Ltd (DIAA), which was registered in 1995.
The industry has established two product development and marketing companies, the
Australian Deer Horn and Co-Products Pty Ltd (ADH) and the Deer Industry Projects
and Development Pty Ltd, which trades as the Deer Industry Company (DIC). ADH
collects and markets Australian deer horn and co-products on behalf of Australian
deer farmers. It promotes the harvest of velvet antler according to the strict quality
assurance programme promoted by the industry. The company also plans and co-
ordinates regular velvet accreditation courses for Australian deer farmers.

D
One problem that the Australian deer farming industry has faced recently is that of
Johne’s disease, a chronic wasting disease that can be found in cattle, sheep, goats,
deer and camelids. This has affected meat production and how the industry has been
able to expand. The bacteria that cause Johne’s disease live in animals’ intestines and
cause thickening of the bowel wall, which interferes with normal absorption of food.
The prevalence of Johne’s disease varies in different regions of Australia, but it is
most commonly found in deer farms in southeast Australia. Identifying Johne’s
disease requires the help of a vet, but symptoms include progressive weight loss and
emaciation in older animals despite good appetite. Diarrhoea and bottle jaw are also
common signs of the disease.

E
Deer farmers should develop and implement a farm bio-security plan and only
purchase deer stock with an animal health statement. In areas where Johne’s disease is
common, a vaccination programme can be implemented, but this can be quite
expensive and not 100 per cent effective. Once the disease has taken hold in a deer
herd, the effects can be catastrophic as culling is usually the only answer. Johne’s
disease can cause long-term supply difficulties in various products, particularly
venison; one case of this arose as a result of the 2009 slaughter of a significant number
of young breeding females. The net result was the depletion of the industry’s female
breeding herds.

F
Industry programmes are funded by statutory levies on sales of animals for venison,
velvet antler sales and the sale of live animals to export markets. The industry had a

37
recent 5-year plan including animal nutrition, pasture quality, carcass quality, antler
harvesting, promotional material and technical bulletins. All projects have generated a
significant volume of information, which complements similar work undertaken in
New Zealand and other deer-farming countries. Major projects funded by levy funds
include the Venison Market Project from 2010 to 2015. This initiative has resulted in
a dramatic increase in international demand for Australian venison and an increase in
domestic consumption. In an effort to maintain existing venison markets in the short
term and to increase them in the long term, in 2005 the industry’s top priority became
the increase in size and production capacity of the national herd.

38
Question 28 – 32
Reading Passage 3, Deer Farming In Australia, has six paragraphs A – F
From the list of headings, choose the most suitable headings for paragraphs A – F.
Write the appropriate number (i – xi) in boxes 28 – 32 on your answer sheet.
NB There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will not use them all.

i. Regulatory Bodies and Trade Associations

ii. Disease Affects Profits
iii. The Threat of Disease
iv. Introduction and Spread of Deer Species
v. Government Assistance
vi. Investment Feeds New Development
vii. Asian Competition
viii. Trends in Production
ix. Disease Prevention and Treatment

Example Answer
Paragraph A iv
28. Paragraph B
29. Paragraph C
30. Paragraph D
31. Paragraph E
32. Paragraph F

39
Question 33 –37
Do the statements (questions 33 - 37) below agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 3, Deer Farming In Australia?

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

33. Until 1985 only two species of the originally released Australian deer were not
used for farming.
34. Since 1985 many imported deer have been interbred with the established herds.
35. Both deer numbers and the price of vension have continually climbed since 2007.
36. Only a small amount of Australian vension production is consumed domestically.
37. International investment has had a positive effect on the recovery of the Australian
deer industry.

Question 33 –37
Complete the sentences below (question 38 – 40).
Use NO MORE THEN THREE WORDS from Reading Passage 3, Deer Farming
In Australia for each answer.
38. A stringent _______________ allows the Australian deer industry to maintain its
excellent of product.
39. Herd stock expansion is made difficult by the killing of _______________, which
in turn affects the product supply.
40. Foreign and home markets for Australian vension increased due to the
_______________.

40
 Practice Test 4
READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 1 – 14, which are based on Reading
Passage 1 below.

COD IN TROUBLE

A
In 1992, the devastating collapse of the cod stocks off the east coast of Newfoundland
forced the Canadian government to take drastic measures and close the fishery. Over
40,000 people lost their jobs, communities are still struggling to recover and the marine
ecosystem is still in a state of collapse. The disintegration of this vital fishery sounded
a warning bell to governments around the world, who were shocked that a relatively
sophisticated, scientifically based fisheries management programme, not unlike their
own, could have gone so wrong. Prior to this, the Canadian government had ignored
warnings that its fleets were employing destructive fishing practices and had refused to
significantly reduce quotas, citing the loss of jobs as too great a concern.

B
In the 1950s Canadian and US east coast waters provided an annual 100,000 tons in cod
catches rising to 800,000 by 1970. This over-fishing led to a catch of only 300,000 tons
by 1975. Canada and the US reacted by passing legislation to extend their national
jurisdictions over marine living resources out to 200 nautical miles and catches naturally
declined to 139,000 tons in 1980. However, the Canadians began fishing intensively
once more, and catches rose again until, from 1985, the Canadians were landing more
than 250,000 tons of northern cod annually. This exploitation ravaged the stocks and by
1990 the catch was so low (29,000 tons) that in 1992 (12,500 tons) Canada had to ban
all fishing in east coast waters. In a fishery that had for over a century yielded quarter-
million ton catches, there remained a biomass of less than 1,700 tons, and the fisheries
department predicted that, even with an immediate recovery, stocks needed at least 15
years before they would be healthy enough to withstand previous levels of fishing.

C
This situation arose from massive investment poured into constructing huge “draggers”.
Draggers haul enormous nets held open by a combination of massive steel plates and
heavy chains and rollers that plough the ocean bottom. They drag up anything in the
way, inflicting immense damage, destroying critical habitats and contributing to the
destabilisation of the northern cod ecosystem. The draggers targeted huge aggregations
of cod while they were spawning*, a time when the fish population is highly vulnerable
to capture. Excessive trawling on spawning stocks became highly disruptive to the
spawning process and ecosystem. In addition, trawling resulted in a physical dispersion
of eggs, leading to higher fertilisation failure. Physical and chemical damage to larvae
caused by trawling also reduced their chances of survival. These draggers are now
banned from Canadian waters.

41
D
The media in Canada often cite excessive fishing by overseas fleets as the primary cause
of the fishing out of the north Atlantic cod stocks. Many nations took fish off the coast
of Newfoundland, all used deep-sea trawlers, and many often exceeded established
catch quotas and treaty agreements blatantly. There can be little doubt that non-North
American fishing was a contributing factor in the cod stock collapse, and that the
dynamics that were at work in Canada were all too similar for the foreign vessels and
companies. But not all of the blame can be put there, no matter how easy it is to do, as
it does not account for the management of the resources.

E
So, who was to blame? As the exploitation of the Newfoundland fishery was so
predominantly guided by the government, it could be argued that a fishery is not a
private area, as the fisher lacks management rights normally associated with property
and common property. The state had appropriated the property, and made all of the
management decisions. Fishermen were told who could fish, what they could fish and,
essentially, what to do with the fish once they were caught. Viewed from this angle,
much of the blame for the collapse of the Newfoundland fisheries can be placed on
the government.

F
Following the 1992 ban on the fishing of northern cod and most other species, an
estimated 30,000 people, who had already lost their jobs after the 1992 Northern Cod
prohibition took effect, were joined by an additional 12,000 fishermen and plant
workers. With more than 40,000 people out of work, Newfoundland became an
economic disaster area, as processing plants shut down and vessels from the smallest
dory to the monster draggers were made idle or sold overseas at bargain prices. Several
hundred Newfoundland communities were devastated.

G
Europeans need only look across the North Atlantic to see what could be in store for
their cod fishery. In Canada they were too busy making plans, setting expansive goals
and then allocating fish, and lots of it, instead of making sound business plans to match
fishing with the limited availability of the resource. Cod populations in European waters
are now so depleted that scientists have recently warned that all fisheries that target cod
in this area should be closed. The Canadian calamity demonstrates that we now have
the technological capability to find and annihilate every commercial fish stock in any
ocean and do irreparable damage to entire ecosystems in the process. In Canada’s case,
a $2 billion recovery bill may only be part of the total long-term costs. The costs to
individuals and desperate communities now deprived of meaningful and sustainable
employment are staggering.

42
Question 1 – 6
Reading Passage 1, Cod in Trouble, has seven paragraphs A –G.
From the list of headings below, choose the most suitable one for each parapragh B –
G.
Write the appropriate number (i – xi) in answer boxes 1 – 6.
NB There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will not use them all.

i. Factory Closures
ii. The Human Cost
iii. Government Mismanagement
iv. A Lesson Learnt from Canada
v. European Tachniques
vi. Destructive Trawling Technology
vii. Lessons to be Learned
viii. The Demise of the Northern Cod
ix. Canadian Territorial Waters
x. The Breaking of Agreements
xi. Foreign Over-fishing

Example Answer
Paragraph A iv
1. Paragraph B
2. Paragraph C
3. Paragraph D
4. Paragraph E
5. Paragraph F
6. Paragraph G

43
Question 7 – 10
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write the letters in answer boxes 7 – 10.

7. Why didn’t the Canadian government want to reduce cod catches pre-1992?
A. Worry over possible rising unemployment.
B. Worry over the ecological effects.
C. Fear that cod prices would rise too much.
D. Fear that it was too drastic a measure.

8. How did Canada and the US respond to the 1975 drop in catches?
A. They levied a tax on foreign cod imports.
B. They expanded the marine area under their control.
C. They created a new quota system for their fishermen.
D. They didn’t do anything.

9. Who does the write blame for the collapse of the Newfoundland cod fishery?
A. The Canadian fishing industry.
B. The foreign fishing industry.
C. The Canadian government.
D. The US fishing industry.

10. What is NOT true of Newfoundland in the years following the 1992 ban on cod
fishing?
A. Unemployment continued to rise.
B. The ban affected only people who fished cod.
C. The loss of cod fishing jobs had a knock-on effect in related
D. Some owners of fishing boats were able to sell them.

44
Question 11 – 14
Do the statements below (questions 11 - 14) agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 1, Cod in Trouble?

YES if the statement agrees with the information

NO if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

11. Disruption of cod breeding was a major factor in the Newfoundland cod disaster.
12. Foreign trawlers frequently broke the catch allowances.
13. There was often conflict between the foreign fishermen and the Canadian
authorities.
14. Cod fishing in Canada is irrelevant to cod fishing in Europe.

45
READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 15 – 27, which are based on Reading
Passage 2 below.

The Rise of Antibiotic-Resistant Infections

A
When penicillin became widely available during the Second World War, it was a
medical miracle, rapidly vanquishing the biggest wartime killer - infected wounds.
Discovered initially by a French medical student, Ernest Duchesne, in 1896, and then
rediscovered by Scottish physician, Alexander Fleming, in 1928, Penicillium crippled
many types of disease-causing bacteria. But just 4 years after drug companies began
mass-producing penicillin in 1943, microbes began appearing that could resist it.

B
“There was complacency in the 1980s. The perception was that we had licked the
bacterial infection problem. Drug companies were not working on new agents. They
were concentrating on other areas, such as viral infections,” says Michael Blum, MD,
medical officer in the Food and Drug Administration’s division of anti-infective drug
products. “In the meantime, resistance increased to a number of commonly used
antibiotics, possibly related to overuse. Since the 1990s, we have come to a point for
certain infections where we do not have agents available.”

C
The increased prevalence of antibiotic resistance is an outcome of evolution. Any
population of organisms, bacteria included, naturally includes variants with unusual
traits - in this case, the ability to withstand an antibiotic’s attack on a microbe. When a
person takes an antibiotic, the drug kills the defenceless bacteria, leaving behind - or
“selecting” in biological terms - those that can resist it. These renegade bacteria then
multiply, increasing their numbers a millionfold in a day, becoming the predominant
microorganism. “Whenever antibiotics are used, there is selective pressure for
resistance to occur. More and more organisms develop resistance to more and more
drugs,” says Joe Cranston, PhD, director of the department of drug policy and
standards at the American Medical Association in Chicago.

46
D
Disease-causing microbes thwart antibiotics by interfering with their mechanism of
action. For example, penicillin kills bacteria by attaching to their cell walls, then
destroying a key part of the wall. The wall falls apart, and the bacterium dies.
Resistant microbes, however, either alter their cell walls so penicillin cannot bind or
produce enzymes that dismantle the antibiotic. Antibiotic resistance results from gene
action. Bacteria acquire genes conferring resistance in different ways. Bacterial DNA
may mutate spontaneously. Drug-resistant tuberculosis arises in this way. Another
way is called "transformation", where one bacterium may take up DNA from another
bacterium. Most frightening, however, is resistance acquired from a small circle of
DNA know as "a plasmid", which can flit from one type of bacterium to another. A
single plasmid can provide a slew of different resistances.

E
Many of us have come to take antibiotics for granted. A child develops a sore throat or
an ear infection, and soon a bottle of pink medicine makes everything better. Linda
McCaig, a scientist at the Center for Disease Control (CDC), comments: “Many
consumers have an expectation that when they’re ill, antibiotics are the answer. Most
of the time the illness is viral, and antibiotics are not the answer. This large burden of
antibiotics is certainly selecting resistant bacteria.” McCaig and Peter Killeen, a
fellow scientist at the CDC, tracked antibiotic use in treating common illnesses. The
report cites nearly 6 million antibiotic prescriptions for sinusitis alone in 1985, and
nearly 13 million in 1992. Ironically, advances in modern medicine have made more
people predisposed to infection. McCaig notes: “There are a number of
immunocompromised patients who wouldn’t have survived in earlier times. Radical
procedures produce patients who are in difficult shape in the hospital, and there is
routine use of antibiotics to prevent infection in these patients.”

F
There are measures we can take to slow the inevitable resistance. Barbara Murray,
MD, of the University of Texas Medical School at Houston writes: “Simple
improvements in public health measures can go a long way towards preventing
infection.” Such approaches include more frequent hand washing by health-care
workers, quick identification and isolation of patients with drug-resistant infections,
and improving sewage systems and water purity. Drug manufacturers are also once
again becoming interested in developing new antibiotics. The FDA is doing all it can
to speed development and availability of new antibiotic drugs. “We can’t identify new
agents - that’s the job of the pharmaceutical industry. But once they have identified a
promising new drug, what we can do is to meet with the company very early and help

47
design the development plan and clinical trials,” says Blum. "In addition, drugs in
development can be used on an emergency compassionate use basis for AIDS or
cancer patients with multi-drug-resistant infections,” Blum adds. Appropriate
prescribing is important. This means that physicians use narrow spectrum antibiotics -
those that target only a few bacterial types - whenever possible, so that resistances can
be restricted. “There has been a shift to using costlier, broader spectrum agents. This
prescribing trend heightens the resistance problem because more diverse bacteria are
being exposed to antibiotics,” writes Killeen. So, while awaiting the next wonder
drug, we must appreciate, and use correctly, the ones that we already have. Another
problem with antibiotic use is that patients often stop taking the drug too soon because
symptoms improve. However, this merely encourages resistant microbes to
proliferate. The infection returns a few weeks later, and this time a different drug must
be used to treat it. The conclusion: resistance can be slowed if patients take
medications correctly.

48
Question 15 – 21
Look at statements 15 – 21 and the list of people below.
Match each statement with the correct person.
Write the appropriate initials of the people in answer boxes 15 – 21.

15. Antibiotics are sometimes used to only prevent infections.

16. Choosing the correct antibiotic for particular infections is important.
17. Today there are some bacterial infections for which we have no effective
antibiotic.
18. Untested drugs can be used on terminal patients as a last resort.
19. Resistance develops every time an antibiotic is used.
20. Merely washing hands can have a positive effect.
21. Antibiotics are often impotently used against viruses.

PK Peter Killen
JC Joe Cranston
LM Linda McCaig
MB Micheal Blum
BM Barbara Murray

49
Question 22 - 27
Reading Passage 2, The Rise of Antibiotic-Resistant Infections, has eight paragraphs A
–F
Which paragraph contains the information below (question 22 – 27)?
Write the correct letter, A – F in answer boxes 22 – 27 on your answer sheet.
NB You can use any letter more than once.

22. How antibiotic resistance happens.

23. The survival of the fittest bacteria.
24. Factors to consider in solving the antibiotic-resistant bacteria problem.
25. The impact of the discovery of the first antibiotic.
26. The misuse and overuse of antibiotics.
27. The cessation of research into combating bacterial infections.

50
READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 28 – 40, which are based on Reading
Passage 3 below.

Skiing's Effect on the Environment

Skiing is one of the world’s most popular winter sports. With ever-increasing numbers
of people taking part, questions have been raised about the effect skiing has on the
mountain environments where it takes place. Most skiing today is divided into two
disciplines. Firstly, there is on-piste skiing, which is done on prepared routes with
controlled amounts of snow. The other form is off-piste skiing, which involves
leaving the prepared tracks and skiing in natural surroundings.

Many skiers now seek the delights of off-piste skiing on untouched snow through
forests, but this pleasure comes at a significant cost to the environment. Young
mountain trees have a difficult life, requiring 30 to 50 years to grow a mere four
metres. They have a growing season of only three months and have to suffer intense
cold, heat, frosts and thaws as well as acid rain, air pollution and viruses. Skiers
frequently exacerbate the situation, as the edges of a ski are sharp enough to break the
bark of a young tree and destroy buds, thereby preventing the growth of any new
shoots. High altitude forest is an essential regulator of the mountain climate, and
damage of this type can have serious long-term effects.

Off-piste skiing can also cause damage to fauna; mountain animals unaccustomed to
human contact instinctively panic and run so hard to avoid skiers that they weaken
themselves in the deep snow. These animals’ instinct is to keep on running, even if
exhaustion finally kills them. Supporters of skiing claim that most animals avoid areas
with skiers and many resorts say they protect wildlife by fencing off ski slopes and
areas of hibernation; however, this fencing requires never-ending care and upkeep,
which increase costs. In many resorts, sensitive mountain areas such as breeding and
tree plantation zones are simply left undefended against off-piste skiers.

Some people maintain that off-piste skiing is a sustainable activity and that ecologists
overstate the issues. Given the revenue that resorts earn from skiers, even critics of
skiing realise that prohibiting off-piste skiing everywhere is unrealistic. The most
effective way ahead is a mixture of compromise and education. Resort developers and
forest managers must agree on banning skiing in sensitive areas and utilising less
vulnerable areas for resorts. Resorts must ensure that all skiers are informed of areas

51
to avoid, and that closed areas are clearly signposted. In these ways, damage to
mountain environments can be minimised.

Off-piste skiing is not the only source of problems, however. In times of low snowfall,
resort operators are increasingly turning to the use of artificial snow. This is made by
snow cannons spraying water at great pressure into the cold mountain air, as a result
of which the water freezes and then falls as snow. To obtain good-quality artificial
snow, bacteria are frequently mixed with the water to form better snowflakes. The
long-term environmental effects of this are still uncertain. However, the manufacture
of artificial snow is costly and uses large amounts of water, the same water which
often shelters rare species of animal and which in itself is a commodity. According to
some sources, one day’s use of snow cannons in a busy resort can consume as much
water as a small town in two days. Water companies have stated that this can affect
water supplies to ordinary households in the areas around snow resorts.

Water for artificial snow can come from various sources. Natural lakes can be used,
but environmentalists often disapprove of using this type of water source.
Accordingly, the creation of an artificial lake sometimes becomes necessary. If this is
well planned, it may also serve as a reservoir for fire-fighting water.

Artificial lakes need maintenance so that they do not affect the environment. As they
usually lack the water flow of natural lakes and therefore do not get enough oxygen,
carbon dioxide levels in the water build up and create a significant increase in algae*.
The resulting byproducts of these tiny plant organisms become poisonous over time
and can kill any introduced fish or other animals. When the water is used to create
artificial snow, it can spread this poison onto the land as well. To prevent low oxygen
levels in artificial lakes, it is possible to aerate the bottom water. Aeration is done by
using a small turbine on the lake bottom that creates compressed air. This air
continuously moves large volumes of low oxygen water from the bottom to the
surface of the lake. When the entire lake is oxygenated, fish are able to feed on small
organisms in all parts of the lake. This method of aeration limits the growth of algae
by reducing the release of nutrients from lake sediments. The benefits include
improved water quality and clarity, the prevention of fish death and a reduced
occurrence of destructive algal growth, disease and odour. Whatever one’s views on
skiing and how bad it is for mountain environments are, it is clear that skiing is here to
stay. In fact, many ski resorts do exhibit concern for the environment and are open to
suggestions on how they can help protect the flora and fauna* that depend on
mountain ecosystems. Environmentalists and resorts must educate each other in order
to create places where people can have fun and where nature is protected.

52
Question 28 –32
Do the statements (questions 28 - 32) below agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 3, Skiing's Effect on the Environment?

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

28. Harm done to trees by skiers could change the weather in the future.
29. Damage to growing trees is monitored by ski guides patrolling alpine forests.
30. Animals on the mountain are unable to escape the skiers due to the level of the
snow.
31. Some resort do not have barriers to protect habitats due to the high cost.
32. Banning off-piste skiing would require too much investment from resorts to be
realistic.

Question 33 –37
Complete the sentences below (question 33 – 37).
Use NO MORE THEN THREE WORDS from Reading Passage 3, Skiing's Effect
on the Environment for each answer.

33. Which bodies should be responsible for educating skiers in terms of where they
should not ski?
34. What are often combined with water to produce improved artificial snow using
snow cannons?
35. Which organisations have warned that snow cannon use could affect local homes?
36. What is the other possible use stated for the artificial snow water collected in an
artificial reservoir lake?
37. What can low oxygen levels in artificial lakes cause a growth of?

53
Questions 38 – 40
Complete the flow chart below using words from Reading Passage 3, Skiing's Effect
on the Environment.
Write NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the text in each answer box, 38 –
40.

54
 Practice Test 5
READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 1 – 13, which are based on Reading
Passage 1 below.

Wildfires

Wildfires are fires occurring either in the countryside or an area of wilderness. They are
different from other fires in that they are uncontrolled, are much larger, and are able to spread
out rapidly from the original source at speeds of up to 23 kilometres per hour. They are also
able to ‘jump’ over gaps such as roads and even rivers. Wildfires occur in countries that have
a lot of vegetation and a hot, dry climate. They are most commonly found in Australia due to
the weather conditions of the country. They pose a danger to human and animal life and the
infrastructure throughout the year, but are especially prevalent in the warmer months of
spring and summer. The United States also has a huge number of wildfires with an estimated
sixty to eighty thousand a year, resulting in a loss of between three and ten million acres of
land annually. In 1910 a single wildfire burnt over three million acres of land in the US.

Ninety per cent of wildfires are ignited by people, the remaining 10 per cent by lightning.
Common human-generated causes of wildfires include arson, camping fires, careless disposal
of lit cigarettes, bonfires lit to burn rubbish and children playing with fireworks or matches.
Three components are necessary to start a fire: oxygen, fuel and heat. These three make up
the so-called “fire triangle” that fire fighters use to put out blazes. The theory is that if they
can remove one of the triangle pillars, they can take control of and eventually extinguish the
fire.

The speed at which wildfires spread depends on the fuel around them. Fuel is any living or
dead material that will burn. Types of fuel include anything from trees, underbrush and
grassland to houses. The quantity of inflammable material around a fire is known as “the fuel
load” and is determined by the amount of available fuel per unit area, usually measured in
tons per acre. The dryness of the fuel also influences how fires behave. Dry fuel burns
quickly and makes the fires much harder to control. Basic fuel characteristics affecting a fire
are size and shape, arrangement and moisture, but with wildfires, where fuel usually consists
of the same type of material, the main factor influencing ignition time is the ratio of the fuel’s
total surface area to its volume. The surface area of a twig, for example, is not much bigger
than its volume, so it ignites rapidly. However, a tree’s surface area is much smaller than its
volume, so it requires more time to heat up before ignition.

55
D

Three weather variables affect wildfires: temperature, wind and moisture. Temperature
directly influences the sparking of wildfires, as heat is one of the three pillars of the fire
triangle. The sun heats and dries sticks, trees and underbrush, turning them into potential fuel.
Higher temperatures can cause fuels to ignite, burn more quickly and add to the speed of a
wildfire’s spread. Consequently, wildfires tend to rage in the afternoon, when temperatures
are at their hottest. The biggest influence on a wildfire is probably the wind. This is also the
most unpredictable variable. Winds provide fires with extra oxygen and more dry fuel, and
make wildfires spread more quickly. Fires also create winds of their own that can be up to ten
times faster than the ambient wind. Winds can spread embers that generate additional fires,
an event known as “spotting”. Winds also change the course of fires, and gusts can take
flames up into trees, starting “crown fires”. Humidity and precipitation provide moisture, the
last of the three weather variables. Higher levels of humidity mean fewer wildfires. It is hard
for fuel to ignite if moisture levels are high and humidity slows fires down and reduces their
intensity.

Topography can also have a huge influence on how wildfires spread. In contrast to fuel and
weather, topography barely changes over time and can help or hinder the spread of a wildfire.
The principal topographical factor effecting wildfires is slope. Fires move uphill much faster
than downhill, and the steeper the slope, the quicker fires move. This is because fires move in
the same direction as the ambient wind, which generally blows uphill. In addition, the fire can
preheat fuel further uphill as smoke and heat rise in that direction. However, once a fire
reaches the top of a hill, it has to struggle to come back down.

Each year thousands of fire fighters risk their lives when dealing with wildfires. There are
two categories of elite fire fighters: hotshots and smokejumpers. Operating in 20-man units,
the key task of hotshots is to construct firebreaks (a strip of land with all potential fuel
removed) around fires. As their name suggests, smokejumpers jump out of aircraft to reach
smaller fires situated in inaccessible regions. Their aim is to contain these smaller fires before
they turn into bigger ones. As well as constructing firebreaks and putting water and retardant
(a red chemical containing phosphate fertiliser) on fires, fire fighters also create “backfires”
which burn towards the main fire, incinerating any potential fuel in the wildfire’s path. Fire
fighters on the ground also receive extensive support from the planes and helicopters which
drop thousands of gallons of water and retardant to slow and cool fires.

56
Question 1 – 5
Reading Passage 1, Wildfires, has six paragraphs A – F.
From the list of headings below, choose the most suitable one for each parapragh B –
F.
Write the appropriate number (i – ix) in answer boxes 1 – 5.
NB There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will not use them all.

i. The Role of the Elements

ii. Solutions from the Air
iii. Fire Triggers
iv. Wilderness Burning
v. The Lie of the Land
vi. Rain – the Natural Saviour
vii. Feeding the Flames
viii. Fires and Trees
ix. Battling the Blaze

Example Answer
Paragraph A iv
1. Paragraph B
2. Paragraph C
3. Paragraph D
4. Paragraph E
5. Paragraph F

57
Question 6 – 9
Complete the sentences below (question 6 – 9).
Use NO MORE THEN THREE WORDS from Reading Passage 1, Wildfires for
each answer.
6. What is the term for the amount of material that could be lit around a fire?
7. When do wildfires burn at their fiercest?
8. What can travel in the wind to create fires at some distance from the initial fire?
9. What is the name of the additional fires that fire fighters use to control wild fires?

