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Operational Amp

Circuits and Devices

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Khabab Nazir
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49 views36 pages

Operational Amp

Circuits and Devices

Uploaded by

Khabab Nazir
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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8 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS eee t INTEGRATEN ciRCUITS AND OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 4n integrated circuit is deiined as a combinatich of interconnected circuit clements inseparably associated on or vithin 4 o ntinuous semiconductor (often called @ chip). ~ *"* A number of important electronic devices, su: Separate devices that are individualh as diodes and transistors, are id inésfeonnected in a cicuit init. SUCh devices are referred lany transistors, diodes, bricated on a single tiny-chlp of Semiconductor frase aad Packaged in a single-casé to fom a functorel crear Am IC is thus i ted electronic devices. in our Bhoratory couree, we will be concemed with what the Grech does more from an -level viewpoint, CPRGION Tis basically s Solctstate davies wi orcuits wit al Y Of sensing and ampiitying do and]ac-input Signals, ("Soli m path that electrical signals take. rough solic) Pieces of i Semiconductor material. Prior to the use of solid stdte devices, electricity passed Ye" } through various elements inside of a heated vacus, tube.) Lite 7 Eatly op-amps were constructed with vacuum tab ij vollages: Today's op-amps atq meer a | > + stpoivvoltage aneae mane and iiexpenisive. Ree wubt d wles wood P-AMP BAS] CS cétcuct if a SYMBOL AND. TERMINALS ve \ oH = The schematic. diagram for a ‘standard opamp ig showin in Figure 1.1. lls Yat use Telatively tow de represented as a triangle as Schematic diagram for standart. emp *y Posie votege , samp ferminal a %, tnverting Input Aindicated by minus sign) Ys Noninverting input 72° Obtpul terminal Gnsicated by plus sign) aaa Other leads for 7 ‘frequency compensation »vollage or null ac.usinent supply tprminat Figs t.4 The inverting input is re . Presented by a minus sign. ‘THe voltage at this Foput will : Cause the output voltage té be inverted by180°. The Ton-iavert Ing inputs + SPIREETTEETby a plUs sign. The voltage at this hast ji cause The Voltage at the els sign. i cutput to be in phase. The output terminal is at the apex of the triangle. Power supply leads ave shown above and below the triangle, The dual (2) power supply sonnéctions enable the output fo swing both posilive and negative. These de voltages must always be connected even though they may not be indicated on a schematic diagram. Other leads coming out of the op-amp may be used for frequency compensation or nulling components. These leads are also left off the scheinatic symbol for simplicity. Thus the simplified standard op-amp symbol is: Simplified standard op-amp symbol fveting pt emt Fleet Nontnventig tagut-<——} ‘The circuit function of the op-amp is that it senses the difference between voltage signals applied at its two inputterminals (Yeain- Vid multiply this by a number A: {oF As, called the differential gain or voltage gain) and cause the resulting voltage " A(Viooin = Vi) £0 appear at the output terminal THE IDEAL AND PRACTICAL OP-AMP ‘To illustrate what an op-amp is, we oonsider its ideal characteristics. A practical op-amp, of course, falls short of these ideal standards, but itis much easier to understand and enalyze the device from an ideal point of view. Characteristics of an ideal op-atip are: © Infinite voltage gain and infinite bandwidth + Infinite input impedance (open) so that it does not load the driving source 2 Zero output impedance ‘These characteristics are illustrated in Figure 1.3. : deel op-ainp representation Seti =ecieta Although modern iC op-amps approach parameter values that can be treated as ideal in many cases, the-ideal device can never be made. Any device has fimitations, and the IC op-amp is no exception. Op-amps have both voltage and current iimitations. Peak to peek output voltage, for example, is also limited by internal restrictions such as power dissipation and component ratings. Characteristics of a practical op-amp a = Very high input impedance, which produces negligible current at the inputs ° Very high voltage gain, which is useful for amplifying very small signals Very low output impedance, so that itis affected very little by other circult loads These characteristics are illustrated in Figure 1.4. Practical op-amp representation Ese -ANTERNAL