Question 10 – 13
Complete the sentences below (question 10 – 13).
Use NO MORE THEN THREE WORDS from Reading Passage 1, Wildfires for
each answer.
10. The most improtant factor in how quickly a wildfire catches fire is the fuel’s
surface to volume _______________.
11. The most significant weather factor to affect wildfires’action is ______________.
12. Fires on the tops of trees are known as _______________.
13. Wildfires usually travel much faster _______________ because of the typical
direction of prevailing winds.

58
READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 14 – 26, which are based on Reading
Passage 2 below.

The History of Papermaking in the United Kingdom

The first reference to a paper mill in the United Kingdom was in a book printed by Wynken
de Worde in about 1495. This mill belonged to a certain John Tate and was near Hertford.
Other early mills included one in Dartford, owned by Sir John Spielman, who was granted
special privileges for the collection of rags by Queen Elizabeth, and one built in
Buckinghamshire before the end of the sixteenth century. During the first half of the
seventeenth century, mills were established near Edinburgh, at Cannock Chase in
Staffordshire and several in Buckinghamshire, Oxfordshire and Surrey. The Bank of England
has been issuing bank notes since 1694, and ones with simple watermarks* in them since at
least 1697. Henri de Portal was awarded the contract in December 1724 for producing the
Bank of England watermarked bank-note paper at Bere Mill in Hampshire. Portals has
retained this contract ever since but production is no longer at Bere Mill.

There were two major developments around the middle of the eighteenth century in the paper
industry in the UK. The first was the introduction of the rag engine or hollander, invented in
Holland sometime before 1670, which replaced the stamping mills that had previously been
used for the disintegration of the rags and beating of the pulp*. The second was in the design
and construction of the mould used for forming the sheet, solving the problem of early
moulds, which had straight wires sewn down on to the wooden foundation. The early moulds
produced an irregular surface which had characteristic “laid” marks and, when printed on, the
ink did not give clear, sharp lines. James Whatman the Elder developed a revolutionary
woven wire fabric, and produced the first woven paper in 1757.

Increasing demand for paper during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries led to
shortages of the rags needed to produce it. Part of the problem was that no satisfactory
method of bleaching pulp had yet been devised, which meant that only white rags could be
used to produce white paper. Chlorine bleaching was being used by the end of the eighteenth
century, but excessive use produced papers that were of poor quality and deteriorated
quickly. By 1800 up to 24 million pounds of rags were being used annually to produce
10,000 tons of paper in England and Wales, and 1,000 tons in Scotland, the home market
being supplemented by imports, mainly from the continent. In 1765, Jacob Christian Schäffer
had carried out experiments using other materials, such as sawdust, rye straw, cabbage
stumps and spruce wood, and around 1800, Matthias Koops carried out further experiments
using straw and other materials at the Neckinger Mill, Bermondsey, but it was not until the
middle of the nineteenth century that pulp produced from straw or wood was utilised in the
production of paper.

By 1800 there were 430 (564 in 1821) paper mills in England and Wales (mostly single vat
mills), under 50 (74 in 1823) in Scotland and 60 in Ireland, but all the production was by
hand and the output was low. The first attempt at a paper machine to mechanise the process
was patented in 1799 by Frenchman Nicholas Louis Robert, but it was not a success.
However, the drawings were brought to England by John Gamble in 1801 and passed on to
the brothers Henry and Sealy Fourdrinier, who financed the engineer Brian Donkin to build
59
the machine. The first successful machine was installed at Frogmore, Hertfordshire, in 1803.
The paper was pressed onto an endless wire cloth, transferred to a continuous felt blanket and
then pressed again. Finally it was cut off the reel into sheets and loft-dried in the same way as
handmade paper. In 1809 John Dickinson patented a machine that used a wire cloth-covered
cylinder revolving in a pulp suspension, the water being removed through the centre of the
cylinder and the layer of pulp removed from the surface by a felt covered roller (later
replaced by a continuous felt passing round a roller). This machine was the forerunner of and
model for the present-day cylinder mould or vat machine, used mainly for the production of
boards. Both of these machines produced paper as a wet sheet, which required drying after
removal from the machine, but in 1821 T. B. Crompton patented a method of drying the
paper continuously, using a woven fabric to hold the sheet against steam-heated drying
cylinders. After it had been pressed, the paper was cut into sheets by a cutter fixed at the end
of the last cylinder.

By the middle of the nineteenth century the pattern for the mechanised production of paper
had been set. Subsequent developments concentrated on increasing the size and production of
the machines. Similarly, developments in alternative pulps to rags, mainly wood and esparto
grass, enabled production increases. Conversely, by 1884, despite the increase in paper
production, as production was concentrated into fewer, larger units, there was a decrease in
the number of paper mills in England and Wales to 250 and in Ireland to 14 (Scotland
increased to 60). The geographical location of mills also changed. Early mills were small and
had been situated in rural areas, but larger mills were built in or near urban areas, closer to
suppliers of the raw materials (esparto mills were generally situated near a port as the raw
material was brought in by ship) and the paper markets.

60
Question 14 –20
Do the statements (questions 14 - 20) below agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 2, The History of Papermaking in the United Kingdom?

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

14. The printing of paper money in the UK has always been done by the same
company.
15. Early paper-making was at its peak in Holland in the 18th century.
16. 18th century developments in moulds led to the improvement of a flatter, more
even paper.
17. Chlorine bleaching proved the answer to the need for more white paper in the 18th
and 19th centuries.
18. The first mechanised process that had any success still used elements of the hand
made paper-making process.
19. Modern paper-making machines are still based on John Dickinson’s 1809 patent.
20. The development of bigger mills near larger towns was so that mill owners could
take advantage of potential larger workforce’s.

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Question 21 – 26
Look at statements 21 – 26 and the list of people below.
Match each statement with the correct person.
Write the appropriate letters (A – G) of the people in answer boxes 21 – 26.

21. The first circulation of paper currency by the Bank of England.

22. Watermarks first used for paper money.
23. Manufacturer of the first woven paper.
24. The first machine for making paper copyrighted.
25. A new method for drying paper patented.
26. The debut success of a machine for making paper.

A 1803
B 1757
C 1821
D 1697
E 1799
F 1670
G 1694

62
READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 27 – 40, which are based on Reading
Passage 3 below.

PROBLEMS WITH WATER

Nearly half the world’s population will experience critical water shortages by 2025,
according to a report by the United Nations (UN). Wars over access to water are a
rising possibility and the main conflicts in Africa during the next 25 years could be
over this most precious of commodities. “Potential water wars are likely in areas
where rivers and lakes are shared by more than one country,” says Mark Evans, a UN
worker. Evans predicts: “Population growth and economic development will lead to
nearly one in two people in Africa living in countries which face water scarcity or
‘water stress’ within 25 years.” Water scarcity is defined as less than 1,000 cubic
metres of water available per person per year, while water stress means less than 1,500
cubic metres of water per person per year. The UN report says that by 2025, 12 more
African countries will join the 13 that already suffer from water stress or water
scarcity. What makes the water issue even more urgent is that demand for water will
grow increasingly fast as larger areas are used to grow crops. Evans adds: “The strong
possibility that the world is experiencing climate change also adds to this urgency.”
The question of how to deal with water shortages is in the forefront of the battle
between environmental activists on the one hand and governments and construction
firms on the other. At a recent World Summit on Sustainable Development in
Johannesburg, activists mounted a campaign to halt dam construction on
environmental grounds.
One of the UN’s eight millennium development goals is to halve the number of people
without sustainable access to safe drinking water by 2020. This had already been
agreed upon at the summit, but one of the unresolved issues in the implementation
plan was whether the goal on water would be extended to cover sanitation. The risks
posed by water-borne diseases in the absence of sanitation facilities mean that the two
goals are closely related. US negotiators have been resisting the extension of goals to
include sanitation due to the financial commitment this would entail. However, Evans
says the US is about to agree to this extension. This agreement could give the UN a
chance to show that in one key area the world development agenda was advanced in
Johannesburg.
A number of projects and funding initiatives were also unveiled at the summit.
However, implementation is always harder, as South Africa has experienced in its
water programme. Graham Bennetts, a water official in the South African government
explains: “Since the 1994 elections, the government has provided easy access to water
for 7 million people, but extending this to a further 7 million and ensuring this

63
progress is sustainable is one of South Africa’s foremost implementation challenges.”
In South Africa, access to water is defined as 25 litres a person daily that can be
accessed from within a distance of 200 metres from where they live. “Although South
Africa’s feat far exceeds the UN millennium goal on water supply, severe constraints
on local government capacity make a more rapid expansion difficult,” says Bennetts.
However, according to Liane Greef of the Environmental Monitoring Group, for some
people who have only recently been given ready access to water the benefits are short
lived as they are unable to pay for the extra costs for water and the supply is then cut
off. Greef is the programme manager for Water Justice in southern Africa. Those
whose water supply is cut off also automatically forfeit their right to 6,000 free litres
of water for a family a month under South Africa’s “water for all” policy. In the face
of continued increases in unemployment, payment for water and other utilities has the
potential to undo government’s good reputation for water delivery.
The method of ensuring sufficient water supply, and its management, will increasingly
become a political battleground in South Africa. Water Affairs director-general Mike
Muller says South Africa is near the end of its dam-building programme. However,
there are big projects proposed elsewhere in southern Africa that could possibly be
halted by activists who could bring pressure on funding agencies such as the World
Bank.
Greef says her group will campaign against any proposed new dams in southern
Africa. According to Greef, rather than rely on new dam construction, people should
ensure that water is used wisely at all times, not only during dry spells. Another
battleground for her group is over the privatisation of water supply; this, she insists, is
best handled in the public interest by accountable government.
There is increasing hope of advances in technology that will help to deal with water
shortages. Agricultural production takes up about 90 per cent of water consumed for
human purposes, according to the UN. In order to lower agricultural demand for
water, the Sri Lanka-based International Water Management Institute is researching
ways of obtaining “more crop per drop” through the development of drought-resistant
crops, as well as through better water management techniques. One of the institute’s
research sites is the Limpopo River basin. According to the institute’s director-
general, Frank Rijsbereman, rice growers in China use a quarter of the water per ton
of produce compared to those in South Africa. The institute hopes the “green
revolution” in crop productivity will soon be matched by the “blue revolution” in
improving water utilisation in agriculture, a solution that could also help South Africa.

64
Question 27 – 34
Look at statements 27 – 34 and the list of people below.
Match each statement with the correct person.
Write the appropriate initials of the people in answer boxes 27 – 34.

27. This person says water needs to be utilised more prudently by some people.
28. This person claims South Africa has almost completed its plans for building dams.
29. This person says water costs per household have prevented universal access in
South Africa.
30. This person believes the World Summit in Johannesburg will soon have its aims
on hygiene agreed among all participants.
31. This person claims faster development of water supply in South Africa is limited
by the facilities of community administrations.
32. This person states that farmers need to learn how to use water more efficiently.
33. This person believes that letting private companies operate the water supply will
have negative consequences.
34. This person states that a number of different factors contribute to water scarity and
water stress.

MM Mike Muller
FR Frank Rijsbereman
ME Mark Evans
LG Liane Greef
GB Graham Bennetts

65
Question 35 – 40
Do the statements (questions 35 - 40) below agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 3, Problems with Water?

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

35. International disputes over shared natural water sources could lead to people
getting killed.
36. Water stress is a more serious problem than water scarity.
37. Vocal environment activists were arrested at the World Summit.
38. People need sanitation facilities to ensure a clean water supply is sustainable/
39. The World Summit produced many good ideas, but the government of South
Africa has had difficulty putting them into practice.
40. Growing rice in South Africa requires significantly less water than it does in
China.

66
 Practice Test 6
READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 1 – 13, which are based on Reading
Passage 1 below.

The Death of Wild Salmon

Over the last few decades there has been an enormous increase in the number of
salmon farms in countries bordering the North Atlantic. This proliferation is most
marked in two countries famous for their salmon, Norway and Scotland, where
salmon farming has expanded to become a major industry, and as the number of
farmed salmon has exploded, the population of their wild relatives has crashed. The
rivers of these countries, which had such great summer runs of fish every season that
they used to attract thousands of anglers from all over the world, are now in perilous
decline. Recently, Truls Halstensen, a Norwegian fishing writer, wrote that his local
river, the Driva, where he used to be able to catch five or more fish of over 20 pounds
weight in a morning, is now almost totally fishless.

The link between the increase in farmed salmon and the decline in the wild population
is hotly disputed. Environmentalists believe that salmon farming has affected wild
salmon and the marine environment in various ways. Firstly, they claim that mass
escapes of farmed fish present a grave threat to the gene pool of wild salmon stocks.
Escapees breed less successfully than wild salmon, but the young of the escapees,
known as “parr”, breed aggressively and can reproduce four times more successfully
than their wild counterparts. Parr also become sexually active far sooner than wild
salmon and fertilise more eggs. As a result, farmed salmon are genetically changing
wild salmon stocks. Jeremy Read, director of the Atlantic Salmon Trust points out:
“The major problem of interbreeding is that it reduces a population’s fitness and
ability to survive. Native salmon have evolved to meet the circumstances and habitat
of sea and river life. Farm fish are under very different selection pressures in an
artificial habitat. This could leave the world with a North Atlantic salmon which could
not survive in its native conditions.” A massive increase in sea lice in coastal waters is
another problem. Sea lice thrive in salmon farm conditions and their increase in
numbers means that wild salmon and other fish entering waters where there are farms
can fall prey to the lice.

Another difficulty, and one of the most worrying side effects of the salmon farm
industry, is that these farms cannot function without vast quantities of tiny sea
creatures to turn into food pellets to feed their stock. Lars Tennson of the Norwegian

67
Fishermen’s Association complains that “such huge quantities of small fish are caught
by industrial trawlers to be turned into feed for fish farms that wild salmon, and other
species, are deprived of the food sources they rely on.”.

Fish farms are also being blamed for increasing levels of nitrogen in the ocean. Over
the last 2 years there have been 26 effluent leaks involving nitrogen-rich fish
droppings. Naturally occurring algae* feed on this and grow into large toxic blooms*
that kill most other marine life. Even legal chemicals used in farms, such as those used
to combat sea lice*, can unbalance microorganism populations, affecting the other
organisms that feed on them. Kevin Dunnon, director of FEO Scotland, has warned:
“Using inappropriate chemicals and medicines has the potential to do real
environmental damage ... We will prosecute if we find enough proof.”

In spite of the evidence that farming is harming wild fish populations, fish farmers are
adamant that they are not responsible. Nick Jury insists: “Algal blooms and the
decline in fish stocks have occurred naturally for decades because of a wide range of
unrelated and more complex factors.” Jury feels that fish farms are being made the
scapegoat for problems that are actually due to a lack of government control of
fishing.

Overfishing is a major problem that affects all wild fish stocks. A combination of high
trawler catches, net fishing at estuaries, sport fishing and poaching have all led to
stocks of wild salmon diminishing. The UK government likes to think that the roots of
the problem have been addressed through legislation - fishermen, at sea and in
estuaries, have been set quotas and many salmon rivers have been closed to fishing.
Poachers are more difficult to control but their effect is not as marked as that of
professional fishermen. However, environmentalist Angus Kilrie feels that the efforts
have been wasted: “Legislation has merely scratched the surface. Not enough money
has been forthcoming to compensate fishermen and the allowances have been set too
high.”

The fate of wild Atlantic salmon is anybody’s guess. Farmers and governments seem
unworried, environmentalists fear the worst. Wild Scottish salmon stocks have
actually gone up this year, a success which the UK’s fisheries department attributes to
their policies. Paul Knight, Director of the Salmon and Trout Fishing Association has
stated that he is “delighted with the upturn in numbers this year”. Nevertheless, he
adds the warning “there are still significant threats to salmon stocks and it is important
not to take our eye off the ball”. Even if this year's positive result is replicated, it is

68
essential that all the issues that affect the health of wild north Atlantic salmon
continue to be addressed in order to protect the viability of future stocks.

Question 1 – 7
Look at statements 1 – 7 and the list of people below.
Match each statement with the correct person.
Write the appropriate initials of the people in answer boxes 1 – 7.

1. Says farming cannot be blamed for wild salmon stock collapse.

2. Claims salmon farms deplete supplies of food eaten by wild fish.
3. Says that efforts must be maintained to protect salmon.
4. Gives an example of declining fish stock from his local area.
5. States that measures taken to stop overfishing are not adequate.
6. Says salmon might soon be incapable of living in their natural habitat.
7. Threatens legal action against farms that misuse chemicals.

JR Jeremy Read
PK Paul Knight
AK Angus Kilrie
TH Truls Halstensen
KD Kevin Dunnon
NJ Nick Jury
LT Lars Tennson

69
Questions 8 – 13
Complete the sentences below (question 8 – 13).
Use NO MORE THEN THREE WORDS from Reading Passage 1, The Death of the
Wild Salmon for each answer.
8. Large number of salmon used to return from the sea to _____________ in Norway
and Scotland every summer.
9. The _____________ of farmed salmon reproduce in larger numbers and more
effectively than their wild equivalent.
10. Fishing by _____________ has led to a huge reduction in the numbers of smaller
fish, which other larger fish use as food.
11. Waste matter from fish farms contains high levels of _____________, which leads
to an increase in algae in the sea.
12. The British government has tried to control fishing at sea and at river mouths by
allocating specific _____________ for fishermen.
13. While _____________ are very pessitimistic regarding the Atlantic salmons’
future, farmers and governments seem unconcerned.

70
READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 14 – 24, which are based on Reading
Passage 2 below.

The Can - A Brief History Lesson

The story of the can begins in 1795 when Nicholas Appert, a Parisian, had an idea: why not
pack food in bottles like wine? Fifteen years later, after researching and testing his idea, he
published his theory: if food is sufficiently heated and sealed in an airtight container, it will
not spoil. In 1810 Peter Durand, an Englishman, wanted to surpass Appert’s invention, so he
elected to try tin instead of glass. Like glass, tin could be sealed airtight, but tin was not
breakable and was much easier to handle. Durand himself did no canning, but two other
Englishmen, Bryan Donkin and John Hall, used Durand’s patent. After experimenting for
more than a year, they set up the world’s first commercial canning factory in London in 1812,
and by 1814 they were sending tins of food to British army and navy authorities for trial.

Perhaps the greatest encouragement to the newborn canning industry was the explosion in the
number of new colonial territories. As people and goods were being transported to all parts of
the world, the can industry itself was growing in new territories. Englishmen who emigrated
to America took their newfound knowledge with them. One such man was Thomas Kensett,
who might fairly be called the father of the can manufacturing industry in the United States.
In 1813 he set up a small plant on the New York waterfront to can the first hermetically
sealed* products in the United States.

Just before the Civil War, a technical advance by canners enabled them to speed up
production. Adding calcium chloride to the water in which cans were cooked raised the water
temperature, so speeding up the canning process. For almost 100 years, tin cans were made
by artisans by hand. It was a laborious process, requiring considerable skill and muscle. As
the industrial revolution took hold in the United States, the demand for cans increased and
machines began to replace the artisans’ handiwork. A good artisan could make only 10 cans a
day. True production progress in can making began in 1922, when American engineers
perfected the body-making process, and soon production increased to as many as 250 cans a
minute.

As early as 1940, can manufacturers began to explore the possibility of adapting cans to
package carbonated soft drinks. The can had to be strengthened to accommodate higher
internal pressures created by carbonation (especially during warm summer months), which
meant increasing the thickness of the metal used in the can ends. Another concern for the new

71
beverage can was its shelf life. Even small amounts of dissolved tin or iron from the can
could impair the drinks. In addition, the carbonic, citric and phosphoric acids in soft drinks
presented a risk for the rapid corrosion of exposed tin and iron in the can. To counter this, the
can was upgraded by improving the organic coatings used to line them. Can manufacturers
then embarked on a programme of material and cost savings, reducing both the amounts of
steel and coating used in can making. These efforts were in part inspired by a new competitor
- aluminium.

Beverage cans made of aluminium were introduced in 1965. This was an exciting innovation
for the packaging industry because the aluminium can was made with only two pieces - a
body and an end. This made production easier. Some of the reasons for the aluminium can’s
acceptance were its ductility*, its support of carbonation pressure, its lighter weight and the
fact that aluminium does not rust. Both steel and aluminium cans used an easy-open end tab,
but the aluminium tab was much easier to make. Perhaps the most critical element in the
aluminium can’s market success was its recycling value. Aluminium can recycling excelled
economically in the competition with steel cans due to the efficiencies that could be gained
by using recycled materials to make new cans.

Prior to 1970, can makers, customers and consumers alike were unaware of the impact that
the mining and manufacturing of steel or aluminium had on the environment. The concept of
natural resource preservation was not an issue of great importance and the low growth of
population during these early years further de-emphasised concerns for resource depletion.
Both industries, however, came to realise the importance of reducing their impact on the
environment in the late 1960s and early 1970s as a new, environmentally conscious
generation emerged. Manufacturers began to recognise the economics of recycling, namely
lower manufacturing costs from using less material and less energy. By the 1980s and 1990s,
recycling had become a way of life. Aluminium can recycling has become a billion-dollar
business and one of the world’s most successful environmental enterprises. Over the years,
the aluminium can has come to be known as America’s most recyclable package, with over
60 per cent of cans being recycled annually.

Advances in can manufacturing technology have also brought us lighter aluminium cans. In
1972, 1 pound of aluminium yielded only 21.75 cans. Today, by using less material to make
each can, 1 pound of aluminium makes approximately 32 cans - a 47 per cent improvement.
Just the lightening of can ends makes a huge difference. When you multiply the savings by
the 100 billion cans that are made each year, the weight and cost reductions are phenomenal.

72
Question 14 – 19
Reading Passage 2, The Can - A Brief History Lesson, has seven paragraphs A – G.
From the list of headings below, choose the most suitable one for each parapragh B –
G.
Write the appropriate number (i – ix) in answer boxes 14 – 19.
NB There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will not use them all.

i. A Useful New Material

ii. Technological Breakthroughs
iii. Canning and the Beer Industry
iv. The Invention
v. Canning and War
vi. Further Manufacturing Advances
vii. Problems with Spoiled Contents
viii. Expansion of the Industry
ix. Today’s Uses for Canning
x. Drinking Canning
xi. Cans and the Environment

Example Answer
Paragraph A iv
14. Paragraph B
15. Paragraph C
16. Paragraph D
17. Paragraph E
18. Paragraph F
19. Paragraph G

73
Question 20 – 24
Look at statements 20 – 24 and the list of people below.
Match each statement with the correct person.
Write the appropriate letters (A – F) of the people in answer boxes 20 – 24.
NB Some letters are extra.

20. Today’s canning material was first introduced.

21. The first US canning factory was opened.
22. The first business canning factory was opened.
23. Manufacturers first explored the canning of fizzy drinks.
24. Mass production techniques revolutionized the canning process.

YEARS
A 1810
B 1812
C 1813
D 1922
E 1940
F 1965

Question 25 – 26
Do the statements (questions 25 - 26) below agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 2, The Can - A Brief History Lesson?
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage
25. The introduction of aluminum recycling was fuelled by changes in society.
26. Aluminum can production costs have fallen by nearly 50 per cent over the last 40
years.

74
READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 27 – 40, which are based on Reading
Passage 3 below.

Our Shortening Attention Spans

Modern media usage, especially of the internet, has left some people with short
attention spans. Martin Farrow of the London-based Mind Institute comments that:
“… the addictive nature of web browsing can leave people with an attention span of 9
seconds. Our attention span is affected by the way we do things. We have proved that
if people spend their time flitting from one thing to another on the web, they can get
into a habit of not concentrating fully.”

Near the medulla oblongata* in the brain is the reticular activating system (RAS),
which is something like a filter between the conscious and subconscious. It is involved
in primitive functions like the ability to be awake or asleep, and the ability to direct
attention towards certain stimuli. “The job of the RAS is to filter and screen all
incoming stimuli and decide which stimuli should merit the attention of the
conscious,” writes psychologist Dr Greg Steyn. “There is a hierarchy that determines
what our brains pay attention to. Physical needs come first, but after that our brains
tend to gravitate toward novel experiences. I feel that our shortened attention spans
can be blamed on the heightened pace at which we encounter these novel experiences
in today’s world.”

The sociologist, Dr Peter Alcock, has explained how the surrounding society works
upon a child’s brain. “At one time a young child could master or learn his
surroundings and they remained relatively unchanged. Even the world outside the
home had relatively limited novelty to offer after the first few years of one’s life. This
allowed the RAS and attention to be drawn to other things, primarily self-made
choices and more complex types of thinking and learning of abstract concepts. It
seems that today, television, the internet, and other external stimuli have trained
people’s minds to perceive and interpret quickly and be ready to accept the next
presentation. That’s why people have trouble reading long articles. People’s brains are
ready to jump to the next stimulus before they’ve fully absorbed the first.”

This change in people’s habits has been commented on by media specialist, Jonathon
Newell. “The unrestricted nature of the internet is a major cause of shortened attention
spans. Because anyone can and does put information on the web, the amount of bad
content has increased considerably. This includes people just trying to make money,
75
people without certifications and people who don’t know how to make good content.
We skim because there’s so much rubbish out there.”
For some people, however, a short attention span is sometimes innate and is also a
much greater problem than just not being able to concentrate on something. This issue
needs far more serious thought than it is given today.

One of the common causes of a short attention span in children and some adults is a
developmental problem known as attention deficit disorder (ADD). It is characterised
by an impaired ability to learn, to listen, to wait for one’s turn or to complete a task.
Many people are quick to blame parenting, but Daniel White, an education lecturer,
counters this. “While ADD may be a reaction to a disorderly home environment, it is
normally not a condition that is caused by improper parenting. These symptoms are
often natural in children under 4 years of age, but they are a major cause for concern if
they continue beyond that.”

As ADD is a developmental problem, it can be handled if parents and teachers look

upon it as a behavioural problem and adopt disciplinary techniques to manage it. Child
behaviour counsellor Karen Cook explains that this approach is not always followed.
“Unfortunately, medical specialists are more prone to highlighting physical causes,
and as ADD is mostly caused by genetic disposition, this is not helpful. This leads to a
heavy dependence on pharmaceuticals and thus the behavioural aspect of managing
ADD is lost in many cases.”

Cook also comments on today’s focus on electronic appliances. “The effect of our
fascination with the latest electronic gadgetry goes far deeper than we would like to
believe. The same goes for the meaningless and plotless movies being dished out
under the guise of public demand. Add to that the obsession with using cell phones
and it is not difficult to understand why attention spans are shortening.”

The child psychiatrist, Dr Anna Wren, agrees that approaches to ADD children should
be governed by behavioural methods. “If a child is born with a hereditary short
attention span and inability to focus, parents and teachers should provide help by
putting into place external controls. To set an example for our children, we can at least
demand more meaningful content, control obsessions with gadgets and involve
ourselves in more outdoor activities.”

76
In conclusion, it seems that people’s capacities to communicate and understand have
been seriously hampered. Dr Peter Alcock states that there is no magic bullet, but
summarises what can be done. “The best way to learn and improve one’s attention
span is to keep an open mind, gather as much information as you can, and then try to
analyse it critically.”

77
Question 27 – 34
Look at statements 27 – 34 and the list of people below.
Match each statement with the correct person.
Write the appropriate initials of the people in answer boxes 27 – 34.

27. The way society has evolved prevents children’s minds from developing more
sophisticated thinking skills.
28. Spending too much time inside can have a negative influence on children with
ADD.
29. It should not be considered a problem if very young children exhibit signs of
ADD.
30. Researchers have established that there is a common connection between web
surfing and shorter attention spans.
31. We have to speed-read in order to judge if a text is worth reading in depth.
32. We need to change the way ADD is managed.
33. The change in pace in our experiences has meant our brains act in a different way.
34. There is no wat to quickly return to previous levels of attention.

MF Martin Farrow
GS Dr Greg Steyn
PA Dr Peter Alcock
JN Jonathon Newell
DW Daniel White
KC Karen Cook
AW Dr Anna Wren

78
Question 35 – 40
Complete each sentences with the correct ending.
Choose the appropriate letter A - J, and write them in the boxes 35 - 40 on your
answer sheet.
35. Frequent exposure to external stimuli means that people experience something
then…
36. Being exposure to poor online content means people are less likely to…
37. People with ADD find it hard to…
38. Misunderstanding the causes of ADD can…
39. Children with ADD can be helped by adults who…
40. Being curious, acquiring knowledge and thinking analytically all help to…

A …limit their own use of electronic devices.

B …limit communication.
C …lead to ineffective treatment.
D …finish something that they have begun.
E …cause problems due to accidents soon after birth.
F …develop a person’s attention span.
G …want something new.
H …read in detail because it may not be worthwhile
I …set up educational establishments that offer this service.
J …watch bad movies.

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 Practice Test 7
READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 1 – 14, which are based on Reading
Passage 1 below.

The Ozone Hole

A
The earth’s atmosphere is composed of several layers. We live in the troposphere,
from ground level up to about 10 kilometres high, where most of the weather occurs,
such as rain, snow and clouds. Supersonic passenger jets fly just above the
troposphere, whereas subsonic commercial airliners usually operate well within it.
Above that is the stratosphere, an important region in which effects such as the ozone
hole and global warming originate. After that are two more layers, known as the
mesosphere and the thermosphere, then the final layer next to space is known as the
exosphere.

B
Ozone is a bluish gas that occurs naturally in the atmosphere, with nearly 90 per cent
of it in the stratosphere, constituting what is referred to as the ozone layer. It is created
when ultraviolet radiation in the form of sunlight strikes the stratosphere, splitting
oxygen molecules to form atomic oxygen. The atomic oxygen quickly combines with
further oxygen molecules to form ozone. Although ozone is harmful if breathed in, it
has the beneficial effect of absorbing a band of ultraviolet radiation called UVB.
Laboratory and epidemiological studies demonstrate that UVB causes non-melanoma
skin cancer and plays a major role in malignant melanoma development. In addition,
UVB has been linked to cataracts.

C
Ozone forms a layer in the stratosphere, thinnest in the tropics and denser towards the
poles. The amount of ozone above a point on the earth’s surface is measured in
Dobson units (DU) - typically ~260 DU near the tropics and higher elsewhere, though
there are large seasonal fluctuations. It is created when ultraviolet radiation in the
form of sunlight strikes the stratosphere, splitting oxygen molecules to form atomic
oxygen. The atomic oxygen quickly combines with further oxygen molecules to form
ozone.

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D
Dramatic loss of ozone in the lower stratosphere over Antarctica was first noticed in
the 1970s by a research group from the British Antarctic Survey (BAS) who were
monitoring the atmosphere above Antarctica from a research station. Folklore has it
that when the first measurements were taken in 1975, the drop in ozone levels in the
stratosphere was so dramatic that at first the scientists thought their instruments were
faulty. Replacement instruments were built and flown out and it was not until several
months later, when they confirmed the earlier measurements, that the ozone depletion
observed was accepted as genuine. Another story goes that the BAS satellite data did
not show the dramatic loss of ozone because the software processing the raw ozone
data from the satellite was programmed to treat very low values of ozone as bad
readings. Later analysis of the raw data, when the results from the British Antarctic
Survey team were published, confirmed the results and showed that the loss was rapid
and large scale over most of the continent of Antarctica.

E
In the popular press the ozone hole is often confused with the problem of global
warming. Whilst there is a connection because ozone contributes to the greenhouse
effect, the ozone hole is a separate issue. Over Antarctica (and recently over the
Arctic), stratospheric ozone has been depleted in the last 15 years at certain times of
the year. This is mainly due to the release of man-made chemicals containing chlorine
such as CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), but also compounds containing bromine, other
related halogen compounds and nitrogen oxides. CFCs are a common industrial
product, used in refrigeration systems, air conditioners, aerosols, solvents and in the
production of some types of packaging. Nitrogen oxides are a by-product of
combustion processes, for example aircraft emissions.

F
The ozone depletion process begins when CFCs and other ozone depleting substances
are emitted into the atmosphere where winds efficiently mix and evenly distribute the
gases. CFCs are extremely stable and they do not dissolve in rain. After a period of
several years, natural gases in the stratosphere combine with CFCs and this releases
chlorine atoms, halons and methyl bromide. These in turn all release bromine atoms,
and it is these atoms that actually destroy ozone. It is estimated that one chlorine atom
can destroy over 100,000 ozone molecules before it is removed from the stratosphere.

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G
The first global agreement to restrict CFCs came with the signing of the Montreal
Protocol in 1987, ultimately aiming to reduce them by half by the year 2000. Two
revisions of this agreement were made in the light of advances in scientific
understanding. Agreement has now been reached on the control of industrial
production of many halocarbons until the year 2030. The main CFCs should not have
been produced by any of the signatories after the end of 1995, except for a limited
amount for essential uses, such as for medical sprays. The countries of the European
Union have adopted even stricter measures. Recognising their responsibility to the
global environment, they agreed to halt production of the main CFCs from the
beginning of 1995. It was anticipated that these limitations would lead to a recovery of
the ozone layer by 2050. The World Meteorological Organisation estimated 2045, but
recent investigations suggest the problem is perhaps on a much larger scale than
anticipated. On a positive note, it is also generally agreed that, in the end, all countries
will consent to joining the worldwide treaties and stop all CFC gas discharge.

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Question 1 – 6
Reading Passage 1, The Ozone Hole, has seven paragraphs A – G.
From the list of headings below, choose the most suitable one for each parapragh B –
G.
Write the appropriate number (i – ix) in answer boxes 1 – 6.
NB There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will not use them all.

i. The Destruction Process

ii. How Is Ozone Formed?
iii. How Technology Can Help
iv. What surrounds the Earth?
v. What Is Being Done?
vi. Artificial Emissions
vii. A Useful Gas
viii. A Problem is Discovered
ix. Variations in Density

Example Answer
Paragraph A iv
1. Paragraph B
2. Paragraph C
3. Paragraph D
4. Paragraph E
5. Paragraph F
6. Paragraph G

83
Question 7 – 12
Complete each sentences with the correct ending.
Choose the appropriate letter A - H, and write them in the boxes 7 - 12 on your
answer sheet.
7. The thickness of the Ozone layer varies with…
8. An apocryphal BAS story claimed that equipment was changed to measure…
9. It is a common mistake to associate the Ozone Hole problem with…
10. Common household appliances contribute to…
11. The Ozone layer is destroyed when CFCs react with…
12. International agreements will eventually lead to…

A … the location of the layer relative to the earth.

B … the discharge of synthetic chemicals into the atmosphere.
C … the satellite orbiting the earth.
D … the normal components of the earth’s atmosphere.
E … the apparently anomalous readings taken earlier.
F … the issue of the heating up of the earth’s atmosphere.
G … recent investigations into the strength of Dobson Units.
H … the cessation of the release of most CFC gases into the atmosphere

Questions 13 – 14
Complete the sentences below (question 13 – 14).
Use NO MORE THEN THREE WORDS from Reading Passage 1, The Ozone Hole
for each answer.
13. In addition to CFCs, __________________ cause ozone depletion as they contain
nitrogen oxides.
14. CFCs spread through the atmosphere with the help of __________________.

84
READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 15 – 27, which are based on Reading
Passage 2 below.

The Canals of De Lesseps

Two of the most spectacular engineering feats of the last 200 years were of the same
type, though thousands of miles apart. They were the construction of the Suez and
Panama canals. The Panama Canal joins the Pacific and Atlantic oceans while the
Suez joins the Red Sea (Indian Ocean) and the Mediterranean (Atlantic Ocean). Both
offer ships huge savings in time and mileage. For example, a 9-hour trip on the
Panama Canal would save a total of 18,000 miles on a trip from New York to San
Francisco. Amazingly enough the same French engineer, Ferdinand de Lesseps,
played a major part in the construction of both.

The history of the Panama Canal goes back to the sixteenth century, with a survey of
the isthmus and a working plan for a canal ordered by the Spanish government in
1529. In the eighteenth century various companies tried and failed to construct the
canal, but it wasn’t until 1880 that a French company, organised by Ferdinand Marie
de Lesseps, proposed a sea-level canal through Panama. He believed that if a sea-level
canal worked when constructing the Suez Canal, it had to work for the Panama Canal.
Finally, the Panama Canal was constructed in two stages. The first between 1881 and
1888, the work being carried out by the French company headed by de Lesseps, and
secondly, the work by the Americans, which eventually completed the canal’s
construction between 1904 and 1914. The French company ran out of money and an
attempt was unsuccessful to raise funds by applying to the French government to issue
lottery bonds, which had been successful during the construction of the Suez Canal
when that project was at the point of failure through lack of money. The French
problems stemmed from their inability to create a viable solution to the differences in
tidal changes in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. There is a tidal range of 20 feet at the
Pacific, whereas the Atlantic range is only about 1 foot. The Americans proposed that
a tidal lock should be constructed at Panama, which solved the problem and reduced
excavation by an enormous amount. When construction was finally completed, the
canal ran through various locks and four dams, and ran the lengths of two naturally
occurring lakes, the 32-mile Gatun Lake and the 5-mile Miraflores Lake.

When the US took on finishing the canal, they and the new state of Panama signed the
Hay-Bunau-Varilla treaty, by which the United States guaranteed the independence of
Panama and secured a perpetual lease on a 10-mile strip for the canal. Panama was to
be compensated by an initial payment of $10 million and an annuity of $250,000,
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beginning in 1913. On 31 December 1999 the United States transferred the 51-mile
Panama Canal and the income back to the Panamanian government.

The idea of a canal linking the Mediterranean to the Red Sea also dates back to
ancient times. Unlike the modern canal, earlier ones linked the Red Sea to the Nile,
therefore forcing the ships to sail along the river on their journey from Europe to
India. It consisted of two parts: the first linking the Gulf of Suez to the Great Bitter
Lake, and the second connecting the Lake to one of the branches in the Nile Delta that
runs into the Mediterranean. The canal remained in good condition during the
Ptolemaic era, but fell into disrepair afterwards and was completely abandoned upon
the discovery of the trade route around Africa.

It was Napoleon’s engineers who, around 1800 AD, revived the idea of a shorter trade
route to India via a Suez canal. However, the calculation carried out by the French
engineers showed a difference in level of 10 meters between both seas. If constructed
under such circumstances, a large land area would be flooded. Later the digging of the
canal was undertaken by Ferdinand de Lesseps, who showed the previous French sea
height estimates to be incorrect and that locks or dams were not needed.

In 1859, Egyptian workers started on the construction of the canal, in conditions

described by historians as slave labour, and the project was completed around 1867.
The canal is 163 kilometres long and has a width of a minimum of 60 metres. The
canal cuts through three lakes: Lake Manzala in the north, Lake Timsah in the middle
and the Great Bitter Lake further south. The largest, the Great Bitter Lake makes up
almost 30 kilometres of the total length. The canal is extensively used by modern
ships as it is the fastest crossing from the Atlantic Ocean to the Indian Ocean.

In July 1956 the Egyptian president Nasser announced the nationalisation of the canal
in response to the British, French and American refusal for a loan aimed at building
the Aswan High Dam on the Nile. The revenue from the canal, he argued, would help
finance the High Dam project. Since then the Egyptians have controlled the canal.
Today, approximately 50 ships cross the canal daily and the cities and beaches along
the Great Bitter Lake and the canal serve as a summer resort for tourists.

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Question 15 – 22
Look at statements 15 – 22 and the list of alternatives below.
Match each statement with the correct alternatives.
Write the appropriate letters (A – D) in answer boxes 15 – 22.
15. Thе surface оf thе whоlе canal іѕ аt sea level.
16. Thе canal’s construction hаd financial problems.
17. Dams hаd tо bе built tо construct thе canal.
18. Thе canal generates money fоr thе country іt passes through.
19. Previous labour conditions оf construction workers аt thе canal hаvе bееn
criticised.
20. Thе canal’s construction wаѕ held uр bу war.
21. Thе canal іѕ аlѕо а holiday destination.
22. Ovеr hаlf thе canal іѕ wіthіn а single lake.

A The statement refers to thе Panama Canal.

B The statement refers to Suez Canal.
C The statement refers to bоth thе Panama Canal аnd thе Suez Canal.
D The statement refers to nеіthеr thе Panama Canal аnd thе Suez Canal.

87
Question 23 – 27
Do the statements (questions 23 - 27) below agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 2, The Canals of De Lesseps?

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

23. De Lessep’s Suez Canal construction theories wеrе equally successful іn thе
building оf thе Panama Canal аѕ thеу wеrе іn building thе Suez Canal.
24. Thе decision tо uѕе locks іn thе Panama Canal аlѕо saved time dоіng оthеr
activities.
25. Thе US wеrе nоt happy аbоut returning thе control оf thе Panama Canal tо
Panama.
26. Thе current Suez Canal іѕ thе ѕесоnd canal thаt hаѕ joined thе Red Sea tо thе
Mediterranean.
27. Thе British government refused tо give assistance іn constructing thе Suez Canal.

88
READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 28 – 40, which are based on Reading
Passage 3 below.

Olive Oil Production

Olive oil has been one of the staples of the Mediterranean diet for thousands of years
and its popularity is growing rapidly in other parts of the world. It is one of the most
versatile oils for cooking and it enhances the taste of many foods. Olive oil is the only
type of vegetable / fruit oil that can be obtained just from pressing. Most other types
of popular oils (corn, canola etc.) must be processed in other ways to obtain the oil.
Another important bonus is that olive oil has proven health benefits. Three basic
grades of olive oil are most often available to the consumer: extra virgin, virgin and
olive oil. In addition to the basic grades, olive oil differs from one country or region to
another because of the types of olives that are grown, the harvesting methods, the time
of the harvest and the pressing techniques. These factors all contribute to the
individual characteristics of the olive oil.

Olive trees must be properly cared for in order to achieve good economic yields. Care
includes regular irrigation, pruning, fertilising and killing pests. The trees will survive
on very poor sites with shallow soils but will grow very slowly and yield poorly. Deep
soils tend to produce excessively vigorous trees, also with lower yields. The ideal site
for olive oil production is a clay loam soil with good internal and surface drainage.
Irrigation is necessary to produce heavy crops and to avoid the trees bearing fruit only
in alternate years. The site must be free of hard winter frosts because wood damage
will occur at temperatures below 15 degrees Fahrenheit and a lengthy spell of freezing
weather can ruin any chances for a decent crop. The growing season must also be
warm enough for the fruit to mature before even light frosts fall (usually by early
November) because of potential damage to the fruit and oil quality. Fortunately olive
trees are very hardy in hot summer temperatures and they are drought tolerant.

The best olive oils hold a certificate from an independent organisation that
authenticates the stone ground and cold pressed extraction process. In this process,
olives are first harvested by hand at the proper stage of ripeness and maturity. Experts
feel that hand harvesting, as opposed to mechanical harvesting, eliminates bruising of
the fruit, which causes tartness and oil acidity. The harvested olives are transferred
daily to the mill. This is very important because this daily transfer minimises the time
spent between picking and pressing. Some olive oil producers are known to transfer
the olives by multi-ton trucks over long distances, thus exposing the fragile fruit to
crushing weight and the hot sun. This practice causes the olives to begin oxidising and
89
so become acidic. In addition to the time lapse between harvesting and pressing, in
order to be considered virgin or extra virgin, the oil must be obtained using
mechanical processes only. If heat and / or chemical processes are used to produce the
olive oil or if the time lapse is too long, it cannot be called virgin or extra virgin.

Once at the mill, the leaves are sucked away with air fans and the olives are washed
with circulating potable water to remove all impurities. The first step of extraction is
mashing the olives to create a paste. The oil, comprising 20 - 30 per cent of the olive,
is nestled in pockets within the fruit’s cells. The olives are crushed in a mill with two
granite millstones rolling within a metal basin. Crushing and mixing the olives
releases the oil from the cells of the olive without heating the paste. A side shutter on
the mill’s basin allows the mixed olive paste to be discharged and applied to round
mats. The mats are stacked and placed under a hydraulic press frame that applies
downward pressure and extracts the oil. Oil and water filter through the mats to a
collection tank below. The water and oil are then separated in a centrifuge. The first
pressing yields the highest quality oil, and the second and third pressings produce
inferior quality oil. Some single estate producers collect only the oil that results from
the initial crushing while many other producers use additional pressings to extract
more oil. Regardless of the method used for the first pressing, the temperature of the
oil during production is extremely important in order to maintain the distinct
characteristics of the oil. If the temperature of the oil climbs above 86 degrees
Fahrenheit, it will be damaged and cannot be considered cold pressed.

The first pressing oil contains the most “polyphenols”, substances that have been
found to be powerful antioxidants capable of protecting against certain types of
disease. The polyphenols are not the only substances in the olive with health-
promoting effects, but they are quite unique when compared to other commonly used
culinary oils such as sunflower and soy. It is these polyphenols that really set extra
virgin olive oils apart from any other oil and any other form of olive oil. The more
refined the olive oil is, the smaller the quantity of polyphenols.

The result of the producers’ efforts is a cold-pressed extra virgin olive oil with high-
quality standards and organoleptic characteristics, which give the oil its health-
protective and aromatic properties.

90
Question 28 – 31
Complete each sentence with the correct ending.
Choose from the list, A – D, below.
Write the approriate letters, A – D, in answer boxes 28 – 31.
28. Ассоrding tо the text, whiсh оf the following does NОT аffeсt the individuаl
features оf оlive oils from different regions?
A Рiсking teсhniques
B The date of the рiсking
C Оlive vаrieties
D Ассess tо wаter
29. Ассоrding tо the text, what is the optimum planting location for olive trees?
A Shallow oil
B Deep soils
C Clay loam soils
D Any soil
30. Ассоrding tо the text, what is the main danger of frost?
A It kills the оlive trees
B The fruit wоn’t mature
C The standard of fruit can be affected
D The olives produced will be small in size
31. Ассоrding tо the text, whiсh оf the following does NОT affect the “extrа virgin”
оlive оil сertifiсаtiоn?
A The temрerаture оf the extrасtiоn рrосess
B The time gар between tree аnd bоttle
C The method used to obtain the olive oil
D Using wаter in the extrасtiоn рrосess

91
Question 32 – 34
Do the statements (questions 32 - 34) below agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 3, Olive Oil Production?

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

32. Olive trees need a regular supply of water to survive.

33. Damage to olives before they are pressed can affect the taste of the oil.
34. No other cooking oils apart from olive oil contain polyphenols.

92
Questions 35 – 40
Complete the flow chart below using words from Reading Passage 3, Olive Oil
Production.
Write NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the text in each answer box, 35 – 40.

93
 Practice Test 8
READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 1 – 14, which are based on Reading
Passage 1 below.

Malaria

Approximately 300 million people worldwide are affected by malaria and between 1
and 1.5 million people die from it every year. This infectious disease, which was
previously widespread, is now mainly confined to Africa, Asia and Latin America.
The problem of controlling malaria in these countries can be further aggravated if
there are inadequate health structures and poor socioeconomic conditions. The
situation has become even more complex over the last few years with an increase in
resistance to the drugs normally used to combat the disease.

Malaria is caused by protozoan* parasites* of the genus Plasmodium. Four species

of Plasmodium can produce the disease in its various forms: Plasmodium
falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium ovale and Plasmodium
malaria. Plasmodium falciparum is the most widespread and dangerous of the four:
left untreated it can lead to fatal cerebral malaria. Malaria parasites are transmitted
from one person to another by the female anopheline mosquito. The males do not
transmit the disease as they feed only on plant juices. There are about 380 species of
anopheline mosquito, but only 60 or so are able to transmit the parasite. Their
sensitivity to insecticides is also highly variable.

Plasmodium develops in the gut of the mosquito and is passed on in the saliva of an
infected insect each time it takes a new blood meal. The parasites are then carried by
the blood into the victim’s liver where they invade the cells and multiply. After 9 to
16 days they return to the blood and penetrate the red cells where they multiply again,
progressively breaking down the red cells. This induces bouts of fever and anaemia in
the infected individual. In the case of cerebral malaria, the infected red cells obstruct
the blood vessels in the brain. Other vital organs can also be damaged, often leading to
the death of the patient.

94
D

Malaria is diagnosed by the clinical symptoms and microscopic examination of the

blood. It can normally be cured by anti-malarial drugs. The symptoms - fever,
shivering, pain in the joints and headache - quickly disappear once the parasite is
killed. In certain regions, however, the parasites have developed resistance to certain
anti-malarial drugs, particularly chloroquine. Patients in these areas require treatment
with other more expensive drugs. In endemic* regions where transmission rates are
high, people are continually infected so that they gradually develop immunity to the
disease. Children are very vulnerable until they have acquired such immunity.
Pregnant women are also highly susceptible since the natural defence mechanisms are
reduced during pregnancy.

Malaria has been known since time immemorial, but it was centuries before the true
causes were understood. Surprisingly in view of this, some ancient treatments were
remarkably effective. An infusion of qinghao containing artemisinin has been used for
at least the last 2,000 years in China and the antifebrile* properties of the bitter bark
of Cinchona ledgeriana were known to medical professionals in Peru before the
fifteenth century. Quinine, the active ingredient of this potion, was first isolated by
pharmacists in 1820. Although people were unaware of the origin of malaria and the
mode of transmission, protective measures against the mosquito have been used for
many hundreds of years. There are records that those living in swampy regions in
Egypt slept in tower-like structures out of the reach of mosquitoes, whereas others
slept under nets as early as 450 BC.

Malaria has social consequences and is a heavy burden on economic development. It

is estimated that a single bout of malaria costs a sum equivalent to over 10 working
days in Africa. The cost of treatment is between $US0.08 and $US5.30 according to
the type of drugs prescribed as determined by local drug resistance. In 1987 the total
cost of malaria - health care, treatment, lost production etc. - was estimated to be
$US800 million for tropical Africa and this figure is currently estimated to be more
than $US5 billion.

The significance of malaria as a health problem is increasing in many parts of the

world. Epidemics are even occurring around traditionally endemic zones in areas
where transmission had been eliminated. These outbreaks are generally associated
with deteriorating social and economic conditions, and the main victims are

95
underprivileged rural populations. Economic and political pressures compel entire
populations to leave malaria-free areas and move into endemic zones. People who are
non-immune are at high risk of severe disease. Unfortunately, these population
movements and the intensive urbanisation are not always accompanied by adequate
development of sanitation and health care. In many areas of conflict, economic crises
and administrative disorganisation can result in the disruption of health services. The
absence of adequate health services frequently results in recourse to self-
administration of drugs, often with incomplete treatment. This is a major factor in the
increase in resistance of the parasites to previously effective drugs.

The hope of global eradication of malaria was finally abandoned in 1969 when it was
recognised that this was unlikely ever to be achieved. Ongoing control programmes
remain essential in endemic areas. In all situations, control programmes should be
based on half a dozen objectives: provision of early diagnosis; prompt treatment to all
people at risk; selective application of sustainable preventive measures; vector control
adapted to the local situations; the development of reliable information on infection
risk; assessment of living conditions of concerned populations. Malaria is a complex
disease but it is curable and preventable.

96
Question 1 – 7
Reading Passage 1, Malaria, has eight paragraphs A – H.
From the list of headings below, choose the most suitable one for each parapragh B –
H.
Write the appropriate number (i – xi) in answer boxes 1 – 7.
NB There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will not use them all.

i. Old Remedies
ii. Fatality Rates
iii. Shifting Demographics Causes Further Problems
iv. The Current Situation
v. The Bug and Its Carrier
vi. Total Elimination of Malaria
vii. Tackling Malaria Today
viii. Transmission to Humans and EffectsA Problem is Discovered
ix. Local African Medicine
x. Malaria Effects on the Community
xi. Identification

Example Answer
Paragraph A iv
1. Paragraph B
2. Paragraph C
3. Paragraph D
4. Paragraph E
5. Paragraph F
6. Paragraph G
7. Paragraph H

97
Question 8 – 10
Do the statements (questions 8 - 10) below agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 1, Malaria?

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

8. Children are always under great threat from malaria.

9. Ancient Peruvian doctors were famous for their malarial treatment.
10. Poorer people are usually more at risk from malaria.

98
Question 11 – 14
Complete each sentences with the correct ending.
Choose the appropriate letter A - H, and write them in the boxes 11 - 14 on your
answer sheet.
11. Anopheline mosquitoes…
12. Parasites located in victims’ livers…
13. Measures to control mosquitoes…
14. Unfinished courses of antimalarial drugs…

A … have finally been eradicated.

B … are not always affected by insecticides.
C … are the results of incompetent doctors
D … are always female.
E … have been implemented for hundreds of years.
F … should be based on several clear goals.
G … are the fault of incompetent doctors.
H … are later found again in the bloodstream.

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READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 15 – 27, which are based on Reading
Passage 2 below.

Smart Packaging

"Smartness" in packaging is a broad term that covers a number of functionalities,

depending on the product being packaged. Smart packaging features can retain
product integrity and actively prevent food spoilage, enhance product attributes,
respond actively to changes in product or package environment and communicate
product information, product history or condition to the user. Smart packaging can
also assist with opening, show that packaging seals are tight, confirm product
authenticity and counter theft. These are all visions of a future in which the package
does more than just contain and protect its contents.