BOLCK DIAGRAM OF AN OP-AMP | 2.05 Atypical op-amp is made up of three types of ampitir circuits ae shown in bleck lagram (Figure 1.5). Block cara oop-emnp mt High gain Lomtnpedence I} "age albat Out stir soir Ineviing pul e——| Highsonubinpedance ‘rot Noninseringioput—|“Smnptee THE 741 oP Aup The 741 operational amplifier is one of the commonly used integrated-circuit op-arnps. It has eight pin connections as shown in Figure 1.6. theta ation tah tt hte sit ate 8. S & |@No connection Inverting input ©) 1D welusually 18) ‘soninvering aput @ovout tusvaty-159@ [eosin ele 7 Figct.6 ‘The lead identification shown in the Figure 4.6 is usually self-explanatory. The positive supply voltage is connected to the +V terminall, and the negative supply voltage is connected (0 the —V terminal. Input and oultout terminals are clearly indicated. The balance tetminals (sometimes cesignatéd"Offect NulrYare connected to a potentiometer for null adjusting. Terminals marked "NC* (no connection) are Included for physical ruggedness of the package. OP-AMP INPUT SIGNAL MODES gle-ended input - When an op-amip is operated in the single-ended niode, one Input is grouncled and the signal voltage is applied only to the other taput, as shown in Figure 1.7. + Inthe case where the signal voltage is applied,to the inverting input as in Figure 4.7a, an inverted, amplified signal voliage appears at the output. In the case where the signal is applied to the noninverting input with the inverting input grounded, as in Figure 1.7b, a noninverted, amplified signal voltage appears at the output, Single-enclad input mode ud pe + Fiat ta Figst.70 Differential input In the differential mode, two opposite-polatity (out-of-phase) signals are applied {0 the inputs, as shown in Figure 1.8. This type of operation is also referred to as double-ended. The amplified difference between the two inputs appears on the output, 4 Sommon-mode input Inthe common-mode, two signal voltages of the se frequency and anpstuse are applied tothe two inputs, as shown In Figure 1.6 When equal input signals are applied to both inputs, they Caneel, resulting in a zero output voltage. Commen-mode operation Importance lies in the situation n both op-amps inputs, ited signal will not appear on the sean sistort the desired signal. Commonmode eiavala (noise) generally Fraahe Festi of the pick-up of radiated energy on the input lines, from adjacent "lings, the 80 He power line, or other sourese » INPUTIOUTPUT VOLTAGE POLARITY An important function to remember about an ob-amp is the relationship of input volage Polarity to output voltage polarity. Figure 740 illustrates this relationship, where the noninverting inaut is st OV or ground. I ihe inverting faput Dositive than the noninverting input, the output wil be ve negati Potential. Similarly, ifthe inverting input is mo the output voltage will be at a both input voltages are positive or negative + or-e—__} acta + It Inputs wnore restive than + Input, oulpal sl be negaive + It Inpulis more nedatve than * Input quipatst be postive OPAMP GAIN \deally, the gain of an op-amp should be infinite, hoy may exceed 200,000 in the open-loop made. in't > SRR wever, practically, the g he open-loop mode, there is no t a - . 2S, eee & 9) feetiback from the output to the input ang voltage gain (Ay) is maximum, as shown in Figure 1.444. Open-laop made Avamax inputs, Firtta The open-loop voltage gain, Ao, of an op-amp is tiie Hitéinal voltage gait Grea’ “et device and represents the ratio of output voltage to input voltage when there are no extemal components. The open-toop voltage gainealso referred to a large- signal voltage gain, is not a well-controlled parameter, In a practical circuit, the slight voltage difference at the inputs will cause the cuiput voltage to attempt to swing to the maximum power-supply level, The maximum voltage at the output will be about 90% of the supply vaitage because of the internal voltage drops of the op-amp. The ouput is said to be at saturation and cari be represented (for either polarity) by tai and -V,,i As an example, aveeamp ciroult'in ‘the oper: loop mode using a +15V supply would have its outaut swing from +13.5 to -13.5. With this type of circu the op-amp is very unstable and the output will be OV for a OV difference between the inputs, or the cutput voltage will be at either extreme, with a slight voltage difference at the inpulé, The open-loop mode is found primarily in voltage comparators and level-detector circus, ‘The versatility of the ep-amp Is demonstrated by the fact that it can be used insé ~ many lypes of circuits in the