Changes in society and consumer habits are likely to drive the adoption of smart
packaging in the future. The growing need for information on packaging will mean
that there has to be a change in the methods of providing this information. Consumers
will increasingly need to know what ingredients or components are in the product and
how the product should be stored and used. Intelligent labelling and printing, for
example, will be capable of communicating directly to the customer via thin film
devices that provide sound and visual information in response to touch. Voice-
activated safety and disposal instructions on household and pharmaceutical products
will be used to tell the consumer how they should be disposed of after consumption.
This information will also be used in the recycling industry to help sort packaging
materials from waste streams.

Food labelling is one area in which smart packaging could have a huge impact. The
question as to whether, for example, a chilled ready-prepared meal is safe to consume
is currently answered by "best by" date stamping. However, this does not take into
account whether the product has inadvertently been exposed to elevated temperatures
during storage or transportation. In the future, microbial growth and temperature-time
visual indicators based on physical, chemical or enzymatic activity in the food will
give a clear, accurate and unambiguous indication of product quality, safety and shelf-
life condition. Thus, it will be possible to package a product in a way that
communicates that its expected quality is still present. Another smart feature that is
currently under development for food labelling is that of a sensor on a self-heating or
self-cooling container that can visually indicate to the consumer that the product is at

100
the correct temperature. The most common planned use of this is a thermochromic ink
dot to show that the product is at the correct serving temperature following
refrigeration or microwave heating. Plastic containers of pouring syrup for pancakes
labelled with dots of this type to show that the syrup is at the right temperature after
being heated in a microwave oven will soon be available for purchase in the USA.

Smart packaging concepts that improve usage could include "dial-a-dose" smart caps
and closures that would allow the safe dispensing of exact and controlled quantities of
potentially hazardous products. A prescription drug bottle with a bottle cap alarm is
already available. It beeps to alert users when it is time to take the medication, and
also displays how many times the bottle has been opened and the intervals between
openings. The bottle can be connected via a modem to the healthcare centre for the
automatic transmission of drug usage and, if necessary, to provide feedback to the
patient if their consumption of the drug is not in compliance with the prescribed dose.
Eventually, programmed skin patches using smart gels that rely on changes in skin
properties to trigger drug delivery could replace conventional medication, such as pills
and tablets.

Although it is rare that products are tampered with after leaving the factory,
occasionally consumers find unexpected substances in jars, or open packets and
discover that some of the contents are missing. New packaging technologies that will
alert consumers or store managers to such problems are being developed. These use
optically variable films or gas sensitive dyes to produce irreversible colour alterations.
Alternatively, piezoelectric polymers, which alter colour when higher than normal
pressure is applied to them, might be incorporated into package construction to alert
buyers to possible tampering.

When it comes to the environment, consumer attitudes towards packaging are

generally confused and contradictory. There are increasing worries about the amount
of waste created by packaging, but the growth of more elaborate and attractive
packaging is being driven by consumers’ desire for convenience. Ultimately, future
consumers could react negatively to the perception of increased waste and lack of
recyclability of disposable smart packages. The perception of extra cost and the
possible mistrust or confusion over technology are other factors that might slow
widespread market introduction.

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G

Perfect packaging exists in nature, for example the banana and the egg. Learning from
nature to solve engineering problems (biomimetics) is not a new concept, and there
are many research teams looking for such packaging ideas. For example, researchers
are currently studying cereal starch in the search for a sustainable alternative to
polystyrene, which is used extensively in the secondary packaging of consumer goods.
The opening and closing of tree seed structures could give ideas to develop humidity
management. A spin-off application is in the packaging and transportation of fragile
goods. Animals and plants have evolved many successful structural and functional
mechanisms, and increasing our study of biological materials and systems will almost
certainly yield promising engineering concepts applicable to smart packaging.

102
Question 15 – 20
Reading Passage 2, Smart Packaging, has seven paragraphs A – G.
From the list of headings below, choose the most suitable one for each parapragh B –
G.
Write the appropriate number (i – x) in answer boxes 15 – 20.
NB There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will not use them all.

i. Risk-free Dining
ii. Thirst for Knowledge
iii. Possible Concerns
iv. What is Smart Packaging?
v. Security Measures
vi. The Shelf-Life of Medicines
vii. Dangerous to Eat
viii. A modern Example
ix. Organic Inspiration
x. Clever Drugs

Example Answer
Paragraph A iv
15. Paragraph B
16. Paragraph C
17. Paragraph D
18. Paragraph E
19. Paragraph F
20. Paragraph G

103
Question 21 – 24
Complete each sentence with the correct ending.
Choose from the list, A – D, below.
Write the approriate letters, A – D, in answer boxes 21 – 24.
21. One key advantage of smart packaging is that it…
A …can provide consumers with more information.
B …makes food last longer.
C …can be used for any product.
D …contains and protects its contents
22. Storage information on a smart package will be able to be passed to a consumer…
A …by using a scanning device.
B …by activating the package with a finger.
C …by knowing the product ingredients.
D …by voice activation.
23. Thermochromic labelling…
A …works by emitting a noise when a product is ready to eat.
B …heats food to the correct temparature.
C …is not yet ready for the market.
D ...is only available in the USA.
24. Pharmaceutical companies…
A …have stopped consumers disposing of their products incorrectly.
B …deliver their product using a modem.
C …will use sounds to limit the harm that could be caused by their products.
D …are no longer using pills and tablets.

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Questions 25 – 27
Complete the flow chart below using words from Reading Passage 2, Smart
Packaging.
Write NO MORE THAN ONE WORDS from the text in each answer box, 25 – 27.

* To deal with unauthorised handling of packages, new packaging is being made that
uses various technologies to indicate to buyers if their packages have been tampered
with. Examples are permanent (25)__________________ change in packaging when
exposed to oxygen or pressure.
* Although consumers want more convinience and better products, smart packaging
might take them react badly to perceived problems of more (26) _________________,
increased costs, and low recycling possibilities.
Biomimetic Possibilities
* Cereal starch could replace polystyrene packaging.
* Certain plant structures could inspire developments in (27)__________________
control.

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READING PASSAGE3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 28 – 40, which are based on Reading
Passage 3 below.

The Cause of the Next Ice Age

If you look at a globe, you will see that the latitude of much of Europe and
Scandinavia is the same as that of Alaska and permafrost-locked parts of northern
Canada and central Siberia. Yet Europe has a climate more similar to that of the
United States than northern Canada or Siberia. It turns out that this warmth is the
result of ocean currents that bring warm surface water up from the equator into
northern regions that would otherwise be so cold that even in summer they would be
covered with ice. The current of greatest concern is often referred to as the Great
Conveyor Belt, which includes what we call “the Gulf Stream”. This is mostly driven
by the force created by differences in water temperatures and salinity. The North
Atlantic Ocean is saltier and colder than the Pacific. As a result, the warm water of the
Great Conveyor Belt evaporates out of the North Atlantic, leaving behind saltier
waters which are cooled by the cold continental winds off the northern parts of North
America. Salty, cool waters settle to the bottom of the sea, most at a point a few
hundred kilometres south of the southern tip of Greenland, producing a whirlpool of
falling water that is 5 - 10 miles across. This falling column of cold, salt-laden water
pours itself to the bottom of the Atlantic, where it forms a great undersea river 40
times larger than all the rivers on land combined, flowing south down to and around
the southern tip of Africa where it finally reaches the Pacific. Amazingly, the water is
so deep and dense that it may not surface in the Pacific for up to 1,000 years after it
first sank in the North Atlantic off the coast of Greenland.

The outflowing undersea river of cold, salty water makes the level of the Atlantic
fractionally lower than that of the Pacific, drawing in a strong surface current of
warm, fresher water from the Pacific to replace the outflow of the undersea river. This
warmer, fresher water slides up through the South Atlantic, loops around North
America, where it is known as “the Gulf Stream”, and ends up off the coast of Europe.
By the time it arrives near Greenland, it has cooled off and evaporated enough water
to become cold and salty and sink to the ocean floor, providing a continuous feed for
that deep-sea river flowing to the Pacific. These two flows - warm, fresher water in
from the Pacific, which then grows salty and cools and sinks to form an exiting deep
sea river - are known as “the Great Conveyor Belt”.

Prior to the last decades it was thought that the periods between glaciations and
warmer times in North America, Europe, and North Asia were gradual. We know
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from the fossil record that the Great Ice Age began several million years ago, and
during that period there were times when for hundreds or thousands of years North
America, Europe, and Siberia were covered with thick sheets of ice year round. In
between these icy times, there were periods when the glaciers thawed, bare land was
exposed, forests grew and land animals (including early humans) moved into these
northern regions. Most scientists figured the transition time from icy to warm was
extremely gradual, and nobody was sure exactly what had caused it. Recently
however, scientists have been shocked to discover that the transitions from ice age-
like weather to contemporary-type weather usually took only 2 or 3 years. Something
was flipping the weather of the planet back and forth with a rapidity that was startling.

What brought on this sudden effect was that the warm-water currents of the Great
Conveyor Belt had shut down. Once the Gulf Stream was no longer flowing, it only
took up to 3 years for the last of the residual heat held in the North Atlantic Ocean to
dissipate into the air over Europe, and then there was no more warmth to moderate the
northern latitudes. When the summer stopped in the north, the rains stopped around
the equator. At the same time that Europe was plunged into an ice age, the Middle
East and Africa were ravaged by drought and wind-driven firestorms. If the Great
Conveyor Belt, which includes the Gulf Stream, were to stop flowing today, the result
would be sudden and dramatic. Winter would set in for the eastern half of North
America and all of Europe and Siberia and never go away. Within 3 years, those
regions would become uninhabitable and nearly two billion humans would starve,
freeze to death or have to relocate. Civilisation as we know it probably could not
withstand the impact of such a crushing blow.

Most scientists involved in research on this topic agree that the culprit will be global
warming, which melts the icebergs on Greenland and the Arctic icepack and thus
flushes cold, fresh water down into the Greenland Sea from the north, diluting its
salinity. When a critical threshold is reached, the climate will suddenly switch to an
ice age that could last between 700 and 100,000 years. No one knows when it will
happen, but what is almost certain is that if nothing is done about global warming, it
will happen sooner rather than later.

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Question 28 – 32
Do the statements (questions 28 - 32) below agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 3, The Cause of the Next Ice Age?

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

28. Another name for the Great Conveyer Belt is the better-known name the Gulf
Stream.
29. The surface of the Atlantic Ocean is higher than the surface of the Pacific Ocean.
30. The last time the Great Conveyer Belt shut down it caused the deaths of
thousands.
31. A pause in the flow of the Great Conveyot Belt could have significant
consequences for human society.
32. Global warming has caused the North Atlantic Ocean to become less salty.

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Questions 33 – 37
Complete the flow chart below using words from Reading Passage 3, The Cause of the
Next Ice Age.
Write NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the text in each answer box, 33 –
37.
33. Europe is not _______________________ like other countries of the same latitude
due to warmth carried on ocean currents.
34. The north – south flow of the Great Conveyer Belt create an enormous
_______________________ on the ocean bed.
35. Scientist can date the last great Ice Age thanks to_______________________.
36. Scientist have discovered that the change from today’s temperate-style weather to
ice-age weather was very rapid and not _______________________, as previously
thought.
37. The author identifies the_______________________ for the possible shutting
down of the Great Conveyer Belt as being global warming.

Questions 38 – 40
Answer the following questions.
Use NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS AND/ OR A NUMBER from Reading
Passage 3, The Cause of the Next Ice Age, for each answer.
38. What do the sinking waters create on the surface of the North Atlantic Ocean?
39. How long can it take for water leaving the surface near Greenland to travel
through the Great Conveyer Belt to the surface of the Pacific Ocean?
40. If the Great Conveyer Belt stopped, what would be the maximum amount of time
for it to stop heating northern Europe?

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 Practice Test 9
READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 1 – 14, which are based on Reading
Passage 1 below.

PHRENOLOGY - A VICTORIAN SCIENCE

Phrenology is the theory that psychological traits* of personality, intellect,

temperament, and character are ascertainable from analysis of the protrusions and
depressions in the skull, an idea that was first developed by Franz Joseph Gall in
1796. Gall referred to his new idea in English as "cranioscopy". It was only after
Gall’s death that Johanne Spurzheim, one of Gall’s students, labelled the idea
“phrenology”. The idea first came to Gall when he noticed that university classmates
who could memorise great amounts of information with relative ease seemed to have
prominent eyes and large foreheads. He speculated that other internal qualities,
besides memory, might be indicated by an external feature as well. Gall theorised that
traits might be located in particular regions of the brain. Enlargements or depressions
in the brain in particular areas meant a greater than normal or less than normal
quantity of the given trait. It was assumed that the external contour of the skull
reflected accurately the external contour of the brain where traits were localised.

Carl Cooter, another advocate of phrenology asserted that there were five major parts
to the theory. The first was simply that the brain was the organ of the mind. The
second was that the brain was not a homogeneous unit, but a compilation of mental
organs with specific functions. The third was that the organs were topographically
localised. The fourth was that the relative size of any one of the organs could be taken
as a measure of that organ’s influence on the person’s behaviour. The fifth and final
part of Cooter’s theory was that external craniological features could be used to
diagnose the internal state of the mental faculties. All of these parts were based on
observations that he had made.

Sebastian Leibl, one of Cooter’s students, went further than his mentor and theorised
that there could be anywhere between 27 and 38 regions on the skull indicative of the
organs of the brain, each of which stood for a different personality trait. Leibl further
theorised that the different regions of the brain would grow or shrink with usage, just
as muscles increase in size when exercised. If a certain part of the brain grew due to
increased use, the skull covering that part of the brain would bulge out to make room
for the expanded brain tissue. With these assumptions, the bumps on one’s skull could
be felt and the abilities and personality traits of a person could be assessed.

110
Spurzheim, who studied under Gall, put a more metaphysical and philosophical spin
on his teacher’s concept when he named it “phrenology”, meaning “science of the
mind”. To Spurzheim, phrenology was the science that could tell people what they are
and why they are who they are. Spurzheim wrote that the premise of phrenology was
to use the methods to identify individuals who stood out at both poles of society: those
with a propensity for making important social contributions and those with a greater
than normal tendency for evil. The former were to be encouraged, nurtured*, and
developed in order to maximise their potential for good. The latter needed to be
curbed* and segregated to protect society from their predisposition to harm others.

Phrenology has met with a good deal of criticism since it was proposed, but over time
it has also been credited for some aspects of its teachings. John Fancher, a critic of
phrenology, states that it was a curious mixture, combining some keen observations
and insights about the brain with an inappropriate scientific procedure. Most criticism
is aimed at the poor methods used by phrenologists and the tangent from standard
scientific procedure in investigating.

Pierre Flourens, a French physiologist, was also appalled by the shoddy methods of
phrenologists and was determined to study the functions of the brain strictly by
experiment. The specific technique used by Flourens, who was also a highly skilled
surgeon, was ablation, the surgical removal of certain small parts of the brain. He
ablated precisely determined portions of bird, rabbit, and dog brains and then observed
the behaviour of his subjects. Since, for obvious ethical reasons, he was only able to
use animals, he could not test uniquely human faculties. He never tested or measured
any behaviour until he had nursed his subjects back to health after their operations.
Flourens’s subjects did show a lowering of all functions but not just one function as
Gall’s theory would have predicted. Gall asserted that he wiped out many organs all at
once when he ablated part of the brain, which would explain the general lowering of
all functions in many of Flourens’s subjects.

Despite attacks from Flourens and others, phrenology held its appeal for scientists in
Europe, reaching a peak of popularity in the 1830s and 1840s. In the same period, the
discipline was also introduced to America, where it flourished. In fact, public interest
in phrenology in Britain had waned considerably when the idea was reintroduced to
the country by a pair of enterprising brothers from the United States. Although
phrenology has long since been discredited, some of its basic principles, such as the
idea that specific functions are localised in particular areas of the brain, have been
borne out by more recent research.

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Question 1 – 8
Look at statements 1 – 8 and the list of people below.
Match each statement with the correct person.
Write the appropriate initials of the people in answer boxes 1 – 8.

1. This scientist did not use the term “phrenology”.

2. This scientist theorized that you could identify people’s morality using phrenology
3. This scientist theorized that the size of certain parts of human brains would increase
if they were used a lot.
4. This scientist felt that the science of phrenology displayed both positive and
negative features.
5. This scientist theorized that the size of a certain part of the brain corresponds to that
part of the brain’s influence over a person’s actions.
6. This scientist theorized that the human brain was a collection of cerebral organs.
7. This scientist was an expert at performing operations.
8. This scientist proposed theories based on his observations of colleagues.

FG Franz Joseph Gall

CC Carl Cooter
SL Sebastian Leibl
JS Johanne Spurzheim
JF John Fancher
PF Pierre Flourens

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Question 9 – 14
Do the statements (questions 9 - 14) below agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 1, Phrenology - A Victorian Science?

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

9. Gall theorized that phrenology could only indicate memory ability.

10. Spurzheim believed phrenology coule be used to label members of society.
11. Flourens worked with Fancher to investigate phrenology using standard scientific
experiments.
12. Flourens conducted brain experiments on human patients.
13. Gall approved of Flourens’s methods and results.
14. The theories of phrenology thrived in America.

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READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 15 – 28, which are based on Reading
Passage 2 below.

DETECTING DECEPTION

According to lay* theory there are three core basic signs for spotting liars. These are
speaking quickly with excessive fluctuations in pitch of voice, the liar becoming
fidgety and hesitant when questioned on detail, and failure to make eye-contact. There
is nothing too perplexing about that. Yet, a good liar will be just as aware of these as
the person they are lying to and thus will ensure that eye contact especially is evident.
Shifty eyes can indicate that someone is feeling emotional perhaps from a lie, or
perhaps just from nerves as a result of lying. Of course, this does not apply to
instances where eye contact is non-existent, like during a telephone conversation.
Psychologist Paul Eckman states that extensive use of details can make lies more
believable. But this strategy can also often trip up the liar. If the details change or
contradict each other, you should suspect you are being had.

There is an intrinsic link between emotional connections and effective lying. The
notion is that it is harder to lie to those whom we know well and care for. There are
two reasons for this: firstly, those close to us are more aware of our mannerisms and
behavioural patterns and can more readily detect our default lying techniques. The
second reason is that people we do not know lack the emotional response to lying that
people we are intimate with have. Robert Galatzer-Levy, MD, a psychoanalyst in
private practice, reasons that: “The good liar doesn’t feel bad or have a guilty
conscience, so it’s much more difficult to pick up on cues that they are lying.” This is
why it is apparently so easy for salesmen and politicians alike to lie so effortlessly.

Recently a lot of politicians have been making outrageous claims about their ability to
tell when a person is lying. Many lay people apparently believe that people can make
a pretty good assessment of when a person is lying or not. Research illustrates,
however, that nothing could be further from the truth.

University of Maryland professor, Patricia Wallace, an expert on deception detection

states: “Psychological research on deception shows that most of us are poor judges of
truthfulness and this applies even to professionals such as police and customs
inspectors whose jobs are supposed to include some expertise at lie detection.” She
then goes on to describe two of the many experiments in the psychological research
literature that support this contention.
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The first study was conducted in 1987 and looked at whether police officers could be
trained to detect deceptive eyewitness statements. They watched videotaped
statements of witnesses, some of whom were truthful and others who were not. They
were told to pay close attention to non-verbal cues, such as body movements and
posture, gestures, and facial expressions. They were also instructed to pay attention to
the tempo* and pitch* of voices. In the end, however, the officers did only slightly
better than chance at determining whether the witnesses were being truthful. And the
more confident the officer was of his or her judgement, the more likely he or she was
to be wrong.

Airline customs inspectors, whose very job is to try to determine suspiciousness and
lying, and lay people were used in another experiment. The inspectors and lay people
in this experiment were not given any specific training or instructions on what to look
for. They were simply told to judge the truthfulness of mock inspection interviews
viewed on videotape and determine whether the passenger was carrying contraband
and lying about it. The “passengers” being interviewed were actually paid volunteers
whose job it was to try to fool the inspectors. Neither lay people nor inspectors did
much better than chance. When questioned about what types of signs they looked for
to determine lying behaviour, the inspectors and lay people relied largely on
preconceived notions about liars in general: liars will give short answers, volunteer
extra information, show poor eye contact and nervous movements and evade
questions.

What nearly all deception experiments have in common to date is that they use
videotape instead of live people in their design. Some might argue that it is this very
difference which politicians and others are trying to emphasise. This is that people
cannot tell when people are lying on videotape but can when the person is there, live,
in front of them. Without research teasing out these subtle differences, however, it
would be a leap of logic to simply assume that something is missing in a videotaped
interview. This is a seemingly baseless assumption. A person interviewed on
videotape is very much live to the people doing the interviewing. It is simply a
recording of a live event. While there may be differences, we simply do not know that
any indeed exist. Without that knowledge, anyone who claims to know is simply
speaking from ignorance or prejudice.

The conclusions from this research are obvious. Trained professionals and untrained
lay people, in general, cannot tell when a person is lying. If you have known someone

115
for years, your chances for detecting truthfulness are likely higher, but strangers trying
to guess truthfulness in other strangers will do no better than chance in their accuracy.

Question 15 – 20
Do the statements below (questions 15 - 20) agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 2, Detecting Deception?

YES if the statement agrees with the information

NO if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

15. One tactics that liars use to trick people frequently give them away.
16. Accomplished liars experience few regrets about lying.
17. In the two experiments described in the text, the police performed better than the
airline customs inspectors.
18. The preparation for both experiments described in the text were very similar.
19. Not looking people in the eye was one technique used by the airline customs
inspectors to help successfully spot liars.
20. Patricia Wallace has carried out at least two deception experiments.

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Questions 21 – 24
Complete the sentences below using words from Reading Passage 2, Detecting
Deception.
Write NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the text in each answer box, 21 – 24.
21. Nerves and emotion from telling lies may be indicated in the liars’pitch of voice
and ____________________.
22. One study investigated whether misleading ____________________ could be
detected through the observation of body language.
23. ____________________ were used to try and fool the airline customs inspectors
and lay people.
24. It has been put forward that politicians use the ____________________ between
speaking live and on television to help them fool people.

Questions 25 – 27
Complete the sentences below using words from Reading Passage 2, Detecting
Deception.
Write NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the text in each answer box, 25 –

25. Apart from television, what example does the text give of conversation when
people don’t look each other in the eye?
26. Who have recently asserted that they can spot liars easily?
27. What is the similarity in most psychological lying research?

117
READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 28 – 40, which are based on Reading
Passage 3 below.

The History of Paper

When we think of the origins of paper, our minds might wander back over 5,000 years
to the Nile river valley in Egypt. It was here that a marsh grass called Cyperous
papyrus flourished. The Egyptians cut thin strips from the plant’s stem and softened
them in the muddy waters of the Nile. These strips were then layered in right angles to
form a kind of mat. The mat was then pounded into a thin sheet and left in the sun to
dry. The resulting sheets were ideal for writing on. Since they were also lightweight
and portable they became the writing medium of choice of the Egyptians, Greeks and
Romans for record keeping, spiritual texts and works of art.

Paper as we know it today comes from another source - China. It was not until the
third century AD that the secret art of papermaking began to creep out of China, first
to Vietnam and later to India. It made its true push westward in 751 AD when the
Tang Dynasty was at war with the Islamic world. During a battle on the banks of the
Tarus River, Islamic warriors captured a Chinese caravan which happened to include
several papermakers. They spirited them away to Samarkand, which soon became a
great centre for paper production. Finally, when the Moors from north Africa invaded
Spain and Portugal they brought the technology with them, and so it was that
papermaking entered Europe in the twelfth century.

In Europe, the use of papyrus had been abandoned in the ninth century. The preferred
medium for the artists and literati* of the time was the smooth and lustrous
parchment. However, parchment - made from animal skin - was extremely expensive.
The notion of paper being used as a practical everyday item did not occur until the
fifteenth century when Johann Gutenburg perfected movable type and sparked off a

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revolution in mass communication. The birth of the modern paper and printing
industry is commonly marked from this time.

Printing technology rapidly developed and created an ever-increasing demand for

paper. Early European paper was made from recycled cotton and linen - and a huge
trade quickly sprung up around the trading of old rags. It is said that the black plague
entered England from Europe on these old rags. Other manufacturers experimented
with fibres such as straw, cabbage, wasp nests and finally wood. This resulted in
inexpensive - and replaceable - materials for papermaking. Today, the long soft fibres
of softwoods, such as spruce, have become the most suitable source of pulp for mass
production.

The demand for paper also created the need for greater efficiency in production. In the
late eighteenth century, the labours of Nicholas Luis Robert resulted in the creation of
a machine that could produce a seamless* length of paper on an endless wire mesh*
with squeeze rollers* at one end. Perfected and marketed by the Fourdrinier brothers,
the new machine made papers that soon replaced traditional hand-made single sheets.
In Europe and America, the mass production of paper became a thriving industry
supplying huge volumes of paper for a whole range of purposes.

Papermaking in essence is a simple process. Whether using recycled materials or fresh

organic matter, the process starts as the material is shredded into small strips and
soaked overnight to loosen the fibres. Next, the fibres are boiled for 2 - 6 hours, and
are turned every so often. When finished, the fibres are washed in fresh water to
remove impurities and then small particles or specks are removed by hand. The fibres
are beaten in a blender, creating a creamy pulp. At this stage, dyes can be added to
create coloured papers. The pulp is then poured into a large tub* and the fibres are
suspended in the water. Framed screens* are lowered into the water and then lifted to
the surface catching the fibres on the screen. The screens are then dried, pressed and
smoothed.

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G

In the West, as industrial paper production boomed, the art of hand papermaking has
been driven nearly to extinction, being practised only by a few fine artists and crafts
people. However, in small areas throughout Asia, the tradition has lived on through
regular and rice paper made by hand. Incidentally, the traditional Asian paper, which
is often referred to as “rice paper”, is not made from rice fibres at all. More commonly
it is made from the versatile mulberry tree, varieties of which are also used for feeding
silkworms and in medicine. In contrast to the cold precision and standardisation that
industrial production demands, the soft, subtle textures and natural feel of hand-made
paper is said to echo the warm heart of the papermaker who makes each sheet with
devotion.

This millennium will be dominated by the tremendous progress that has been made in
computer science, thus triggering a complete change in our commercial and private
communication and information behaviour. Does this mean that the paper era will
come to an end? The answer is most definitely “No”. Clearly a huge amount of data
will be generated electronically, but the issue is how to preserve it. The difficulties of
data storage over a long period of time are well known (for example, the durability of
disks; frequent changes of hardware and software; electronic breakdowns etc.). Once
again, paper offers the most convenient and durable storage option.

120
Question 28 – 34
Reading Passage 3, The History of Paper, has eight paragraphs A – H.
From the list of headings below, choose the most suitable one for each parapragh B –
H.
Write the appropriate number (i – xi) in answer boxes 28 – 34.
NB There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will not use them all.

i. Arabian Expertise
ii. Preserving Ancient Practices
iii. Superstition
iv. The Origin of Paper
v. From Craft to Industry
vi. The Journey to the West
vii. The Prospects for Paper
viii. The Age of Experimentation
ix. Paper in the Americas
x. How Paper Is Made
xi. A Change of Material

Example Answer
Paragraph A iv
28. Paragraph B
29. Paragraph C
30. Paragraph D
31. Paragraph E
32. Paragraph F
33. Paragraph G
34. Paragraph H

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Question 35 – 36
Choose TWO letters, A – E.
Which TWO statements are true of the early development of paper?
A Papyrus was a popular material for writing because it could be transported
easily.
B Paper travelled to Europe on trade routes from China.
C Paper arrived in Europe soon after its introduction into the Islamic world.
D Papyrus was used as a writing material in Europe up until the introduction of
paper.
E The majority of Europeans could not afford parchment for writing.

Question 37 – 38
Choose TWO letters, A – E.
Which TWO statements are true of the modern development of paper?
A The material used to make paper has not changed since its introduction to
Europe.
B The Fourdinier brothers marketed a version of a papermaking machine which
was identical to that created by Nicholas Luis Robert.
C Paper is no longer hand-made anywhere in the West.
D The material used to make one type of paper in Asia has a misleading name.
E The author believes paper will continue to be used in the future.

122
Questions 39 – 40
Complete the flow chart below using words from Reading Passage 3, The History of
Paper
Write NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the text in each answer box, 39 – 40

123
 Practice Test 10
READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 1 – 13, which are based on Reading
Passage 1 below.

What is Intelligence?

Intelligence can be defined in many different ways since there are a variety of
individual differences. Intelligence to a lot of people is the ability to reason and
respond quickly yet accurately in all aspects of life, such as physically, emotionally
and mentally. Anyone can define intelligence because it is an open-ended word that
has much room for interpretation, but there are some theories that have more general
acceptance than others.

Jean Piaget, a Swiss child psychologist, is well known for his four stages of mental
growth theory. The first stage is the sensorimotor stage, from birth to age 2, when the
child is concerned with gaining motor control and getting familiar with physical
objects. Then, from age 2 to 7, the child develops verbal skills. This is called the
preoperational stage. In the concrete operational stage, the child deals with abstract
thinking from age 7 to 12. The final stage, called the formal operational stage, ends at
age 15, and this is when the child learns to reason logically and systematically.
Piaget’s theory provides a basis for human intelligence by categorising the major
stages in child development and how they contribute to intelligence. Each of these
invariant stages has major cognitive skills that must be learned. Knowledge is not
merely transmitted verbally but must be constructed and reconstructed by the learner.
Thus this development involves a few basic steps. The first fundamental process of
intellectual growth is the ability to assimilate the new events learned into the pre-
existing cognitive structures. The second fundamental process is the capability to
change those structures to accommodate the new information and the last process is to
find equilibrium between the first two processes.

Howard Gardner, a psychologist at Harvard University, has formulated an even more

intriguing theory. He arranged human intelligence into seven sections. First of all,
Gardner characterises logical-mathematical intelligence as people who think logically
and are able to transfer abstract concepts to reality. These people enjoy solving
puzzles and can be good inventors because they can visualise an invention even before
making a prototype. They normally do better in school, which is for the most part due
to the fact that schools are designed for the logical-mathematical type of thinkers.

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The linguistic type, as you might guess, is the natural born writer and poet. They
usually have excellent storytelling skills, spelling skills, and love to play with words.
They tend to be bookworms and can easily learn more than one language. This type of
intelligence seems to be located in the Broca’s Area, since damage to that portion of
the brain will cause a person to lose the ability to express themselves in clear
grammatical sentences, though that person’s understanding of vocabulary and syntax
remains intact.

Next Gardner traced musical intelligence to certain areas of the brain. Impaired or
autistic children, who are unable to talk or interact with others, have often exemplified
exceptional musical talent. People of this type of intelligence show great aptitude for
music, have excellent pitch, and a good sense of rhythm. They concentrate better with
music playing in the background. A particular concerto by Mozart has shown positive
changes in the brains of listeners. Thus, musical intelligence can be a form or a means
of learning.

Another form of intelligence is interpersonal intelligence. This category is for people

who are very well aware of their environment. They tend to be sensitive to people
around them, have an excellent idea of how people behave and are especially sociable.
Politicians, leaders, counsellors, mediators and clergy are excellent examples of
people with this type of intelligence. Damage to the frontal lobe has shown damage to
this type of person’s personality and his or her ability to interact with others.

Intrapersonal intelligence is almost the opposite of interpersonal intelligence. This

kind of intelligence deals with how well you know yourself. People who possess a
higher degree of this type of intelligence have high self-esteem, self-enhancement and
a strong sense of character. They are usually deep thinkers, self-teachers, skilled in
music or art and have an inner discipline. This sort of intelligence is hard to measure
since it is often difficult to recognize externally.

Spatial intelligence is the ability to perceive and interpret images or pictures in three-
dimensional space. The right hemisphere of the brain has been proven to control this
form of intelligence and scientists are certain that spatial intelligence is clearly an
independent portion of this intellect. A person of this intellect enjoys making maps
and charts.

Lastly, Gardner classifies people who are athletically inclined as body-kinesthetic

intelligence. They perform the best in atmospheres of action, touching, physical

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contact and working with their hands. Dancers and athletes are good examples of this
form of intellect. Critics are a little sceptical that Gardner considers this a form of
intellect since it is only a physical component of intelligence, but nonetheless, the
brain does use both hemispheres to control movement.

Gardner believes that everyone has a mixture of all the categories varying at different
levels. We can see a couple of intelligence types that stand out in people we know and
including ourselves. For example, a maths major’s logical-mathematical intelligence
would be more predominant than his linguistic intelligence.

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Question 1 – 7
Look at the following description of different types of people and the list of Gardner’s
Intelligence types below.
Match each type of people with the correct intelligence types.
Write the appropriate letters in answer boxes 1 – 7.

1. Young people with mental disabilities frequently display this type of intelligence.
2. People with this type of intelligence are often good with words.
3. People with this type of intelligence are often good physiotherapists.
4. People with this type of intelligence are often very self-confident.
5. People with this type of intelligence are often good at developing new products for
a company.
6. People with this type of intelligence often learn by imagining things as pictures.
7. People with this type of intelligence often mix well with other people.

Gardner’s Intelligence Types

A Logistical-mathematical type
B Linguistic type
C Musical type
D Interpersonal type
E Intrapersonal type
F Spatial type
G Body-kinesthetic type

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Question 8 – 13
Do the statements (questions 8 - 13) below agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 1, What is Intelligence??

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

8. There are no theories of intelligence that have universal recognition around the
world.
9. Part of Piaget’s development theory includes children learning how to walk.
10. Piaget theorized that psychological development is finished before adulthood.
11. The seven-category theory created by Gardner is considered more valid than
Piaget’s.
12. People usually have a blend of Gardner’s intelligence types.
13. Individual find it difficult to identify Gardner’s intelligence types in themselves.

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READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 14 – 26, which are based on Reading
Passage 2 below

Pilotage* - The Original Pilots

Although most people nowadays think of aviation when they hear the word "pilot",
the term was originally used to refer to local seamen whose task was to guide ships
through coastal waters and into a port. In fact, the English word "pilot" evolved from
the Dutch term for a plumb lead, a length of rope with a weight on the end of it used
for measuring the depth of water. Today, nearly every port employs pilots licensed by
the government of the country, and the use of their services is compulsory, except for
local ships whose master* holds a current pilotage exemption* for a specific port.
Pilots are responsible for the safe conduct and navigation of any ship from the time
they assume control from the master after boarding* at sea until the vessel is safely
moored* at the allocated wharf*, or vice versa in the case of ships that are leaving a
harbour.

The history of sea pilotage goes back many hundreds of years to a time when seamen
with local knowledge offered their services to ships’ captains to help them navigate
their vessels through the waters at the entrance to ports. As maritime trade widened
into new territories, help was required in approaching little-known areas of coastline.
Early European settlers in the New World were often provided navigational assistance
by the native people who had been residing in the area for many thousands of years.
Using their canoes, the natives would lead ships into unknown rivers or natural
harbours and warn mariners of any underwater dangers. Once settlements began to
become more established, ships arrived more regularly in the area. By then many of
the early pilots were settlers who had become fishermen. These fishermen would often
command good fees for piloting ships because of their specialised knowledge of water
depths, navigational hazards, tides and currents in their local areas.

Although modern electronic equipment and navigational aids have changed the way
ships are operated at sea, the employment of a marine pilot with extensive local
knowledge and expert ship-handling skills is as essential as ever. In addition, changes
in the shipping business have increased the need for pilots. Ships have become larger
and more complex, while the number of crew members on the ships has decreased.
There are now fewer skilled people on board these large ships who can both handle
them and have knowledge of different harbours. In today’s competitive world, there
are also increasing demands for ships to operate in more severe weather conditions
than in the past. Accordingly, local knowledge of how a particular type of weather
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affects the approach and entry to a port is essential in getting ships docked* quickly. A
reliable and responsible marine pilotage system in every port plays a significant role
in allowing businesses to remain competitive in the global marketplace.

Shipping is a very high cost industry, with running costs for fuel, maintenance and
crews easily averaging US $2,000 per ship per hour for every hour of every day.
Consequently, shipping is a 24-hour-a-day industry and pilots need to be available at
any time to play their part. In fact, the importance of pilot reliability has led to pilots
in Australia being self-employed, which means none is a union member and they are
therefore never involved in industrial disputes that could cause delays to shipping.

Over the years, pilots have had to develop different levels of expertise in order to deal
with how ships have changed, the most spectacular of which is probably the increase
in size. A hundred years ago, 2,000 tonnes was considered a large ship. Forty years
ago, 10,000 tonnes was considered a large ship. Today, 100,000 tonnes is an everyday
occurrence. The types of ships have also changed. Most ships today are built for
specific cargoes, such as containers, tankers, roll-on-roll-offs*, car carriers, bulk
carriers and general purpose ships. As a result of this, their appearance and handling
differ considerably. For example, a large loaded tanker would not be much affected by
wind, but the pilot would have to commence reducing speed about 10 miles before
reaching the berth*. The other extreme would be a car carrier, which does not go deep
into the water. This could be stopped quickly, but would be very much affected by
winds. Different harbour conditions are also important. Big, deep-draught* ships in
narrow channels require the pilot’s full attention; a lapse of concentration could result
in a major accident with a considerable impact on the environment from, for example,
a subsequent oil spillage.

Today, coastal marine pilots have a wide range of responsibilities. They must provide
advice on the safe navigation of a vessel and act as stewards of the sea. They must
provide detailed passage planning, local knowledge, leadership to the bridge team*,
and liaison* with shore authorities and vessel traffic services. Pilots also need to
provide independent judgement and advice to the ship’s master, who ultimately
remains in command of the vessel. Moreover, a pilot has to monitor his or her own
personal health and safety, and he or she must also be a mentor to new coastal pilots.
The scope and obligations of the job facing a pilot today are extremely challenging,
but the variety and rewards of this work mean that there is intense competition among
people wanting to enter the field.

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Question 14 – 21
Do the statements (questions 14 - 21) below agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 2, Pilotage* - The Original Pilots?

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

14. The origin of the term pilot described one of the tools of the job.
15. The use of government-lisenced pilot is mandatory in all cases.
16. The indigenous people of the Americas were not paid for their services as pilots.
17. Some ports employ pilots who specialise in bringing ships into harbour in bad
weather.
18. A ship might be unable to enter an Australian port due to a strike by pilots.
19. Being a pilot is a highly paid job.
20. When on board, the pilot is the most senior member of a ship’s crew.
21. Familiarity with a specific stretch of coastal water has always been a key
requirement for a pilot.

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Questions 22 – 26
Choose words from the box below to complete the summary.
Write the correct letter, A – J, in answer boxes 22 – 26.
A navigation B skills C vehicles D qualifications
E cargoes F focus G advice H planning

Over the years, despite developments in technology, the importance of pilots’ (22)
________. Hasn’t changed. However, the sizes and functions of ships have.
Nowadays, (23) ________ are loaded onto ships specifically designed for them and, as
the ships’ characteristics vary considerably, pilots face a range of different problems
when handling them. A lack of (24) ________ when piloting these large ships might
lead to an accident that could cause severe environmental problems.
Although the (25) ________ of a ship into a port is still their main responsibility, pilot
also handle communications with the port authorities and other vessels in the area. In
addition, they must manage their own physical well-being and offer (26) ________ to
less experienced members of the profession.

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READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 27 – 40, which are based on Reading
Passage 3 below

Hydrogen Cars

A
Record fuel prices are making driving more expensive than ever. But what if, instead
of petrol, your car ran on the most abundant element in our universe, hydrogen? Many
experts think this will replace petrol, diesel and natural gas as the main fuel for cars,
buses and lorries over the next few decades. Already car manufacturers around the
world have invested billions of dollars in research and development.

B
The advantages of hydrogen are enormous: no more smog-forming exhaust fumes, no
more carbon dioxide emissions that contribute to global warming, no more worries
about diminishing oil supplies and rising prices. But some tricky questions need to be
answered before mass-produced hydrogen cars start appearing on the streets. Where
will the hydrogen come from? How will motorists fill up? How will cars store the
fuel? And there is also the question of how best to tap the energy in the fuel for good,
on-road performance.

C
Two kinds of engines can use hydrogen as a fuel: those that have an internal
combustion engine converted to use it and those that are made up of a stack* of fuel
cells. Internal combustion engines have powered cars since they first began to replace
horse-drawn carriages more than 100 years ago. These engines can be converted to
run on a variety of fuels, including hydrogen. However, most car manufacturers
believe that fuel cells powering an electric motor offer a better alternative. Unlike
heavy batteries that need frequent recharging, fuel cells make electricity as they go. In
addition, recent developments in technology have greatly increased the amount of
power that a stack of cells can provide. This has opened up the prospect of efficient,
non-polluting electric cars.
D
Fuel cell technology sounds simple. The hydrogen fuel reacts with oxygen from the
air to produce water and electricity, the reverse of the familiar electrolysis process that
releases oxygen and hydrogen from water. In reality, of course, it is somewhat more

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complicated. The big advantage of a fuel cell engine over an internal combustion
engine running on hydrogen is its greater efficiency. The same amount of hydrogen
will take a fuel cell car at least twice as far as one with a converted internal
combustion engine.

E
Hydrogen has many advantages as a fuel for vehicles, but a big disadvantage is that it
is difficult to store. This is because at normal temperatures hydrogen is a gas. The
obvious solutions are to compress the hydrogen or to liquefy it. However, tanks
designed to hold hydrogen at extremely high pressures, or at temperatures
approaching absolute zero, are heavy and expensive. So, high cost and the large
amount of energy needed to liquefy the fuel are likely to be the main problems with
refuelling with liquid hydrogen. Filling up with compressed hydrogen gas will
probably prove more practical, even though it may reduce the distance between fills.
Cars could store the hydrogen in high pressure tanks similar to those used for
compressed natural gas, or specially treated carbon may also hold large amounts.

F
Although there is no risk that we will ever run out of hydrogen, on earth it exists
naturally only in chemical compounds, not as hydrogen gas. A relatively simple
principal technology, steam reforming, can produce hydrogen gas for cars at central
plants or filling stations. Alternatively, fuel tanks could be filled with petrol or
methanol, with the cars using on-board reformers to generate hydrogen for their fuel
cells. This shows promise as a transitional measure while research proceeds on the
problems of storing hydrogen. Water is the only potentially pollution-free source of
hydrogen. Researchers are looking at new ways of producing hydrogen from water
such as using algae, bacteria or photovoltaic cells to absorb sunlight and split water
into hydrogen and oxygen. But the technology most likely to be adopted on a large
scale is electrolysis, which uses an electric current to split water into oxygen and
hydrogen.

G
"Remember the Hindenburg" is a phrase often heard when hydrogen is discussed. This
German passenger airship, kept aloft by hydrogen, crashed in flames as it came in to
land at Lakehurst, New Jersey, USA in May 1937 killing 35 people. Nowadays
helium, which cannot burn, is the gas of choice for lighter-than-air craft. Hydrogen is
highly flammable, but recent research has indicated that the airship’s fabric, not
hydrogen, was the culprit in the Hindenburg disaster. Properly handled, there is no

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reason to think hydrogen is any more dangerous as a fuel than petrol, the explosive
liquid now carried safely in the tanks of millions of motor vehicles.

H
Recent technological advances, particularly in fuel cell design, have made hydrogen-
powered cars a practical proposition, and car manufacturers expect to start mass-
producing them within the next decade or so. Their power and acceleration should
match those of today’s conventionally powered vehicles, but they may have to be
refuelled more often. The best ways to produce, distribute and store the hydrogen still
have to be sorted out. In the short term, fossil fuels may remain in demand as a
hydrogen source. However, the idea that in the not too distant future most of us will be
driving non-polluting cars fuelled by hydrogen from a clean, renewable source is no
longer a flight of fantasy.

135
Question 27 – 33
Reading Passage 3, Hydrogen Cars, has eight paragraphs A – H.
From the list of headings below, choose the most suitable one for each parapragh B –
H.
Write the appropriate number (i – xi) in answer boxes 27 – 33.
NB There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will not use them all.

i. Where and How to Keep the Fuel

ii. Traditional Production Method
iii. The Possible Danger of Combustible Hydrogen
iv. A Plentiful Alternative
v. Looking Forward
vi. Concerns about Validity
vii. Today’s Hydrogen Production
viii. How the Process Works
ix. Hydrogen Sources and Production
x. The Workings of the Internal Combustion Engine
xi. The Engine Dilemma

Example Answer
Paragraph A iv
27. Paragraph B
28. Paragraph C
29. Paragraph D
30. Paragraph E
31. Paragraph F
32. Paragraph G
33. Paragraph H

136
Questions 34 – 38
Complete the sentences below using words from Reading Passage 3, Hydrogen Cars.
Write NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the text in each answer box, 34 –
38.
34. There is no reason that we will run out of hydrogen as it is the
____________________ that exists.
35. Companies have put ____________________ into the growth of the hydrogen car
industry.
36. ____________________ could use traditional fuels to produce the hydrogen
needed to power hydrogen cars.
37. Investigation have proved that ____________________ was the cause of the
Hindenburg disaster.
38. Hydrogen cars have the potential to offer the power and ____________________
that we associate with today’s fossil fuel powered vehicles.

Question 39 – 40
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.

39. Which of the following is NOT a potential problem with the introduction of
hydrogen cars?
A the frequency of refuelling stops.
B the creation of by-products of the electricity production process
C the volatility of hydrogen
D keeping hydrogen in cars

40. Which of the following hydrogen production methods for hydrogen-powered cars
is viewed in the article as a temporary measure?
A a system producing hydrogen from fossil fuels
B a method producing hydrogen from water vapour
C a process using microscopic organisms to produce hydrogen
D an electrolysis-basis hydrogen production system

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 Practice Test 11
READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 1 – 14, which are based on Reading
Passage 1 below.

The Ecological Impact of Fish Farming

It has been argued by opponents to beef farming that grain-fed cattle were essentially
reverse protein factories because they required many more pounds of plant protein to
produce a pound of meat. Now there is a similar dynamic in the global fish farming, or
aquaculture, industry, especially as it strains to satisfy consumers’ voracious appetite
for top-of-the-food-chain* carnivorous fish, such as salmon, tuna and shrimp.

Close to 40 per cent of the seafood we eat nowadays comes from aquaculture; the $78
billion industry has grown 9 per cent a year since 1975, making it the fastest-growing
food group, and global demand has doubled since that time. The problem is that it
takes a lot of input in the form of other, lesser fish, also known as “reduction” or
“trash” fish, to produce the kind of fish we prefer to eat directly. To create one
kilogram of high-protein fishmeal, which is fed to farmed fish, it takes 4.5 kilograms
of smaller pelagic, or open-ocean, fish, along with fish oil, which also comes from
other fish. “Aquaculture’s current heavy reliance on wild fish for feed carries
substantial ecological risks,” says Professor Kate Bagila, a leading scholar on the
subject at Stanford University’s Center for Environmental Science and Policy.
Professor Bagila goes on to say: “... unless the aquaculture industry finds alternatives
to using pelagic fish to sustain fish farms, it could end up depleting an essential food
source for many other species in the marine food chain.”

Industry and publicly funded research have significantly mitigated this inefficiency
and reduced the percentage of fish and oil content in aqua-feed, replacing the reliance
on the smaller pelagic fish with vegetable proteins and oils. “I would say cost, the
sustainability of resources, pelagic fisheries and human health concerns have been
driving researchers to find replacements for fishmeal and fish oil, and we are doing
this to the greatest extent possible,” says Dr Roy Spalding, a fish nutritionist for the
Canadian government who works closely with British Columbia’s $450 million
salmon industry. Reducing the fish content in feed also reduces the accumulation of
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in farmed fish. PCBs are mixtures of up to 209
individual chemical compounds. Fish absorb PCBs from contaminated sediments and
from their food. Spalding, however, insists that this aspect is not relevant any longer
in Canada as PCB levels in fish there are some 50 - 70 times below Food and Drug

138
Administration standards. Be that as it may, such advances have been offset by the
industry’s explosive growth. In the salmon industry, the largest aquaculture sector, the
amount of wild fish required to produce one unit of salmon was reduced 25 per cent
between 1997 and 2001, but total industry yield grew by 60 per cent during the same
time.

“The main trouble is that the West’s fish farms have gone straight to the top of the
food chain. We are essentially, as some argue, farming tigers when we raise tuna or
striped bass or cod, and this has to be the underlying source of all the difficuties that
fish farms generate,” says Steve Ellis, a senior researcher with FishWatch, a
California-based environmental non-governmental organisation. In contrast, the fish
species at the core of the millennia-long tradition of fish-farming in Asia and parts of
Africa - catfish, carp and milkfish - actually require less fish input than is ultimately
harvested because they are mostly herbivorous. “Ultimately that is really where the
solution is; we need to turn our attention to these plant-eating fish and farm them,”
continues Ellis. “Whether we are willing to do that is another thing; but that’s the
fundamental solution.”

Environmentalists and industry dispute whether current wild-fish harvesting is done at

sustainable levels, but there is no dispute that it is a finite resource, and demand keeps
growing. A staggering 37 per cent of all global seafood is now ground into feed,
according to recent research from the Washington Fisheries Centre. “One third of that
feed goes to China, where 70 per cent of the world’s fish farming takes place,” says
Yu Sung, a marine zoologist working for the Chinese government. She adds that:
“China now devotes more resources to fish farming than any other country, and nearly
1 million hectares alone of real estate goes to shrimp farms.” And this is the official
figure! Yu Sung also points out: “... about 45 per cent of the global production of
fishmeal and fish oil goes to the world’s animal livestock industry.”

Sustainability, however, is a moveable metric* - shaped, at least in the US, largely by

restaurants, where 70 per cent of seafood consumption occurs. “As chefs, we need to
celebrate diversity in the oceans so that we are not relying too heavily on any one
species,” states John Holberry, executive chef at Boston’s Ritz restaurant.
Sustainability of fish stocks would also be much easier were people simply to eat
more fish that live lower down in the food chain. This would mean significant
ecological pluses with no real diminution in human health benefits. That calculus may
already be helping to recharge the allure of the modest shellfish, including the oyster,
which is the target of reseeding campaigns on the US East Coast, where it has been
most successful. Not only are oysters, along with other molluscs, good for you, as
they are phenomenally high in zinc, they also feed themselves. What we will have to

139
watch for is replacing excess with excess. As Dr Rob Hall of the US Food Group
points out: “Mass production of any foodstuff creates collateral effects and a large-
scale increase in oyster farming would have to be carefully monitored to control any
harmful side effects.”

Question 1 – 8
Look at statements 1 – 8 and the list of people below.
Match each statement with the correct person.
Write the appropriate initials of the people in answer boxes 1 – 8.

1. Various reasons have caused investigation into finding substitutes for traditional
food for fish in fish farms.
2. The restaurant industry needs to use less popular fish in their cooking.
3. One Asian country in particular engages in more fish farming than any other
country.
4. Fish farms need to use substitute foods to wild sea fish.
5. Supervision will be necessary for any expansion of alternating sea farming.
6. The problems that most western fish farms create are due to the species of fish that
they farm.
7. Tradiotional land farm animals are also provided with fish sourced feed.
8. Fish absorption of pollution is not an issue in Canada any more.

KB Professor Kate Baliga

RS Dr Roy Spalding
SE Steve Ellis
YS Yu Sung
JH John Holberry
RH Dr Rob Hall

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Question 8 – 14
Do the statements (questions 8 - 14) below agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 1, The Ecological Impact of Fish Farming?

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

9. More than half the sea food that the world eats today comes from farmed sources.
10. New government legislation has helped the problem of over-dependence of the
aquaculture industry on lesser fish.
11. The key problem with modern western fish farms is that they are aimed ar
producing fish that prey on other fish.
12. Traditionally, Asian fish farming has put less pressure on the need for feed
resourced from wild fish catches.
13. China is under pressure to produce the amount of fish farms that it has.
14. Oyster farming is criticised because of the oysters dangersously high levels of
zinc.

141
READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 15 – 27, which are based on Reading
Passage 2 below.

Sleep-ins for High School Students

A
A high school in the northeast of England has experienced an astonishing drop in
absenteeism following the introduction of a later 10.00 a.m. start time. Appleton High
School’s general absence rate has fallen by 8 per cent, while levels of persistent
absenteeism have dropped by a massive 27 per cent since the mid-morning start time
was brought in. The decision, which has been in place since October for 13 - 19-year-
olds, was introduced following research claims that teenagers were more mentally and
physically prepared for school work later in the day, and that the afternoon was the
optimum time for memory activity for the age group. While the experiment has
resulted in a clear improvement in absenteeism at the school, it remains to be seen
whether it will have the same effect on grades in the students’ work.

B
Since 1996, Kyle Strom and his research team at the Center for Educational
Improvement (CEI) in the United States have led the way in the study of later start
times for high school students. Strom claims that emerging medical research shows
adolescents have natural sleep phases that lead to a late-to-bed, late-to-rise cycle.
Medical researchers found this cycle is part of the maturation of the endocrine
system*. From the onset of puberty until late teen years, the brain chemical
melatonin*, which is responsible for sleepiness, is secreted from approximately 11.00
p.m. until approximately 8.00 a.m., 9 hours later. This secretion is based on human
circadian* rhythms and is rather fixed. In other words, typical teenagers are not able to
fall asleep much before 11.00 p.m. and their brains will remain in sleep mode until
about 8.00 a.m., regardless of what time they go to bed.