closed-loop mode, as shown in Figure 1.41b, Closec-loop mode Ry ays roa Ls ouput Input Lt External components are used to feedback a portion of the output voltage to the inverting input. This feedback stabilizes most circuits and can reduce the ncise level. The voltage gain (A,) will be less than maximum gain in open-loop mode. Closed-toop gain must be controlled to be of any vaiue in a practical, By adding resistor Ri, fo the inverting input as shown In Figure 1.14, the gain of the op-amp can be controlled. The resistance ratio of R; to Ry determines the voltage {gain of the circuit and can be found by the formula A= "OR The minus sign indicates that the op-emp circuit is in the inverting configuration. Controlled gain Input : Figsstte : If béth Rip and Ryare ihe same vaio, the A, equals 4, or unily gain as shown in Figuie 1-114. in this noninverting configuration, the voltoge out equate the voltage in and A, équais ++, Unity gain 1 Bsa Prare rt asude = oe SUP Flecttta an increase in frequency. The gain given by manufactures is generally at zero hertz or dc, At very low frequeticien ten open-toop gain of an op-amp is constant, but starts to taper off at about 6Hz or So ata rate of -6 dB/ociave or -20db/decade (an octave is a doubling in frequency, and a decade is ten-fold increase in frequency). This decrease sontinues until the gain is unity, or dB. The frequency at which the gels ie unity 's callod the unity gain frequency, The unity gain point occurs at TMiie The unity gain frequency establishes the Teference point at which many op-amps are Specified by manufacturers. i " Figure 1.12 shows a voltage-gain versus freq {29P mode, the gain falls off very rapidly es frequency increases. When ine frequency increases tenfold, the gain decreases by 10, The rockers point Occurs at 70.7% of the maximum gain. The Frequency bandwidth is normally considered at the point where the gain falls to the breakover point, Therefore, the qeom loop bandwith is about 10 Hz for this exarnple. Op-amps usta degenerative feedback in amplifier circuits, and this feedback increases: pandwlth of the circuit. For a closec-ioop gain of 100, the bandwith has Sreased fo about 10 kHz, Lowering the gain fo 10 increases the bandwidth to about 100 kz, require Voltage gain versus frequency Wianufaeeresttos ‘ipetionp gain (9 cay 0 Breakover point rosin gah 100109} —* f pereop gale on NN / ; Cchstenop ee eae spineri00 } SC ac p 3 aya} — x 00 © et 7 Te : Frequency)" 2 Facta2 ‘The gain-bandwidth product is eq Ee cs {*——— Unty gan pit val to the untty-gain frequency. It not only tells us the upper useful frequency of a circuit, but allows us to determine the bandwicth for a given gain. For example (referring to Figure 1.12, which shows a ‘frequency-response curve for a frequency-compensated op-aimp, stich as the 744), if you multiply the gain and bandwidth of a spect equal the unity-gain frequency: Galn- bandwidth product = gain xhandwidth GBP = 100 «10 kez =1000000 Hz (MHz) or GBP =10x100kHz=1000000Hz (MHz) unity - gain frequency fic circuit, the product will " Therefore, iF vie wanted to know the upper frequency limit or bendwidth of a Circuit with gain of 100, we would divide the unity-gain frequency by gain: bandwidth = 8ly=9ain frequency gain 1000000 _ soit BW= OFFSET NU NG ‘deally the output voltage of an op-amp should be zero when the voltages at both inpyts are the same or zero. If the two input terminels of the op-amp are tled togdiher and connected to ground, it will be found that a finile de voltage exists at the output (Figure 1.13a). This is the output de offset voltage (Voo). In a critical sioult. this offset can cause error voltages at output, Ifwe divide lhe output de Piet voltage by the gain Aa,, we obtain the input offeet voltage Vie the hace any. b8 Tepresented by a vollage source connected in series with spe of the input as of an ideal op-amp, which would cause the output de voltage te he reduced to zero as siown in Figure 1.1ab, thustrating the definition, Of input affset voltage Oliset ee op-ainp Fig: 4.130, Figs. Most integrated circuit op-amps provide a means of Compensating for offset voltage. An extemal potentiometer is connected to one or the inpuis an then iis adjusted to bring back the output voltage to vera when the voltege difference at the inputs is zero, This 6 fHéthod is called “offset nulling? oF "input offset voltage The onde of re wa,oP-2mps have offset nuling pins, as shown in Feeks 1.44, Ane ands of the potentiometer are connacted to these pine eine viper Grached to the V supply. Often null ccuits are used with sa op-amp but are