C
These adolescent sleep patterns can have profound consequences for education. With
classes in most high schools in the United States starting at around 7.15 a.m., high
school students tend to rise at about 5.00 or 6.00 a.m. in order to get ready and catch
the bus. It is no wonder that 20 per cent of students sleep during their first 2 hours of
school, when their brains and bodies are still in a biological sleep mode. The loss of
adequate sleep each night also results in a “sleep debt” for most teenagers. Those who

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are sleep-deprived or functioning with a sleep debt are shown to be more likely to
experience symptoms such as depression, difficulty relating to peers, school staff and
parents, and are more likely to use alcohol and other drugs.

D
Data collected from two high school districts, Johnstone, a suburban district that
changed its high school start times from 7.20 to 8.30, and the Highlands, that changed
its start times from 7.15 to 8.40, provided Strom and his colleagues with information
regarding the work, sleep and school habits of over 7,000 secondary students, over
3,000 teachers, and interview data from over 750 parents about their preferences and
beliefs about the starting time of school. The study has laid the groundwork for similar
changes in other school districts, supplying concrete results of putting the research
into practice. For example, the majority of Johnstone parents were initially opposed to
the late start scheme due to concerns about the effect of later starts on such logistical
issues as bus times, athletics and child care for younger students. But at the end of the
first year of implementation, 92 per cent of respondents of a survey for Johnstone high
school parents indicated that they preferred the later start times. Data also showed that
there was a significant reduction in school dropout rates and less depression. Schools
also reported students getting higher grades. This research has had a major impact
nationally. Strom receives numerous inquiries on a daily basis from teachers,
superintendents, parents and school nurses all over the nation requesting more
information about the findings of their research and how they can use that research to
change policies in their schools.

E
Patricia Brite, programme director for the National Sleep Foundation in the London
area, supports the theories. “We like what we have seen in the study and the feedback
from schools has backed it up too.” Brite goes on to say that she has been contacted by
over 50 heads of London schools who are all giving the same message. “What they’re
telling me,” Brite says, “is that the theory has the support of teachers, students and
governors. With support like that, there has to be a lot of sense in the proposals.”

F
The School Start Time Study effectively reveals to adult policy-makers that high
school students can benefit from later school start times. While the concept that
teenagers have a distinctly different sleep pattern was first recognised by medical
research findings, it is only through examination of actual cases where these findings
were used as a basis to change school policies that educators can understand the

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ramifications of making such a change. The case studies done by Strom and his
colleagues provide research-based information for school districts across countries
that are now seeking to make informed decisions for their own communities.

G
Not every school trying the late start scheme has found it a success though. In Cape
Town, South Africa, the scheme was abandoned after 3 months at a try-out school.
The school superintendent reports: “While we found the idea of a late start very
exciting for our students, in the end the philosophy was too different to the tradition
that our students were used to. It messed up their schedules, especially sport times,
and, after the short trial, the school student council approached the school board and
requested the abandonment of the scheme.” Clearly then, the scheme is not for
everyone or every school.

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Question 15 – 20
Reading Passage 2, Sleep-ins for High School Students, has seven paragraphs A – H.
From the list of headings below, choose the most suitable one for each parapragh B –
H.
Write the appropriate number (i – x) in answer boxes 15 – 20.
NB There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will not use them all.

i. The Education Sector Speaks

ii. Evidence Supporting the Need for Change
iii. Research Weakness
iv. English School Has Suprising Results
v. An Unsuccessful Experiment
vi. Study Educates Change-orientated Schools
vii. Teenage Sleep Pattern
viii. More Late Nights for Teens
ix. Information from Two Test Areas
x. Challenges in the Courts

Example Answer
Paragraph A iv
15. Paragraph B
16. Paragraph C
17. Paragraph D
18. Paragraph E
19. Paragraph F
20. Paragraph G

145
Question 21 – 27
Do the statements (questions 21 - 27) below agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 2, Sleep-ins for High School Students?

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

21. The innovation at Appleton High School has already led to improvements in
student performance.
22. Researchers now say that there is a biological reason why teenagers will perform
better if they get up late than traditional school start times.
23. Students suffering from sleep debt are more likely to show behavioural problems
at school.
24. Over 25 schools within two high school districts were involved in the new late
school start time reasearch.
25. Most Johnstone district parents welcomed the start time changes when they were
implemented.
26. Many high schools in London, England have implemented experimentation with
the new late school start time.
27. Teenagers in a South Africa test school did not generally support the new late
school start time scheme.

146
READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 28 – 40, which are based on Reading
Passage 3 below.

Bilingualism

People use the term "bilingualism" in different ways. For some, it means an equal
ability to communicate in two languages. For others, it simply means the ability to
communicate in two languages, but with greater skills in one. There are three types of
bilingualism which have been identified by researchers and which are commonly used
to describe bilingual people.

"Simultaneous bilingualism" can be defined as what occurs when a person learns two
languages as his or her first languages. A person who is a simultaneous bilingual goes
from speaking no languages at all to directly speaking two languages. This usually
happens because a child’s parents have different mother tongues, or because the
language their family speaks is not that of the country they are living in. Simultaneous
acquisition occurs when a child is raised bilingually from birth, or when the second
language is introduced before the age of 3. Children learning two languages
simultaneously go through the same developmental stages as children learning one
language and, while simultaneously bilingual children may frequently start talking
slightly later than monolingual children, they still begin producing speech within the
normal range. From the very beginning of language learning, simultaneous bilinguals
seem to acquire the two separate languages. Early on, they are able to differentiate
between their two languages and have been shown to switch from one to the other
according to their conversation partner. However, despite plenty of anecdotal*
evidence to the contrary, there has been much debate as to whether there really is such
a thing as a truly simultaneously bilingual person, since there will always be
sociolinguistic pressures that make one of the languages dominant.

"Receptive bilingualism" describes the situation in which a person is able to

understand two languages, but can express themselves in only one. Receptive
bilingualism is comparable to, but not the same as, mutual intelligibility. An example
of this could be a native Spanish speaker who is able to understand Portuguese and
vice-versa due to the high lexical and grammatical similarities between Spanish and
Portuguese. Receptive bilingualism in children occurs when they have high exposure
to a second language throughout their lives, but have little opportunity to use it.
Another reason may be that a child realises that the community language is more
prestigious than the language spoken within his or her household. In that case, the
child might choose to speak to his or her parents in the community language only,
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thereby not developing the ability to speak the parents’ language in spite of
understanding it. Receptive bilinguals may, however, achieve oral fluency rapidly
when placed in situations where they are required to speak the heritage language.
Receptive bilingualism can lead to humiliation and pressure, when the subject feels he
or she should speak the language, but cannot. This can also hinder speaking
development.

Finally, "sequential bilingualism" describes what takes place when a person learns a
second language after having already established a first one, which is the situation for
people who become bilingual as adults. Although many people never achieve
sufficient mastery of another language to be described as bilingual themselves, the
process leading to sequential bilingualism is the most familiar, since the majority of
educated adults have had second language classes at school.

There are various advantages claimed for being bilingual. Being proficient in more
than one language gives people access to two cultures, making them more tolerant and
open to learning about diverse backgrounds, traditions and social behaviours, as well
as being a part of them. Studies have also shown that bilingual people have better
task-switching capacities at work, because of their acquired ability to change
languages quickly. In other words, speaking two languages forces people’s brains to
recognise two different language systems. Being bilingual can also promote mental
agility and it can help delay neurological disorders like dementia and Alzheimer's
disease. According to some studies, monolingual adults tend to show the first signs of
dementia at the average age of 71. This is in contrast to bilingual individuals whose
first symptoms appear around 76 years of age.

There is sometimes a perception, particularly among monolingual speakers, that

bilingualism is a disadvantage in learning. This view is often characterised by the
ideas of cognitive overload, and studies into this broadly concluded that bilingualism
resulted in lower IQ scores. Some of the first research on bilingualism, conducted
primarily between 1920 and 1960, appeared to support this view. Indeed, these studies
often associated bilingual children with the term ‘linguistically handicapped’. General
indications from these early studies were that monolingual children were up to 3 years
ahead of bilingual children in various skills relating to verbal and non-verbal
intelligence. Since 1960, however, these studies have been widely discredited, as it
seems that they were based on an incorrect understanding of how the brain works.
Bilingual people exhibit the full range of academic and intellectual abilities of
monolingual people without this affecting their ability to be bilingual. This means that
any persistent negative views of bilingualism can be explained only by the

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unfamiliarity many monolingual speakers have with bilingualism and / or by a biased
view of bilingualism.

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Question 28 – 32
Look at statements 28 – 32 and the list of types of billingulaism below.
Match each statement with the correct form of billingulaism.

28. People who achieve this form of billingulaism are already proficient in one
language.
29. Billinguals of this type may start to talk a little later than other children.
30. The fact that they do not actively use their second language can cause
embarassment to people with this form of billingulaism.
31. In oder to achieve this form of billingulaism, the process must be started before
the age of 3.
32. With this billingulaism, people actually only speak one of their two languages
well.

A The statement refers to simultaneous billingulaism.

B The statement refers to receptive billingulaism.
C The statement refers to sequential billingulaism.

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Questions 33 – 35
Complete each sentence with the correct ending.
Choose from the list, A – F, below.
Write the appropriate letters, A- F, in aswer boxes 33 – 35
33. Some experts feel …
34. Some children believe …
35. Modern research implies that …

A … knowing two languages is confusing.

B … one of their languages has a low stastus.
C … there are more types of bilingualism still to be discovered.
D … bilingualism is an asset rather than a hindrance.
E … equal competence in two languages can never be achieved.
F … people can never become bilingual in adulthood.

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Questions 36 - 40
Complete the notes below.
Use NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from Reading Passage 3, Bilingualism, for
each answer.
Write them in answer boxes 36 – 40.
Advantages
Bilingualism allows speakers to access different cultures; as a result of which they are
more (36) …………………… and open-mined.
The ability to communicate in and switch between two languages gives bilingual
people better tassk-switching capacities in job.
Bilingualism is claimed to slow the signs of (37) …………………… in old people,
including dementia and Alzheimer’s disease.
Disadvantages
The notion of (38) …………………… led to the early perception that bilingualism
caused poor IQ scores.
Early studies showed various learning difficulties, and bilingual people coule be
labelled as (39) …………………….
Monolingual children were shown to be more advanced.
These studies are now discredited, as being based on poor understanding of the brain.
Current adverse opinions about bilingualism tend to originate from (40)
…………………… with bilingualism or bias.

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 Practice Test 12
READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 1 – 14, which are based on Reading
Passage 1 below.

Farming in Dorado
A
Dorado is best known for its stunning archaeological sites, but the ancient people who
built these marvels were also among the world’s first accomplished farmers, growing
a diverse range of native crops. Where climate and terrain posed a significant
challenge, their engineering foreshadowed contemporary farming methods with
astonishing success. Extensive terracing with built-in irrigation and drainage systems
turned steep hillsides into workable farmlands, which were fertilised with manure
from llama and alpaca herds. Up to 15 million people were fed under these farming
systems and an elaborate road system allowed transport of food throughout the region.
B
Today the descendants of the original architects and agriculturalists still farm the
Doradian highlands, growing many of the same crops, the majority of which remain
unknown outside the area. Some of the challenges that faced their forebears, such as
erratic rainfall and difficult terrain, still hold, but a lack of support for rural
development is the main factor that has reduced this once proud people to barely
scraping a livelihood from the land. Most are smallholder farmers, struggling to grow
enough food for their families. Today, these impoverished farmers and their families
still have no, or very limited, access to education and health services, good transport,
financial services and basic farming needs like quality seed. It is moot* whether they
could afford these things anyway if they were available.
C
The potato is the most important food security crop, and over 4,000 different varieties
are known. Other crops include roots and tubers* like yacon, oca and maca, and grains
such as quinoa at higher altitudes. Maize and vegetables are grown at lower altitudes,
and, lower still, a range of tropical crops are cultivated. Indeed, the marked variations
in elevation and microclimate, and the efforts of farmers over thousands of years, have
made this one of the world’s most important centres of plant domestication; potatoes,
maize, peppers, cotton and cassava are just some of the crops that this region has
given to the world.
D
Things are rather different for Doradians farming the coastal region to the west of the
mountains. Traditionally popular with beach-seeking tourists, the area is desert, with

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almost no rainfall year round. However, it is surprisingly the most agriculturally
productive area in Dorado, generating an estimated 50 per cent of the gross
agricultural product from an area that comprises just 4 per cent of the national land
total. The secret is elaborate irrigation systems, some built thousands of years ago, that
exploit the many small rivers running from the mountains to the ocean. Flat land, good
temperatures all year round, and plenty of guano and fishmeal fertilisers from the
nearby coast have also contributed to the farming success of the region. Nevertheless,
the fortunes of the coastal farmers have fluctuated over the years. Before the Land
Reform Act of 1972, about 80 per cent of the farmland in this region was owned by a
small number of wealthy families. The Act transferred ownership to cooperatives
comprising the former employees, but this measure created its own problems, among
them a lack of individual incentives, and in many cases productivity fell. At the
beginning of the 1980s the land was mostly converted into individual holdings, which
has allowed farmers to seek and benefit from new opportunities.
E
Meanwhile the population in the coastal region has been increasing rapidly, with more
than 50 per cent of Dorado’s population now living in cities in this region. Farmers
have diversified to supply these urban markets with products such as meat, but at the
same time they have looked outside the country for other lucrative* options.
Asparagus, with its high international demand and high prices, has proved an astute*
choice, bringing about US$206 million into the country in 2003 and displacing coffee,
sugarcane and cotton as Dorado’s leading agriculture exports. Year-round asparagus
production has provided the competitive advantage for Dorado, but the market is
thought to have reached a mature point, with demand unlikely to increase dramatically
in the coming years.
F
Dorado’s third main eco-region comprises the lush* eastern slopes of the central
mountain range, with their cascading rivers, huge meandering waterways and dense
jungle. And here again, life is very different. The people have traditionally lived in
small villages, fishing the rivers, hunting, farming by slash-and-burn methods and
accumulating knowledge of the medicinal properties of the plants. The tremendous
natural wealth of the region, which covers 63 per cent of Dorado, has long been
recognised and frequently exploited. Gold and rubber have had their day,
unsustainable logging of hardwood species is an ongoing issue and natural gas is the
latest controversial forest extract. The plan is to transfer the large gas reserves by
pipeline to the west coast cities, and also potentially outside Dorado. The problem is
the environmental damage caused by construction of the pipeline.
G
Many Doradian politicians come to power largely on the strength of promises to help
the rural poor, but so far the majority of the promised actions have failed to

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materialise. Doradian farmers depend on legislation passed in the parliament, and they
are susceptible to proposed commitments. Once in power, however, the politicians
rarely show the same interest in their agricultural supporters as when they are
canvassing. The fickleness of politicians does not lessen the impact of government
legislation and farming profits depend on fuel, seed and fertiliser prices and minimum
wage settings.

155
Question 1 – 6
Reading Passage 1, Farming in Dorado, has seven paragraphs A – H.
From the list of headings below, choose the most suitable one for each parapragh B –
H.
Write the appropriate number (i – xi) in answer boxes 1 – 6.
NB There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will not use them all.

i. Farming nest to the Sea

ii. Riches from the Rainforest
iii. Hybrid Seed Technology
iv. Modern Agricultural Techniques of an Ancient People
v. Foreign Interference
vi. Poverty in the Mountains
vii. The Influence of the Tourist Industry
viii. Let Down by the Law-makers
ix. A Land of Plentiful Produce
x. Increasing Dependence on Meat Farming
xi. Production for Cities and Export

Example Answer
Paragraph A iv
1. Paragraph B
2. Paragraph C
3. Paragraph D
4. Paragraph E
5. Paragraph F
6. Paragraph G

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Question 7 – 14
Do the statements (questions 7 - 14) below agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 1, Farming in Dorado?
In answer boxes 7 – 14, wirte:
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

7. The ancestors of the Doradians were only able to use flat areas in mountains regions
for farming.
8. Previous generations of Doradians used waste from animals to enrich the soil.
9. The specific Doradian microclimate is also found in other mountain areas with
similar elevation.
10. The Doradian farm district with the highest agricultural yields is in an unexpected
area.
11. Doradian farming has adapted to local demographic changes.
12. In the past, Doradian governments have accepted bribes to issue international
company contracts.
13. Natural gas resources are now being shipped aboard.
14. Doradian seed prices have fluctuated widely in recent years.

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READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 15 – 27, which are based on Reading
Passage 2 below.

Sea Glider Shows Underwater Potential

A strange-looking yellow "fish" has been lurking in the waters off the southern coast
of Vancouver Island recently. Called a Slocum underwater glider, the 1.5-metre-long,
52-kilogram torpedo-shaped vehicle is under evaluation by the federal government’s
Institute of Ocean Sciences (IOS). Driven entirely by a variable buoyancy system
instead of a propeller, it needs no mother ship for tethering* or support. The
evaluation project is a formal collaboration between Fisheries and Oceans Canada and
the Canadian Centre for Ocean Gliders (CCOG).

The Slocum is not the first underwater glider, as they have been around a while now.
Underwater gliders are called gliders because they literally glide through water much
like a sailplane glides through the air under gravity. They are slowly succeeding
propeller-driven, electricity-hungry craft to explore and monitor deep-sea conditions.
Underwater gliders can propel themselves for months using only a trick of buoyancy.
Apart from saving energy, these craft also endure better because there are no external
moving parts like blades and wing flaps to gum up. And, as there is no propeller, such
an undersea craft does not contaminate its environment with lubricants needed to
smooth propeller motion. Matt Russi, an aerospace and ocean engineer at Virginia
Tech developing internal controls suitable for gliders, points out that: “Slocums
should not disturb the environment which they are sampling. For propeller-powered
underwater vehicles, this might mean avoiding stirring up sediment* on the ocean
floor, which happens when a vehicle uses external thrusters. With gliders there is no
exhaust, no discharge and no lubricants.” A colleague of Russi, Dr Rob Kirwan, also
adds that “since there are no external actuators*, the vehicles are robust to corrosion.”

Traditional underwater gliders work by being buoyantly nearly neutral while near the
water’s surface, so that they sink slowly down. If you want to go straight, just shift the
weight forward to tilt the nose down a bit. Then to rise, electricity from a battery
between the tail wings is used to pump an oil contained inside central hull tanks next
to the mid wings into external containment bladders behind the nose. This simple
manoeuver increases the craft’s volume, and thus lowers its density just enough for
the surrounding water to push it upward. Although this is cutting-edge technology, it
seems nature beat human engineers to it. Marine biologists were for a long time
mystified by how dolphins could cross greater distances than their muscle power and
oxygen intake should allow. Many researchers attributed this to an even skin coating
158
that would reduce water friction, but new evidence points to gliding enabled by
buoyancy changes when water pressure compresses air in the respiratory system.

The University of Washington has already done extensive and successful testing on its
small underwater gliders. The small machines have had “flights” lasting a month, and
the power supply in the current version should allow six months of flight, which gives
it a range of about 5,000 kilometres with average ocean currents. “Of course, a larger
vehicle, which would allow a larger battery pack, could last much longer,” said Philip
Loren, director of the Applied Physics Laboratory of the University of Washington.

The Slocum underwater glider offers an even more radical approach. It requires no
electricity at all for locomotion. It harnesses the naturally occurring temperature
gradients within the oceans for its power. “You’re harvesting propulsion energy from
around the Slocum. Heat flow from a warm place to a cold place is capable of doing
work. You’re not violating any laws of thermodynamics,” explained Peter West, the
Slocum’s inventor. Inside Webb’s Slocum underwater glider is a cavity* filled with an
organic liquid compound that contracts when cooled and expands when warmed.
When the Slocum rises to the surface, the greater heat there expands the material,
pushing a spring. That spring* stores energy as tension and when the vessel dives
deep, the water cools. When the spring is released, it pushes the flotation oil out into
the external bladders to make the glider go up. When the Slocum reaches the surface,
the process repeats itself.

“At present, we are simply learning what the Slocum can do,” says Darren Larsen,
engineering manager for IOS. “I confess that my initial motivation was to develop the
vehicle. However, once we were able to add sensors to address biology in the water
column, my personal interest has increased beyond the engineering aspects.” The
Slocum is equipped with various sensors to identify chlorophyll fluorescence,
dissolved organic material, and particle scattering. “The sensors provide us with
information about the water mass and the physics,” says Steve Wilson, IOS research
scientist. “They also provide us with information about microscopic life in the ocean.”

Science has often been criticised for not exploring the earth’s oceans as much as they
should. With the Slocum Thermal glider’s range being 40,000 kilometres, it could
theoretically circle the world. It is able to dive two kilometres under the surface and
travel transmitting data for five years before returning to port. With technology like
this, scientists might start to understand the earth’s oceans properly.

159
Question 15 – 20
Look at statements 15 – 20 and the list of people below.
Match each statement with the correct person.
Write the appropriate initials of the people in answer boxes 15 – 20.

15. The energy used to power the Slocum underwater glider comes from the sea
around the Slocum.
16. Due to the design of moving underwater gliders, the vehicles are not prone to
rusting.
17. Slocums can discover date on ocean life.
18. Underwater probes that use propellers can disturb underwater environments.
19. The Slocums research capabilities make it a stimulating project to work on.
20. To increase the range of traditional underwater gliders, a larger battery is required.

MR Matt Russi
PK Dr Rob Kirwan
PL Phillip Loren
PW Peter West
DL Darren Larsen
SW Steve Wilson

160
Questions 21 – 23
Complete the flow chart below using words from Reading Passage 2, Sea Glider
Shows Underwater Potential.
Write NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the text in each answer box, 21 –
23.

21. 22. 23.

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Question 24 – 27
Complete each sentences with the correct ending.
Choose the appropriate letter A - H, and write them in the boxes 24 - 27 on your
answer sheet.
24. Canadian government organisations are …
25. Underwater gliders are mainly used for …
26. Dolphins cross great distances by …
27. The Slocum differs from other underwater gliders in …

A … having a much larger battery pack.

B … using a type of gliding.
C … using thermodynamics for propulsion.
D … assessing the viability of the Slocum.
E … not disturbing other underwater vehicles.
F … collaborating with other countries on underwater research.
G … being able to reduce water friction.
H … collecting information form deep sea environments.

162
READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 28 – 40, which are based on Reading
Passage 3 below.

Monarch Butterflies
Monarch butterflies are the most beautiful of all butterflies. The coloration of this
species is dazzling orange with white and black marks. Their bodies are black and
their heads have sets of antennae. Most often, they have orange wings that have black
streaks running all over, while the outer edges of their wings have thick black borders.
Males have a black mark in the middle of each rear wing, but females do not.
Monarch butterflies go through four stages during their life cycle. The first stage
involves mating and the production of eggs. Monarch butterflies use scent for
communicating and the males draw females to mate by discharging chemicals from
scent glands in their rear wings. Once together, breeding takes place and the female
lays the eggs on milkweed plants. In the second stage, the eggs hatch into caterpillars,
called “larvae”. It takes about 4 days for the eggs to hatch and then the baby
caterpillar does little more than eat the milkweed it has hatched on in order to grow.
After about 2 weeks, when the caterpillar is fully grown, it is ready to start the third
stage of the life cycle, the process of metamorphosis. In this stage, the caterpillar
attaches itself to a stem or a leaf using silk and then transforms itself into a chrysalis
by hardening its skin. Although from the outside the 10 days of the chrysalis phase
may appear to be a time when nothing is happening, it is a time of rapid change.
Within the chrysalis the body parts of the caterpillar undergo a remarkable
transformation to become the beautiful parts that make up the butterfly that emerges.
Finally, the monarch butterfly emerges from the chrysalis and flies away, feeding on
flowers and enjoying the short life it has left, which is only a month to 6 weeks. Many
generations of butterflies can come and go in a single year.
Every November, monarch butterflies arrive in their preferred breeding environment
in central Mexico to spend the winter, having spent around 2 months travelling up to
2,800 miles across fields, mountains, deserts and seas from Canada and the United
States. Due to the long distances, monarch butterflies breed as they travel, with none
of those setting off ever arriving at their destination. Central Mexico is ideal as the
food and protection necessary for prolific breeding is provided by the heavily wooded
areas the monarch butterflies choose.
However, in the most recent migration, fewer of the orange- and red-winged monarchs
made it to the end of the journey than ever before. The monarch butterfly population
in Mexico was the lowest in 20 years, according to research just released by the
WWF-Telcel Alliance and the monarch butterfly Biosphere Reserve Office of the
Mexican government. The start of the arrival of the breeding pairs prompted the
beginning of the research that showed a 43.7 per cent decrease (nearly three acres) in
the total amount of forestland occupied by monarchs in and near Mexico’s monarch
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butterfly Biosphere Reserve, and a similar decrease in the number of butterflies in the
area. The research was conducted over several weeks last year and the decrease is
similar to that shown in the research conducted in the year before that.
The decrease is due to the threats the monarchs experienced at different stages of their
journey. At the beginning, their primary food source (milkweed plants) was in short
supply because of herbicides used more regularly for agriculture in the US. While en
route, the monarch butterflies had to avoid their usual predators and also faced
extreme weather conditions, including higher than normal temperatures and storms.
The hot temperatures also affect any breeding that occurs during migration, as
temperatures above 95°F can be lethal for monarch larvae. Eggs dry out in hot, arid
conditions, causing a drastic decrease in hatch rate. Monarchs prefer milder
temperatures. Once they reached their winter sites in Mexico, the monarchs
encountered scarce and deteriorating forests, the direct result of illegal logging*. The
lack of suitable environment has had a serious effect on the breeding of the butterflies.
Recently, however, the Mexican government claimed in a research report that illegal
logging has practically been eliminated in western Mexico, the principal wintering
grounds of the monarch butterfly. Mexican officials now hope to use the successful
programme of anti-logging patrols and payments to rural residents to solve other
forestry conflicts throughout the country. The government, environmental groups and
private donors have also spent millions of dollars to get residents of forest
communities in butterfly reserve areas to plant trees and start eco-tourism businesses
in order to benefit from the widespread fascination with the monarchs’ yearly multi-
generational migration through Canada, the United States and Mexico.
While Mexicans have started using monarch butterflies for eco-tourism, Americans
and Canadians are using them for butterfly releases, which are now particularly
popular at weddings. Dealers in monarch butterflies claim that releases are great for
almost any special occasions, but releasing butterflies during a wedding can have a
special significance for some couples. Some say it signifies that their love is as
beautiful as the butterflies themselves. Others say that it means that their love will
soar like butterflies. Some release one butterfly for each vow that they take. However,
release should be done in a responsible way. Dealers recommend that the
environmental conditions should be right. The temperature should be above 55°F and
it should be sunny outside for the best effect, although butterflies can fly in light rain
as well. There must still be a little bit of light as monarch butterflies will not fly at
night, although sometimes they will fly for about 20 minutes after the sun sets.

164
Question 28 – 33
Do the statements (questions 28 - 33) below agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 3, Monarch Butterflies?
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

28. Male monarch butterflies have different markings to the females.

29. Male monarch butterflies attract females by using the females’ sence of smell.
30. The text identifies the larva as being the third part of the monarch butterfly life
cycle.
31. Baby caterpillars must at least double their body weight before the transition to a
chrysalis.
32. Monarch butterflies arrving in Mexico are actually the descendants of the
butterflies that initially set out on the migration.
33. At the end of their migration, monarch butterflies are known to cross-breed with
local Mexican butterflies.

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Question 34 – 36
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.

34. In what environment do the monarch butterflies end their migration journey?
A Forests
B Fields
C Mountains
D Desert terrain

35. What did the recent research by the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve Office
measure?
A The area inhabited by butterflies and sampling of breeding butterfly pairs.
B The area inhabited by butterflies and the area’s butterfly population density.
C The area inhabited by butterflies and the weight of butterfly samples collected.
D The area inhabited by butterflies and the number of butterflies arriving each
day to the area.

36. Which of the following is NOT given as a reason for reducing the numbers of
migrating monarch butterflies from North American?
A A range of herbicides used by US farms
B A period of time of high temperatures
C A lack of their staple food
D An increase in predator numbers

166
Questions 37 – 40
Complete the summary below
Use NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from Reading Passage 3, Monarch
Butterflies, for each answer.

(37) ____________________ reduces the available Mexican forest, where monarch

butterflies spend the winter. The Mexican government claims that his has now been
stopped where the butterflies breed as a result of patrols and resolving local forestry
conflicts. Lots of money has also been spent on planting trees and developing (38)
____________________ related to the monarch butterfly’s migration.
North Americans sometims use monarch butterflies for releases at special events,
especially (39) ____________________, where the release can take on vorious
meanings. Releasing responsibly, however, means that (40) ____________________
should be taken into account. The temperature, rain and amount of light can all affect
the success of release.

167
 Practice Test 13
READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 1 – 14, which are based on Reading
Passage 1 below.

A Brief History of Roads

From the earliest times, one of the strongest indicators of a society’s level of
development has been its road system, or the lack of one. Increasing populations and
the advent of towns and cities brought with them the need for communication and
commerce between those growing population centres. In Egypt, in around 2500 BC,
the Pharaoh Cheops built a construction road 1,000 yards long and 60 feet wide that
led to the site of the Great Pyramid, and this is believed to be the earliest paved* road
on record. Since it was used only for this one job and was never used for travel,
Cheops’ road was not truly a road in the same sense that the later trade routes, royal
highways and impressively paved Roman roads were.

The various early trade routes developed where goods were transported from their
source across terrain such as mountains and deserts to a market outlet, and were often
named after the goods which travelled upon them. For example, the Amber Route
travelled from Afghanistan through Persia and Arabia to Egypt, and the Silk Route
stretched 8,000 miles from China, across Asia, and then through Spain to the Atlantic
Ocean. However, the overriding drawback* of these early overland trade routes was
that carrying bulky goods with slow animals over rough, unpaved roads was a time-
consuming and expensive proposition. As a general rule, the price of the goods
doubled for every 100 miles they had to travel.

Without doubt, the champion road builders of them all were the ancient Romans, who,
until modern times, built the world’s straightest, best engineered and most complex
network of roads. At its height, the Roman Empire maintained 53,000 miles of roads,
which covered all of England to the north, most of Western Europe, radiated
throughout the Iberian Peninsula and encircled and crisscrossed the entire
Mediterranean area. Most renowned for their straightness, Roman roads were
composed of a graded soil foundation topped by four foundation courses: first sand,
and then large, flat stones. On top was some gravel and then a thin surface of flint-like
lava. The roads were then topped with cambered stone slabs. Typically they were
three to five feet thick and varied in width from eight to 35 feet, although the average
width for the main roads was from 12 to 24 feet. This design allowed heavy loads to
be transported repeatedly for many years with minimal maintenance work. The

168
Roman design remained the most sophisticated one until the advent of modern road-
building technology in the very late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Many of their
original roads are still in use today, although they have been resurfaced numerous
times. Under Roman law, the public had the right to use the roads, but the district
through which a road passed was responsible for the maintenance of the roadway.
This system was effective as long as a strong central authority existed to enforce it.
Unfortunately, as the Roman Empire declined, so did most of its roads, and their work
fell into disrepair all across Europe and Great Britain.

In eighteenth century England, the technology of highway construction received a

boost from two British engineers, Thomas Telford and John Loudon McAdam.
Telford, originally a stonemason, came up with a system of road building which
required digging a trench, installing a foundation of heavy rock, and then surfacing
with a 6-inch layer of gravel. During construction, the centre of the road was raised,
producing a crown that allowed water to drain off. In the course of his career, Telford
built over 1,000 roads, 1,200 bridges and numerous other structures. Although his
system was faster and less expensive that the Romans’ method, it was still costly and
required frequent resurfacing. On the other hand, McAdam’s system was based on the
principle that a well-drained road made of suitable material does not need the heavy
stone foundation of Telford’s system, but could be built directly on the subsoil. First
McAdam placed a closely compacted 10- to 12-inch layer of stone, which had been
broken to 1-inch diameter pieces and which was raised in the centre to facilitate
drainage. This was followed by a carpet of finer grained stone, which was cemented
by the setting of the powder, and was completed in stages, allowing the road’s traffic
to compact each stage. The greatest advantages to McAdam’s system were its speed
and low cost, and it was generally adopted throughout Europe. However, it was the
lack of a firm foundation for the roadbed that was to prove the ultimate undoing of
McAdam's roads, and so for roads that had to support heavy loads, Telford’s system
of construction became the standard.

The final standard for road building happened by chance on a UK road near Denby
ironworks in Derbyshire in 1901. The county surveyor of Nottingham, Edgar Purnell
Hooley, noticed a barrel of tar* had fallen from a dray* and burst open. To avoid a
nuisance, someone from the ironworks had thoughtfully covered the sticky black mess
with waste slag from nearby furnaces. Hooley noticed that the patch of road, which
had been unintentionally resurfaced, was dust free and had not been rutted by traffic.
Hooley set to work, and by the following year, 1902, Hooley obtained a British patent
for a method of mixing slag with tar, naming the material Tarmac. Today’s road had
arrived!

169
Question 1 – 3
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.

1. Why is the road built during the reign of Cheops not classed as a road in terms of
later roads?
A It was not paved
B It was not used after its original purposes only
C It was too short
D It was used for communications purposes only

2. What was the main problem with early roads?

A It was expensive to transport goods
B There was too much danger from robbers
C There were few roads that went to ports
D It was difficult to cross moutains terrain

3. According to the text, for what are Roman rads most famous?
A Their extensive network
B Their complexity of construction
C Their straightness
D The length of individual roads

170
Questions 4 – 6
Complete the flow chart below using words from Reading Passage 1, A Brief History
of Roads.
Write NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the text in each answer box, 4 – 6.

MATERIALS KEY

A Soil foundation

B (4)

C Large flat stones

D (5)

E Flint-like lava

F (6)

171
Question 7 – 14
Do the statements (questions 7 - 14) below agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 1, A Brief History of Roads?
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

7. Silk, amber and other goods used to be brought to Europe overland.

8. In Roman times the central government was responsible for road repair.
9. The Romans ran out of money for maintaining the road network.
10. Telford’s roads used fewer materials than the Roman roads.
11. Telford’s designed his road building system before McAdam.
12. McAdam’s road building system was cheaper than Telford’s.
13. Road users played a part in the construction of McAdam’s roads.
14. Road design has not changed very much in over a century.

172
READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 15 – 27, which are based on Reading
Passage 2 below.

Whale Sharks

A
Whale sharks are the largest fish in the world, with the longest ever recorded at over
13.5 metres. Fortunately, they are gentle filter feeders that suck in plankton* and small
fish. Curiously, there are rows of tiny teeth within the whale shark’s impressively
large mouth, the purpose of which nobody as yet understands. The whale shark is
generally considered harmless and is not aggressive towards humans in the water.
There have, however, been a few instances of boats being butted* by whale sharks,
possibly after the sharks had been provoked. Divers are also warned to steer clear of
the powerful tail and follow the Whale Shark Code of Conduct at all times.

B
There are several significant threats to whale sharks’ survival. Healthy ecosystems are
essential for the continuing presence of whale sharks and the destruction or spoiling of
their environments directly affects whale shark populations. Environment loss occurs
in many ways. For example, overfishing of reef fish allows population explosions of
coral grazers*, causing a reduction in food. Maritime construction and development
again cause damage and environment loss, but also lead to an increase in pollution.
Pollution from land, increased boat traffic and tourism can affect whale sharks both
directly and indirectly, most significantly by destroying prey populations. Another
issue is that habitat destruction, elevated noise and pollution from boat traffic may
affect migration patterns, and migration is an essential part of the whale shark’s life
history in order to feed, mate and give birth.

C
Disturbance or harassment of individual sharks by boats and divers have an unknown
impact on sharks and their migration. Furthermore, whale sharks are vulnerable to
damage from being struck by boats whilst they are feeding at the surface and many
whale sharks have boat scars from previous impacts. There is no information,
however, on how significant this threat is to whale sharks nor how commonly this
occurs. Often the shark is used as an indicator of waters rich in plankton-feeding fish
that will, in turn, attract more valuable species such as tuna, and so whale sharks can
be disturbed by boats hunting these other fish.

173
D
Whale shark catches have greatly declined over recent years, and this is due to the
underlying decline in population. All of the whale shark fisheries in India, Taiwan and
the Philippines reported declines not only in catches but in the average size of sharks
caught too. This, however, has not reduced the consumption of whale shark. Despite
the fact that these animals are protected under international law, whale shark products
are readily available where fisheries remain and continue to fetch high prices on the
international market.

E
Fishing for meat and the fins of the whale shark poses a very serious threat to whale
shark populations and their survival. The meat is highly valued and sells for a high
price in many Asian countries with the flesh of the whale shark being consumed fresh,
frozen and salted for meat. Many other body parts of the shark are also sought after;
the liver is processed for oil, the fins for soup, the offal for fish meal, the cartilage for
health supplements in Chinese medicine and the skin has been used for leather or
shagreen* products. Even the liver oil is utilised for waterproofing wooden fishing
boats and other appliances, for the manufacture of shoe polish and as a treatment for
some skin diseases.

F
The whale shark’s large size and specialised diet means this species is difficult to keep
in marine zoos, and it has, as yet, not become a mainstream* show species.
Individuals have, however, been kept in aquaria in Japan, although scientific opinion
is divided as to whether this will be able to positively affect wild populations of whale
sharks.

G
The whale shark has an enormous mouth that can be more than 1.5 metres wide.
Whereas other plankton-feeders swim slowly through the water, mouth agape*, with
the forward motion driving plankton-laden water into their mouths, the whale shark
distends its jaws and actively sucks, drawing water containing microscopic, free-
swimming items, such as small crustaceans, fishes and squids, into its mouth. Gill
rakers - special structures on the gills - filter out any organism over 2 to 3 millimetres
in size, meaning that almost nothing but liquid passes back out through the gills.
Whale sharks have been observed "coughing", which is thought to be a method of

174
clearing food particles that have accumulated on the gill rakers. Prey items are located
primarily by olfactory* senses. Whereas the eyes of the whale shark are tiny with
relatively poor vision, the well developed nostrils located on either side of the upper
jaw are thought to sense plankton density. Furthermore, whale sharks are seen to
sweep their heads from side to side as they swim to maximise plankton intake, turning
frequently to remain in denser plankton patches. Whilst usually solitary creatures,
there are reports of groups of whale sharks feeding at the same time, however, this
may be more linked to plankton density than a desire to congregate*.

175
Question 15 – 20
Reading Passage 2, Whale Sharks, has seven paragraphs A – G.
From the list of headings below, choose the most suitable one for each parapragh B –
G.
Write the appropriate number (i – x) in answer boxes 15 – 20.
NB There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will not use them all.

i. Products for Human Consumption

ii. Numbers and Trade
iii. Partnership Conservation
iv. The Threat to Humans
v. The Whale Shark in Captivity
vi. Diet and Method of Feeding
vii. Human Interference
viii. Japanese Whale Shark Fishing
ix. Habitat Damage
x. Hopes for the Future

Example Answer
Paragraph A iv
15. Paragraph B
16. Paragraph C
17. Paragraph D
18. Paragraph E
19. Paragraph F
20. Paragraph G

176
Question 21 – 27
Do the statements (questions 21 - 27) below agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 2, Whale Sharks?
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

21. Most marine zoologists agree that whale sharks use their nuberous teeth to crush
and chew their small small prey.
22. The effects of pollution and habitat damage have increased over the past 25 years.
23. Fishermen use sitings of whale sharks to help them catch other fish.
24. Declining numbers of whale sharks have led to a reduction in how many are
caught.
25. Scientists agree that a captivity programme will help restore whale shark numbers
in the wild.
26. Whale sharks are able to smell prey in the water from long distances.
27. In general, whale sharks do not collect together in the sea.

177
READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 28 – 40, which are based on Reading
Passage 3 below.

Lister and Surgical Sterilisation

A
Sterilisation is the process of making an object or surface free from microorganisms
known as bacteria, which can cause infections. In order to avoid wounds becoming
infected when operations are carried out, surgical instruments and surfaces need to be
completely clean and free of harmful bacteria. Ethylene oxide is the chemical
compound that is most commonly used for sterilisation today, though other techniques
are applied depending on the type of instrument that is required to perform an
operation, as well as the material from which an object is made.

B
It was not possible to develop modern surgery until three great obstacles had been
overcome. These were the control of bleeding, the control of pain and the control of
infection. The first of these was developed in 1552, when the idea of tying off the ends
of broken or cut blood vessels with threads called ligatures in order to minimise
bleeding was first used. The control of pain through anaesthesia was introduced in the
early nineteenth century. Before this, surgery had been agony for the struggling
patient, which in turn meant that doctors had to operate as quickly as possible. The
third major obstacle, the control of infection, remained unconquered until later in the
nineteenth century. Until then, death from infection following any type of operation
was highly likely. Amputations (removals of part of the body) were particularly
dangerous. Between 1852 and 1857 at the London Hospital, 142 amputations were
performed on 136 patients. Overall, mortality was 46 per cent, and the deaths were
nearly all due to postoperative infection.

C
Although doctors recognised the symptoms of infection and its often fatal results,
there was little knowledge of its causes or how to deal with it. As a result of this,
surgeons frequently brought about their patients’ subsequent death through their lack
of basic hygiene when operating. It took the work of Louis Pasteur and, subsequently,
Joseph Lister to establish the role of bacteria in transmitting disease and infection.
Once this link had been made it was then possible to find ways to limit the spread of
these microbes.

178
D
Joseph Lister was born in Upton, Essex in England on 5 April 1827, the son of a wine
merchant and amateur scientist. While still young, Lister became interested in surgery
and was present at one of the first operations carried out under anaesthetic in Britain.
He went on to study medicine in London, where he explored the action of muscles in
the skin and the eye, the mechanisms involved in the coagulation of blood, and the
symptoms of the early stages of infection.

E
Lister’s first clue as to the cause of infection came from comparing patients who had
simple fractures with those who had compound fractures. Simple fractures do not
involve an external wound. These patients had their bones set and placed in a cast, and
they recovered. Compound fractures are those where the broken bone pierces the skin
and is exposed to the air. More than half of these patients died later because of
infection. Lister reasoned that somehow, these infections must have entered the
wound from the outside.

F
In 1864 the Frenchman Louis Pasteur had shown that infection could be caused by
bacteria that entered wounds from the air or by touch, and that organisms did not
come to life spontaneously from non-living matter, as had previously been suggested.
Lister immediately recognised the truth and usefulness of Pasteur’s work. He realised
that if it were true that bacterial germs entering wounds from the air or by touch
caused infection, then they could be killed and infection prevented.

G
Pasteur had employed heat to eliminate bacteria, but this technique was not suitable
for use with human flesh. Instead, Lister concentrated on finding a suitable chemical
to kill the microbes that lived on any surfaces or instruments that came into contact
with a patient. He knew that carbolic acid was being used as an effective disinfectant
in sewers, and investigated whether it could be used safely for operations. Beginning
in 1865, Lister used carbolic acid to wash his hands before and after an operation and
to sterilise the instruments and the bandages used in the operation. Lister also sprayed
the air with this chemical acid to kill airborne germs. After more than a year of
refining these techniques, Lister had sufficient data to show that his methods were a
success.

179
H
Widespread acceptance of Lister’s procedures was slow, as is often the case with
revolutionary ideas. There were various reasons, but the key one was the expense,
which stopped many doctors from even attempting his methods. Some doctors were
also unwilling to take the time to consider new ideas, and some found it difficult to
believe bacteria existed, as they were too small to see. Others tried to implement
Lister’s ideas, but failed to obtain the desired result as they did not follow the
sterilisation procedures correctly. It was not until Lister was appointed Professor of
Surgery at King’s College Hospital in London in 1877 that he began to win over
English doctors. Nowadays, over 150 years after Lister’s innovations, the practice of
using antiseptics is so fundamental to medicine that it is easy to forget how
revolutionary his ideas and procedures were. There is no doubt that millions of lives
have been saved thanks to the ideas and procedures he introduced.

180
Question 28 - 36
Reading Passage 3, Lister and Surgical Sterilisation, has eight paragraphs A – H
Which paragraph contains the information below (question 28 – 36)?
Write the correct letter, A – H in answer boxes 28 – 36 on your answer sheet.
NB You can use any letter more than once.

28. An idea that arose by observing two types of injury.

29. Operations that were performed while the patients was conscious.
30. How a new practice became routine.
31. Reasons why one chemical cannt be used for all sterilisation purposes.
32. A theory that was proved wrong.
33. Somebody who witnessed a sollution to an early problem with surgery.
34. A technique that resulted in longer operations.
35. Doctors who infected their own patients.
36. A reason why a previously used method of sterilisation could not be used in
surgery.

Questions 37 - 40
Answer the questions below.
Use NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from Reading Passage 3, Lister and
Surgical Sterilisation, for each answer.
Write them in answer boxes 37 – 40.

37. What blood process did Lister study in his early work?
38. Which fractures cause a visible bacteria?
39. What did Pasteur use to destroy bacteria?
40. In adition to surgical instruments and bandages, what did Lister apply carbolic
acid to?

181
 Practice Test 14
READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 1 – 13, which are based on Reading
Passage 1 below.

Crop Dusting in the United States

A
Crop dusting is the process of dropping fertiliser or insecticide on farm fields. The
first agricultural aircraft to attempt something of this nature was not actually a plane at
all, but a balloon. John Chayton used the device to spread seeds over a valley floor in
New Zealand which had been swamped in 1906. In 1921, the US Agriculture
Department and the Army Signal Corps joined forces to develop modern crop dusting.
On 3 August of that year, John Macready piloted a modified Curtiss JN-4 Jenny to
spread lead arsenate to eliminate Catalpa Sphinx caterpillars* near Troy, Ohio.

B
Originally, crop duster planes used dry chemicals in order to treat crops, which is how
they earned their name. When most people think of crop dusting, they picture a
grizzled old man in an ancient biplane*, flying low over a field. He appears suddenly
on the horizon and disappears almost before you have the chance to register him.
Because the expression “crop dusting” automatically brings to mind this image,
today’s pilots generally prefer the term “aerial application". Today’s crop dusting
business is completely different, with million-dollar turbine-engine planes, intricate
GPS systems for planning the low flights and triggering the sprayers, and well-trained,
experienced pilots.

C
Concerns have been voiced over the years about the chemicals sprayed by crop
dusters. Some chemicals are detrimental to people’s health, especially if they have
respiratory problems, and there have been accusations of gardens being destroyed by
dispersed* chemicals. In the 1970s particularly, environmental concerns about the use
of agricultural planes to spread pesticides led to more stringent* regulations regarding
the chemicals that could be used via aerial application. Agricultural planes and various
techniques used by pilots have been improved significantly over the past few decades
and present-day aerial application is considered to be safe for both people and the
environment.

182
D
Aerial application is often the only, or most economical, method for timely pesticide
application. It allows large and often remote areas to be treated far faster than by any
other form of application. In addition, when wet soil conditions, rolling terrain or
dense plant foliage prevent other methods of treating an area, aerial application may
be the only remaining method of pest treatment. This is especially important, as some
pests and diseases can cause significant damage in a short period and so farmers rely
on agricultural planes to control such problems quickly. Aerial application is
conducive to higher crop yields as, by treating from above it and not within it, the
method is non-disruptive to the crop. Furthermore, this method of application does not
cause soil compaction*, hence preventing soil runoff*. Greater harvest yields in turn
result in less land being used for agricultural production. This enables the preservation
of wetland and forest eco-systems that are used by threatened and endangered species.

E
Even though they are known as crop dusters, agricultural planes also perform many
other functions to assist farmers. Although most crop dusters are used to spray crops
with pesticide, planes and helicopters are also used to seed rice and wheat, defoliate*
cotton prior to harvest, fight forest and grassland fires, protect forests, drop food for
fish farms, melt snow and control mosquitoes that threaten public health. All of these
activities are in addition to the usual function of applying herbicides, insecticides and
fertilisers to fruit, vegetable and feed grain crops.

F
Aerial application is one of the most demanding career choices for a flier, next to
flying a jet fighter. The crop dusting planes usually fly at very low altitudes and must
be manoeuvred around obstacles, as they attempt to keep seeds and chemicals
contained to the fields and away from homes or roadways. The pilot must have better
than average focus for the job in hand and faster than average eyes on the instruments.
As the pilot descends to spray, he will be following GPS guidance instruments for
accurate positioning in the field. At the same time, he will need to press a smoker
button to check the wind, drop a flag to mark his place and start the spray with his left
hand. During all this, as the pilot will have only a limited amount of space between
him and the ground, he will need to rise and descend gently to follow the ground and
watch for obstacles. All this is done at 140 miles per hour.

183
G
At first, the planes used for aerial application were war surplus. One of the most
familiar is the Second World War trainer, the open-cockpit Stearman biplane.
Stearmans were plentiful and inexpensive, which gave many veterans an opportunity
to get into the business. But by the 1950s, the aerial application industry began to
develop planes made especially for this purpose. Today, the newest and biggest planes
carry as much as 800 gallons in the hopper, are powered by turboprop engines and can
cost $1 million or more.

H
Clearly, an industry of this scope requires regulation, and the body that is responsible
for this in the United States is the National Agriculture Aviation Association (NAAA).
According to their records, aerial application operations are located in 44 states all
over the country. There are approximately 1,350 businesses of this type in the United
States, 94 per cent of whose owners are also pilots. An additional 1,330 pilots fly
crop-dusting planes, but do not own an aerial application business.

184
Question 1 – 7
Reading Passage 1, Crop Dusting in the United States, has eight paragraphs A – H.
From the list of headings below, choose the most suitable one for each parapragh B –
H.
Write the appropriate number (i – x) in answer boxes 1 – 7.
NB There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will not use them all.

i. Why Do We Need Crop Dusters?

ii. Increasing Costs
iii. A Change in Terminology
iv. The Early Days
v. Plane Development
vi. Controversy around Crop Dusting
vii. Pilot Skills
viii. An Alternative to Crop Dusters
ix. Overseeing the Practice
x. Various Roles of Crop Dusters

Example Answer
Paragraph A iv
1. Paragraph B
2. Paragraph C
3. Paragraph D
4. Paragraph E
5. Paragraph F
6. Paragraph G
7. Paragraph H

185
Questions 8 - 10
Answer the questions below.
Use NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from Reading Passage 1, Crop Dusting in
the United States, for each answer.
Write them in answer boxes 8 – 10.

8. What type of aircraft was the first to be used for agricultural purposes?
9. What term do today’s pilots like batter than ‘crop dusting’?
10. Which type of medical condition is said to be worsened by crop-dusting
chemicals?

186
Question 11 – 13
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write the letters in answer boxes 11 – 13.

11. Which of the following is NOT stated as a reason for using crop dusters?
A. Financial advantages
B. Ability to apply environmentally friendly products
C. Speed of application
D. Lack of effect on final harvest

12. Which of the following is NOT stated as a function of crop-duster planes?

A. Dropping seeds
B. Fighting fires
C. Feeding fish
D. Mapping

13. Which of the following is given as a key characteristic of a crop-duster pilot?

A. Excellent concentration skills
B. 20/20 vision
C. Excellent GPS skills
D. Being comfortable in confined spaces

187
READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 14 – 26, which are based on Reading
Passage 2 below.

Today's Jellyfish Problem

Jellyfish are marine animals with a gelatinous body (hence the name) and long trailing
tentacles*. Scientists have found that these animals are surprisingly resilient* in the
face of changing oceans, and this is producing a variation in marine ecology that is a
potential disaster for other fish populations. In some cases, according to some recent
research, these developments have been so significant that global jellyfish populations
are literally inverting* marine ecology from the Black Sea to Southeast Asia.

Jellyfish tend to congregate in large groups called "swarms" or "blooms". Some

gigantic swarms have recently been found in places a long way from their traditional
habitats. Swarms of Mediterranean jellyfish, for example, have been sighted in the
North Atlantic, where once they would have died because of the difference in
environment. Now warming ocean currents are making this difference less significant.
Because jellyfish are predators of small fish, the movement of large swarms
potentially threatens the spawning populations of other fish which were not previously
subject to this predation.

The increase in the number of jellyfish can be attributed to a variety of causes.

Overfishing is the key one, creating more opportunity for jellyfish to feed and breed.
The overfishing of salmon in particular removes one of the jellyfish’s few predators.
Without a curb on their population, growing hordes of jellyfish start eating the eggs of
smaller fish, as well as their food supply. They also wreak havoc* on the food chain
when they are introduced to new ecosystems, usually via ballast water* that shipping
tankers take on and release as a counterbalance to cargo.

Another contributor to the jellyfish boom is a process known as “eutrophication". This

occurs when sewage, fertilisers and pesticides, and other substances rich in
phosphorus and nitrogen, are washed into the ocean by rivers. These chemicals affect
plankton, the tiny aquatic plants that constitute the food source for vast numbers of sea
creatures. Normally, plankton live on nutrients from chemicals released by the sea
bed, but their populations explode when feeding on the nitrogen and phosphorous the
pollution brings. When these small organisms die, they absorb oxygen from the sea,
creating “dead zones”. Since most marine creatures can’t survive in areas with little
oxygen, their numbers fall. Jellyfish, however, are an exception as they need very
188
little oxygen to survive. So as the numbers of other animals dwindle, jellyfish colonies
expand.

Other human activities help jellyfish to reproduce. The polyp sacks that produce baby
jellyfish are key to their ability to bloom in such an incredibly rapid fashion. A few
centuries ago, the hard surfaces available for polyp sacks to cling on to included
mainly seabed rocks and oyster shells; those polyp sacks that could not find such
surfaces were unable to reproduce. Thanks to the proliferation of human structures,
the world today offers many more hard surfaces. Piers, drilling platforms, offshore
wind turbines and boats are just a few of the new surfaces polyps can attach
themselves to.