not shown on the schematic diagram, Offset nuling : y or Sp eMon aoe M) OM ys 2. OP-AMP PARAMETERS The following parameters are uselai lo imow when working with op-amps, INPUT PARAMETERS: Differential input voltage he difference oF voltage between the two inputs is called differential input Voltage. Input offset voltage (Vio) [The ideal op-amp produces zero volts out for zero volts in. In a practical op-amp, however, a smal do voltage, Vay error, appears at the output when no giferential input voltage is applied. The input over voltage, Vio, is the di tial Gc voltage required between the inputs to set the Oulput io zero volts, Typic: values of input offset voltage'ere in the range of 2 mV oF less, In the ideal case, it oe is 0 volts. Input blas current (Ip) : tn order for the (real) op-amp to operate, its two input terminals have to be a applied by finite de currents, lermed the input bies currents. By definition, the g inputbias current, lp, is the average of both input currents. ideally, the two input bias currents are equet, input offset current (ho) >, Ideally, the iwo input dias currents are equal, and thts Weir difference is"zero. li a practical op-amp, however, the bias currente’are not exactly e¢jual. The input + offset current, \¢ difference of the input bias currents (expressed as an absolute value) Common-mode input voltage range Allop-amps have limitations on the range of voltages over which they will operate. The common-mode input voltage range is the range of input voltages hich, when apalied to both inputs, will not cause clipping. or other outout distortion, Many op-arips-iavé common-mode input Véllage ranges of i 0W with © do supply voltages of #15V. lnput resistance 2) at ‘This is the resistance "Ieoking in” at either input with the rermaining input oe grouncied, : OUTPUT PARAMETERS: Outout offset voltage (Yoo): ~, Output offset voltage, Vo, is a slight unwanted voltage at the outpul when the voltage between inputs is zero, ideally, Voo should be zero. Qutput short-ciroult eurrent (lose) The mavimum oulput current that ihe op-amp can deliver to a load is called oulput short-circuit current, lose, Output voltage maximum swing (Vom) * 7 : Depending on the load resistance, output voltage maximum swing, #Voman is the maximum peak output voltage thet the op-amp can ‘supply without saturation ar “8 "i BE Grong Output resistance (Zo) ‘i “This is the resistance "looking into" the op-amp's oiitput gs DYNAMIC PARAMET Chenlosp voltane gain (Ao) Ratio of the output vollage to the differential input voltage in a differential amplifier without the external feedback is called open-loop voltage gain, Agy, oF cifferential gain. ‘Siew rate (SR) The maximum rate of change of the op-amp's output vollage under large signal conditions is called slew rate, SR. where LVy ese) At is thedime intervat requi its upper limit. The unit of slew rate is volts ber microsecond (V/s). Slew rate tells how fast the op-athp can react lo changes at input. It refiects the op-amp’s ability of handling varying signals. If one tries to drive the output ata rate of voltage change greater than the slew rate, the output would not be able to change fast enough and would not vary over the fll range expected resul signal clipping or distortion. in any case, the ouiputy sould not be ana “duplicate of the inpit signal if op-amp slew rate is exacted Consider the unity gain fotlowar circuit in Figure 2.4 and let the input voitage Vs “be the step voltage of height V {shown in Figure 2 2a). When the op-amp is sew {ale limited (or slewing) its not capable of responding to its input signal wilhone distortion and the output appears as shown in Figure 2.2b, Unity gein follower Phe vy, oa Vai Fig. 24 for the output voltage to go from its lower limit to Effect of stew-rate limiting on step waveform, Input step waveforin Fig: 2.28 Lineary rising waietormn when * ‘op-ainp is slowae limited | a t If sinusoidal waveform is applied at the inputs of the unity gain fotlowor, the op- arp slew rate limiting causes nonlinear distorion as shown in Figure 2.3 oe Elfect of slew-rate limiting ch output ey sinusoidal waveforms “Thooret luna Cup ton op ep i we Sts AAR Fi 29 me OTHER PARAMETERS AND DEFINITIONS: a Supply ourront This ie Current the op amp will draw fiom the pawer,suppiy, B.. . Common-movle voltind Vey} i aa Common-mode Voltage is an unwanted, but unavoi such as 60-cycle hum, Common-mode gait re Ideally, an op-amp idable vollage on both inputs, les zero gain for common-mode signals taut practical op- . amps do extibit a very small common-mode gain, (Acx), which is defined as