One of the key effects of the increase in jellyfish numbers in the Mediterranean is
their influence on fish stocks there. This was demonstrated in the early 1980s when
Mnemiopsis leidyi, a jellyfish species that normally resides in the Atlantic, was
accidentally introduced into the Black Sea and had such an overwhelming impact on
fish populations there that fisheries almost collapsed. This shows that, although
normally only the impact of human fishing activities is taken into account when
setting sustainable fishing limits, jellyfish numbers should be factored in as well.

The surge in the number of jellyfish threatens not only the biodiversity of one of the
world’s most overfished seas, but also the health of tens of thousands of summer
tourists. There are now Mediterranean beaches where swimming without the danger of
being stung is feasible for only 1 week in the summer. Throughout the rest of the
season, tourists have to find other methods of keeping cool. This will affect the
numbers of tourists in following years, as they avoid resorts where swimming can
result in very painful stings, and in turn will have a negative impact on the revenue
earned from tourism.

The surge in jellyfish numbers can have other unexpected effects. Recently, the
world’s largest boiling water nuclear reactor, Sweden’s Oskarshamn plant, was
paralysed after a bloom of moon jellyfish clogged the plant’s cooling systems and
forced it to shut down. Jellyfish have also been responsible for nuclear shut-downs
due to cooling system problems in California, Florida, Israel, Scotland, India and
Japan. In 1999, a jellyfish bloom clogged the cooling system of a major coal-fired
plant in the Philippines, leaving 40 million people without power. And in 2006,
jellyfish in Brisbane, Australia, afflicted a massive nuclear-powered US aircraft
carrier with an acute case of fouling, clogging its cooling systems and forcing it to
leave the harbour.

189
Scientists have not yet come up with a foolproof way to tackle the problem of
burgeoning jellyfish populations. One possible solution that is being explored is to
create robots that can seek out swarms of jellyfish using a camera and GPS. Once the
jellyfish are located, the robots can set about shredding the jellies with an underwater
propeller. In spite of the developers’ enthusiasm, it seems that this will not prove to be
a realistic and effective long-term solution as the number of robots needed to cope
with the jellyfish problem would not make the project viable*.

190
Question 14 – 20
Do the statements below (question 14 - 20) agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 2, Today's Jellyfish Problem?
In answer boxes 14 - 20, write:
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

14. One reason jellyfish are causing a change in marine ecology is their ability to
adapt easily to new environments.
15. Jellyfish feed on the same food as many smaller fish.
16. Substances negatively affecting plankton ultimately lead to the creation of ‘dead
zones’.
17. A lack of oxygen in the sea is bad for all sea creatures.
18. The Mnemiopsis leidyi has been observed to have a detrimental effect on fish
populations in the Atlantic.
19. The Mediterranean is not yet afftected by increases in jellyfish numbers.
20. A record number of tourist reported jellyfish stings last year.

191
Question 21 – 24
Complete the sentences below (question 21 – 24).
Use NO MORE THEN THREE WORDS from Reading Passage 2, Today's Jellyfish
Problem for each answer.

21. Nowadays the ____________________ that jellyfish reproduce in have more

man-made hard surfaces to attach themselves to in order to reproduce.
22. The ____________________ fishing industry was near;y destroyed by the
accidental introduction of a new jellyfish species.
23. As well as human fishing activity, the numbers of jellyfish in an ecosystem should
be considered when calculating ____________________.
24. Countries whose main ____________________ is from tourism are likely to
suffer if the jellyfish problem persists from one year to the next.

Question 25 – 26
Complete the notes below (question 25 – 26).
Use NO MORE THEN TWO WORDS from Reading Passage 2, Today's Jellyfish
Problem for each answer.

Notes on Today’s Jellyfish Problem

Power problems
Jelly fish blocking (25) ____________________ have caused nuclear shut-downs in
energy plants in Sweden, California, Florida, Israel, Scotland, India and Japan, a
conventional power station in the Phillipines, and a nuclear-powered US aircraft
carrier.
A solution?
A South Korean team has been working on robots to travel the seas, loate jellyfish and
destroy them with an (26) ____________________, probably not a long-term answer.

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READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 27 – 40, which are based on Reading
Passage 3 below.

Instant Coffee

Instant coffee has been widely used for decades because of its convenience. During
the height of its popularity in the 1970s, nearly a third of the roasted coffee imported
into the United States was converted into an instant product, resulting in annual sales
of more than $300 million. Today, about 15 per cent of the coffee consumed in the
United States is prepared by mixing instant granules with hot water, either at home, in
offices, or in vending machines. Over time, the development of good-quality instant
products has helped popularise coffee in cultures that historically drank tea.

Since its invention, researchers have sought to improve instant coffee in a variety of
ways. For example, some of the early powdered versions did not dissolve easily in
water, leaving clumps of damp powder floating in the cup. Coffee aroma dissipates
easily, so manufacturers have now developed artificial treatments that will make a jar
of instant coffee smell like freshly ground* coffee when it is opened. Some modern
manufacturing processes also make instant coffee granules that look more like ground
coffee. Finally, another major goal has been to produce an instant coffee that tastes as
much as possible like the freshly brewed beverage.

Of the 50 known species of coffee bean, two dominate the beverage coffee industry.
Coffee Arabica varieties, grown primarily in Latin America, India and Indonesia, are
relatively mild in flavour and, consequently, bring a higher price. They are also
relatively expensive to harvest, since individual coffee cherries must be hand picked at
their peak of ripeness. Coffee Robusta varieties, grown mainly in Africa, India and
Indonesia, have a harsher flavour, but they are cheaper to grow since they can be
harvested over a range of ripeness and are more resistant to diseases and insects.
Because of their more attractive price, the Robustas are mostly used in the
manufacture of instant coffees.

Instant coffee was invented in 1906 by George C. Washington, an Englishman living

in Guatemala and a chemist by trade. An avid coffee-drinker, he noticed a powdery
build-up on the spout of his favourite silver coffee pot. That prompted his curiosity
and further experimentation followed. He eventually produced a dried coffee crystal
much like the one still marketed today.

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The early part of the instant coffee process is the same for all processes. Instant coffee
is made from coffee beans that have been roasted and ground. The ground beans are
then treated with hot water to recover the coffee flavour and aroma. This part of the
process is similar to using a domestic coffee percolator*. The coffee extract is then
dried in one of two ways - freeze-drying or spray-drying.

The freeze-drying method preserves more of the original coffee flavour, but it is a
more complex and therefore more expensive procedure. First, the coffee is allowed to
sit so that the water evaporates naturally, leaving a concentrated coffee solution. This
concentrate is then frozen to around minus 40 degrees Celsius. The remaining water
freezes into ice crystals. A process called "sublimation" (similar to evaporation) is
used to remove the ice, and dry grains of coffee are left. The quality of the aroma and
flavour are protected by the low temperature and gentle drying conditions.

The second method is spray-drying. The water is again allowed to evaporate, forming
a concentrate. This is sprayed from a high tower in a large hot-air chamber. As the
droplets fall, the remaining water evaporates. Dry coffee crystals then fall to the
bottom of the chamber. One drawback with this method is that the high temperatures
involved affect the oils in the coffee and therefore more flavour is lost.

Both processes run the risk of losing compounds that contribute to the appeal of the
drink. For instance, caffeine sublimates (goes from a solid to a gaseous state without
passing through an intermediate liquid state) at 180 degrees Celsius at atmospheric
pressure. This high temperature in spray-drying chambers may affect instant coffee’s
caffeine content and the content of organic compounds that provide taste and aroma.
Whichever process is used, the final product is usually packaged in low oxygen
conditions, because the presence of oxygen will cause further loss of aroma and
flavour. This intensive processing means instant coffee contains little oxygen and has
a water moisture content of only 1 - 4 per cent, much lower than that which microbes
need to grow, allowing the product to last for more than 2 years without spoiling.

Today, most major manufacturers still use a freeze-drying process to make their
instant coffees but, because of its higher costs, some instant coffee manufacturers do
not use it. Although the price of any retail instant coffee is determined largely by costs
related to distribution, freeze-dried instant coffee production costs are 35 per cent
higher than the costs of production by spray-drying. Another reason the freeze-drying
process is more expensive is because making the same amount of instant coffee by

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freeze-drying methods requires larger quantities of better-quality beans than does the
spray-drying process.

Question 27 – 32
Look at statements 27 – 32, and the list of alternatives below.
Match each statement with the correct alternative.
Write the appropriate letter in the boxes 27 - 32 on your answer sheet.
27. This instant coffee process usually uses the Robusta variety of coffee bean.
28. The water treatment part of this instant coffee process is similar to using a
domestic coffee percolator.
29. This process results in coffee which is not as dark in colour as fresh coffee.
30. This instant coffee process impacts negatively on the coffees’natural oils.
31. This instant coffee process creates an instant coffee that does not go off at least 2
years.
32. This instant coffee process is used by most producers.

A The statement refers to the freeze-dry coffee process.

B The statement refers to the spray-dry coffee process.
C The statement refers to both the freeze-dry and the spray-dry coffee process.
D The statement refers to neither the freeze-dry nor the spray-dry coffee process.

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Question 33 – 37
Do the statements below (question 33 - 37) agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 3, Instant Coffee?
In answer boxes 33 - 37, write:
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

33. Just over a quarter of current US coffee consumption is instant.

34. Some instant coffee producers add synthetic aromas to instant coffee so that a jar
of its smells like a freshly ground cup of the real thing.
35. The spray-drying instant coffee process is the one most popular with most instant
coffee producers.
36. The first creator of instant coffee made a lot of money from his invention.
37. The spray-drying instant coffee process is cheaper than the freeze-drying instant
coffee process.

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Question 38 – 40
Complete the flow chart below using words from Reading Passage 3, Instant Coffee.
Write NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the text in each answer box, 38 – 40.

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 Practice Test 15
READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 1 – 13, which are based on Reading
Passage 1 below.

How to Grow Bananas

A
There are two main varieties of bananas, the fruit or sweet banana and the plantain.
The fruit banana is eaten raw out of hand when it turns yellow and develops a
succulent sweetness with a soft, smooth, creamy, yet firm pulp. The plantain, a
cooking banana, is also referred to as the meal, vegetable or horse banana. Plantains
have a lower water content, making them drier and starchier than fruit bananas.
Though the banana plant has the appearance of a sort of palm tree, and is often called
a banana palm, it is actually considered a perennial herb. It dies back after each
fruiting and produces new growth for the next generation of fruit. Modern bananas do
not grow simply from seed. Man intervened long ago and crossed two varieties of
African wild bananas, the Musa acuminata and the Musa baalbisiana. This got rid of
the many seeds that were an unpleasant presence, and improved the flavor and texture
from hard and unappetizing to its present soft and irresistibly sweet flavour.

B
Today bananas must be propagated from large rootstocks* or rhizomes* that are
carefully transplanted in a suitable climate, namely the hot tropics, where the average
temperature is a humid 27 degrees Celsius, and there is a minimum of 75 millimetres
of rainfall a month. The soil must have excellent drainage or the rootstocks will rot.
The plants grow new shoots, often called suckers, pups or ratoons, from the shallow
rootstocks or rhizomes, and continue to produce new plants generation after
generation for several decades. In about 9 months, the plants reach their mature height
of about 15 - 30 feet. Some varieties will grow to a height of 40 feet.

C
Bananas possess a unique scientific phenomenon called “negative geotropism". As the
little bananas start to develop, they grow downward, as gravity would dictate. Little by
little, several “hands” or double rows develop vertically and form a partial spiral
around the stem. As they take in more and more sunlight, their natural growth
hormones bring about a most puzzling phenomenon, and they begin to turn and grow
upward. As the plant becomes heavier with maturing fruit, it must be held up with
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poles*. The stems are made of layers and layers of leaves that are wrapped around
each other. Though quite large and thick, the stems are not strong and woody like
most fruit trees and can break under the weight of many bunches of bananas.

D
Though there are approximately 300 species of bananas, only 20 varieties are
commercially cultivated. Bananas are mature about 3 months from the time of
flowering, with each bunch producing about 15 “hands” or rows. Each hand has about
20 bananas, while each bunch will yield about 200 “fingers” or bananas. An average
bunch of bananas can weigh between 35 - 50 kilograms. Two-man teams harvest the
bananas. While one man whacks the bunch with his machete*, the other catches the
falling bunch onto his shoulders and transfers it to a hook attached to one of a series of
conveyer cables that run throughout the plantation. Though bananas can be left to
ripen on the plant, they would perish too quickly. It is important that they are
harvested in the green state at just the right time. If harvested too early, they would
develop a floury pulp instead of a delightfully sweet flavour.

E
Bananas begin the ripening process as soon as they are harvested, when laboratory
tests have shown that they contain 20 per cent starch and 1 per cent sugar. When the
bananas turn yellow with some brown spots, they are fully ripened, and these figures
are completely reversed. The sugar content breaks down as follows: 60 per cent
sucrose, 14 per cent fructose and 20 per cent glucose. After the bananas have been
harvested, the giant stems are cut down to provide rich humus* for the next crop that
has already begun to sprout new shoots. Each plantation has a packing station where
bananas are graded for quality. Those that are of a poor grade are used as animal feed.
The next step is to cut the bananas into individual hands and wash them in a water
bath to stop “bleeding", a secretion of their natural latex or rubber substance that tends
to stain the bananas as well as clothing.

F
Though there are many countries where bananas are grown, not all grow them for
export. Brazil, China, India and Thailand grow them as a local food source and export
very few. The major exporters include Ecuador, Costa Rica, Colombia, Honduras, the
Philippines, Panama and Guatemala. Surprisingly, 80 per cent of the bananas grown
throughout the world are of the cooking variety. To many tropical cultures, this 80 per
cent is an important part of the daily diet and these bananas are prepared in as many
ways as other cultures have devised for potatoes. Plantains may be more familiar to

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you as banana chips that are first dried, then fried. These cooking bananas are even
employed in the brewing* of beer in some areas of East Africa.

Question 1 - 7
Reading Passage 1, How to Grow Bananas, has six paragraphs A – F
Which paragraph contains the information below (question 1 – 7)?
Write the correct letter, A – F in answer boxes 1 – 7 on your answer sheet.
NB You can use any letter more than once.

1. Bananas being used sometimes to prepare an alcoholic drink.

2. That it is important that the correct stage in their growth is chosen for removing the
bananas from the tree.
3. Bananas being ready to be picked about three mounths after they produce flowers.
4. The soil needed to grow bananas having to drain well.
5. Sweet bananas having more water in them than plantains.
6. The classic yellow banana not being a natural species.
7. Bananas trees needing support when they produce fruit.

Question 8 – 10
Do the statements below (question 8 - 10) agree with the information given in Reading
Passage 1, How to Grow Bananas?
In answer boxes 8 - 10, write:
YES if the statement agrees with the information
NO if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

8. The banana plant dies after each time it bears fruit.

9. Only a small proportion of bananas is actually grown to be exported and eaten as
fruit.
10. Bananas are used for medical purposes in South America.

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Questions 11 - 13
Answer the questions below.
Use NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS AND/ OR A NUMBER from Reading
Passage 1, How to Grow Bananas, for each answer.
Write them in answer boxes 11 – 13.

11. What is the flesh of a banana like if it is picked before it is ripe?

12. What are the bananas used for that are not of sufficient quality to sell?
13. What percentage of bananas grown are plantains?

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READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 14 – 27, which are based on Reading
Passage 2 below.

Tidal Power

A
Winds may blow or die down and the sun may be obscured by clouds, but one thing
we can safely predict and be sure of on this planet is the coming and going of the tide.
This gives this form of renewable energy a distinct advantage over other sources of
renewable energy.

B
A tidal power unit is where a dam* or barrage* is built across an estuary or bay that
experiences an adequate tidal range. This tidal range has to be in excess of five metres
for the barrage to be feasible. The purpose of this dam or barrage is to let water flow
through it into the basin as the tide comes in. The barrage has gates in it that allow the
water to pass through. The gates are closed when the tide has stopped coming in,
trapping the water within the basin or estuary and creating a hydrostatic head. As the
tide recedes, gates in the barrage that contain turbines* are opened, and the hydrostatic
head causes the water to come through these gates, driving the turbines and generating
power. Power can be generated in both directions through the barrage, but this can
affect the efficiency of the project.

C
There are different types of turbines that are now available for use in a tidal barrage. A
bulb turbine is one in which water flows around the turbine. If maintenance is
required, then the water must be stopped, which is time consuming and leads to a loss
of generation. When rim turbines are used, the generator is mounted at right angles to
the turbine blades, making access more straightforward. However, this type of turbine
is not suitable for pumping and it is difficult to regulate its performance.

D
Tidal streams are rapidly flowing volumes of water caused by the motion of the tide.
In order for tidal stream power plants to be feasible, these tidal streams must occur in
shallow seas where a natural constriction exists to force the water to speed up. The
technology involved is very similar to wind energy, but there are some differences.
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Water is 800 times denser than air and has a much slower flow rate; this means that
the turbine experiences much larger forces and momentum. This requires turbines
with much smaller diameters. This technology is still in its infancy, despite the
potential for a reliable and predictable energy source. Tidal stream technology has the
advantage over tidal barrages when you compare environmental and ecological issues.
It is less intrusive than on- and off-shore wind turbines and tidal barrages, and any
hazard to navigation or shipping would be no more than that experienced by current
offshore installations.

E
The large capital costs required to start construction of a barrage have been the main
stumbling block to their deployment*. It is not an attractive proposition to an investor
due to long payback periods*. This problem could be solved by government funding
or large organisations getting involved with tidal power. In terms of long-term costs,
once the construction of the barrage is complete, there are very low maintenance and
running costs and the turbines only need replacing around every 30 years. The life of
the plant is indefinite, and for its entire life it will receive free fuel from the tide.

F
During the construction of a barrage, the amount of traffic and people in the area will
increase dramatically and this phenomenon will last for a number of years. This will
also bring revenue to the local economy from the tourism and hospitality industry that
will accommodate all the different types of visitors that the barrage will bring. The
barrage can be used as a road or rail link, providing a time-saving method of crossing
the bay or estuary. There is also the possibility of incorporating wind turbines into the
barrage to generate extra power. The barrage would affect shipping and navigation
and provision would have to be made to allow ships to pass through. Finally, the
calmer waters created in the bay would create a further tourist attraction.

G
Perhaps the largest disadvantages of tidal barrages are the ecological effects on the
local area. These are very difficult to predict, as each site is different and there are not
many projects that are available for study. The changes in water level and possible
flooding would affect the vegetation around the coast, having an impact on the aquatic
and shoreline* ecosystems. The quality of the water in the basin or estuary would also
be affected, and the sediment levels would change, affecting the turbidity of the water
and therefore affecting the animals that live in it and depend upon it, such as fish and
birds. Fish would undoubtedly be affected, unless provision was made for them to

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pass through the barrage without being killed by turbines. All these changes would
affect the types of birds that are in the area, as they will migrate to other areas with
more favourable conditions for them. The effects are not all disadvantageous though,
and may allow different species of plant and creature to flourish in an area where they
are not normally found. However, these issues are very delicate, and need to be
independently assessed for each area in question.

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Question 14 – 19
Reading Passage 2, Tidal Power, has seven paragraphs A – G.
From the list of headings below, choose the most suitable one for each parapragh B –
G.
Write the appropriate number (i – x) in answer boxes 14 – 19.
NB There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will not use them all.

i. A Less Disruptive Approach

ii. The Economics of Tidal Power
iii. A Case Study
iv. A Dependable Power Source
v. Technical Variations
vi. Failure in the Past
vii. How it Works
viii. Side Benefits
ix. Political Support
x. The Downside

Example Answer
Paragraph A iv
14. Paragraph B
15. Paragraph C
16. Paragraph D
17. Paragraph E
18. Paragraph F
19. Paragraph G

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Question 20 – 24
Complete the sentences below (question 20 – 24).
Use NO MORE THEN ONE WORDS from Reading Passage 2, Tidal Power for
each answer.
20. A key advantage of tidal power is that scientists can precisely ______________
the earths’ tides.
21. Producing energy when the tide goes in and out can affect a tidal power project’s
______________.
22. An advantage of the rim turbine is that it is easier to ______________ for
maintenance.
23. To create a tidal stream power project, the sea needs to be ______________.
24. The installations for tidal stream power projects are not as ______________ as
wind and tidal barrage installations.

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Question 25 – 27
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write the letters in answer boxes 25 – 27.

25. What are the estimated running costs of a tidal power project?
A. High
B. Low
C. Nothing
D. Not possible to estimate

26. Which of the following is NOT given in the text as a possible advantage to
building a tidal power barrage?
A. The barrage can create more tourism.
B. The barrage can help exploit another power generation source.
C. Little manpower is needed to run the project.
D. Local businesses are stimulated.

27. Which of the following is NOT given in the text as a possible environmental
effect of a tidal power barrage?
A. Birds could move away.
B. Fish could die.
C. Plant life could increase and thrive.
D. Local humidity could rise.

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READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 28 – 40, which are based on Reading
Passage 3 below.

Thermal Vents

Scientists first discovered hydrothermal vents, cracks in the seabed that discharge hot
water, while exploring an oceanic spreading ridge near the Galapagos Islands in 1977.
To their amazement, the scientists also discovered that the hydrothermal vents were
surrounded by large numbers of organisms that had never been seen before. It became
apparent that these biological communities depend upon chemical processes that result
from the interaction of seawater and hot magma* associated with underwater
volcanoes.

Hydrothermal vents are formed as the result of seawater percolating down through
fissures* in the earth’s crust. These cracks occur either when two tectonic plates*
move away from each other, or when one slides beneath the other. Below the surface,
the cold water is heated by the hot magma, the high temperature of which drives
chemical reactions that remove the oxygen, magnesium, sulfates and other chemicals
that entered the ocean through rain, rivers, and groundwater. As the temperature of the
seawater rises, it also becomes more acidic, which means that it absorbs metals such
as iron, zinc, copper, lead, and cobalt from the surrounding rocks. Although the
seawater in hydrothermal vents may reach temperatures of over 340 degrees Celcius,
it does not boil because of the extreme pressure present at the depths where the vents
are formed.

As it pours out of a vent, the superheated water encounters cold, oxygenated seawater,
causing a more rapid series of chemical reactions to occur. Sulfur and other materials
precipitate, or come out of solution, to form metal-rich towers and deposits of
minerals on the sea floor. The superheated water also contains chemicals that feed
microbes at the base of a unique food web that survives independent of the sun.
Instead of relying on the sun and photosynthesis to convert carbon dioxide into
organic carbon, the bacteria use chemicals such as hydrogen sulfide to provide the
energy source that drives their metabolic processes, ultimately supporting a wide
range of other organisms such as tube worms, shrimp, and mussels.

Hydrothermal vents act as natural plumbing systems that transport heat and chemicals
from the interior of the earth and also help regulate global ocean chemistry. In the
process, vast amounts of potentially valuable minerals accumulate on the sea floor.
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The mammoth copper mines of Cyprus, for example, were formed by hydrothermal
activity millions of years ago before those rocks were uplifted from the sea floor to
become dry land. Commercially valuable mineral deposits are believed to exist on the
sea floor near hydrothermal vents, and some companies have had plans in
development for years to exploit some of them. However, the difficulty of mining in
deep water near fragile ecosystems and the relatively small size of ocean bottom
deposits compared to those on land have so far prevented sea-floor mining from
becoming commercially viable.

Vents also support complex ecosystems of exotic organisms which have developed
unique biochemical adaptations to high temperatures and environmental conditions
that humans would consider toxic. Studying these organisms could teach people about
the evolution of life on earth and the possibility of life elsewhere in the solar system
and the universe. Many previously unknown metabolic processes and compounds
found in these vent organisms could also have commercial uses one day.

Studying the life cycles of vent organisms is difficult. Researchers have visited a mere
fraction of the ocean’s thermal vent hot spots and they have been able to observe vent
life only by shining bright lights on creatures accustomed to inky* darkness. Another
frequent problem is that any caught vent specimens die quickly when removed from
their unique deep environment due to the swift change in the pressure. Diving is also
impossible because of the high temperatures and extreme depths. The only practical
method of study is using underwater cameras, which also help scientists make less
intrusive observations.

For the first three decades of hydrothermal vent exploration, the greatest non-natural
threat to vent communities was scientific exploration. In response to this realisation,
the scientific community adopted a set of guidelines for proper and sustainable
conduct of research at deep-sea hydrothermal vents. However, the impact from
scientific research is still minuscule compared to the potential disturbance caused by
large-scale mining operations. A minimum of 96 active deep-sea hydrothermal vent
fields are currently under consideration for deep-sea mineral extraction. That is nearly
one-fifth of all known hydrothermal vent fields. Only 8 per cent of these hydrothermal
vent fields fall within a marine shielded area* and this means that the other 92 per cent
can be developed without the company worrying about the ecological effects.

Unfortunately, it is difficult to predict how deep-sea hydrothermal vent communities

will respond to mining pressure. Some vent systems are incredibly dynamic, with
individual vents experiencing dramatic natural disturbance on a continuous basis,

209
while other vent systems are relatively stable, and may remain unchanged for
centuries. The world must be careful about how it deals with these marine features, as
the thermal vent sea-floor deposits are rich in minerals as well as being invaluable
social and scientific resources. Not only can vents help redefine what ‘life’ means, but
they may even be a window through which scientists can see how life on the planet
may have begun.

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Question 28 – 35
Do the statements below (question 28 - 35) agree with the information given in
Reading Passage 3, Thermal Vents?
In answer boxes 28 - 35, write:
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement disagrees with the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the reading passage

28. The first hydrothermal vents were discovered by scientists travelling to the
Galapagos Islands.
29. The discovered organisms evolved due to unique geological conditions.
30. The water exiting from vents has been heated by the friction created when tectonic
plates move against each other.
31. The water that leaves thermal vents has a different chemical composition from the
water that enters them.
32. Bacteria around the thermal vents do not use regular bacterial energy sources to
develop.
33. Companies have not yet been alble to make money from underwater mineral
deposits around thermal vents.
34. US universities have now suspended long-term research on thermal vents due to
the difficulties of accessing the vents.
35. Scientists have already learnt a great deal about the origins of life by observing
organisms in hydrothermal vents fields.

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Question 36 – 40
Complete the sentences below (question 36 – 40).
Use NO MORE THEN THREE WORDS from Reading Passage 3, Thermal Vents
for each answer.
36. Research into the _______________________ of thermal vent organisms in
complicated by the depth and temperature of their habitat.
37. Live specimens collected at thermal vents usually die quickly because of the rapid
_______________________ reduction that happens when they are brought to surface.
38. A _______________________ was developed by scientists in order to ensure
responsible studies at deep-sea thermal vents.
39. Only a fraction of the thermal vents that might be exploited commercially are
protected by being located inside a _______________________.
40. Vents systems are unpredictable, with some being _______________________
and others being very stable and unchanging.

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