the fil <- _rallo of tho common-mode output voltage to the common-mode input voltage Gommonaods relaction retio (CMR) fe Common-mode rejection ratio, (CMRR), is a measure of the ability of the op-amp. ee to reject signals that are simultaneously present at hoth inputs. Itis the ratio of mis the open-leop voltage gain, Aou, to the common-mode gain, Aris omer = Sou, Rew ‘The higher the OMER, the better. A high vaiue of CMRR means that the open- a ‘cop gain, Ao. is high and the common mode gain Ac, is law and the performances of the op-arp in ferms of rejection of c better Power supply voltage rejection ratio (PSRR) 3 ‘The taiio of thé change in the power supply voltage to the resulting change in input offsel voltage is called power supply voltage rejection ratio, (PSRR) 8 Variation in power supply voltage will also affect the input offset voltage. i Power supply decoupling Capacitors in the range 0.1 to 1.0 Fat to ground to bypass voltage variat decoupling, Input profecti Diodes, zener ‘orion mode signals is HF connected from the power supply voltages ‘ions to ground provide the power Supply odes, andior resistors are used at the inpuls to protect the op- from excessively large input voltages. hu Latch-up is @ condition where a large input signel causes the output to remain in Ve OF “Vout. Dioctes and resistors used in the output cirouit can prevent thie Output protection A low-value resistor connected in series with the output of an op-amp to limit Fath luting. a short-circuit condition provides output protection. Some op-amps have the protection uit i 3 AG TICAL OP-AMR.Cl (DESIGN USING OP.AMB) One of thé early applications of operational ampliiets was to build circuits that Performed mathematical operations. Incieed, the operational amplifies takes it ame from this important application. Many of the op-amp circuits that perform matheiatical operations are used 80 often that they have been given renee a. summing amplifier, difference amplifier, integrator, differentiator oto) Sb-amp.can bs connected in & large numberof circuitso provide various Operating characteristics. Some of the basic applications sre disousced be * <*Open-toop made" circuits ° "Basic linear amplifier” circutts spe (ntegtator, “Differentiator” anc "Square wave generator” circuits ‘OPEN-LOOP MODE CIRCUITS: ‘| Comparator is a circuit that compares two input voltages andnroduces an ouput in either oFiwo states ridicatiag the greater than or.Jess than relationship TRUEST US Spplteation; the Opa is Wed in the open-loop: configuration, with the input voltage on one input and a reference voltage on the other. The polarity of the voltage at the output of an op-amp depende on the felationship of the polarity between the vollages at the inputs. The inverting (-) input is referenced to the noninverting (+) input When the invert i ring (-} input is more positive than the noninverting (+) input, the oulout will be negative and when the inverting is ive than the noninverting (+) input, the output will be p sither be iow: A comparator circuit can be used for Zero-level detection Nonzero-evel detect Zoro-level detector Figure 3.2a shows a zero-level detector, na ga a The inverting (-) input is-grounded.to prdduce a zefS8VEl andthe inpul’sigiiak? voltage is applied to the noninverting (+) input. Because of th high open-loop? vollage gain, a very small voltage difference between the two inputs drives the amplifier into saturation, causing the output voltage to go to ils limits. Figure 3.2b shows the result of a sinusoidal input voltage applied to the noninverting ¢#) input of the 2ero-level detector. When the sine wave is positive, the output is atits maximum positive level. When the sine wave crosses zero, the amplifier is driven to its opposite state and the output goes fo its maximum, negative level. Fhus.th produce a square wave from a sine wave. ‘Waveforms (for zero-level detector) ~ aa fo a Vom ene Yout 6} ————| You gong Nonzero level detector An op-amp comparator can be used to detect a positive vollage level as shown in Figure 3.3a. Itis inverting input sensor. The reference voltage at the noninverting input is found by the formula ‘zero-level detector can be tsedtas a squarintyifouit ti" sss ee Re When the voltage at the inverting input is below Vg, the output is at -FVoep, When the voltage at the inverting input increases abave Vix, the outiput swings to —Very, sr dbD. Verio athe ioyetting input as-shown in Figuresaay it Becomes ant Fes sone oS“ noninverting input sensor. The cutput will swing to +V.q the instant the voltage at the noninverting input is greater than Vey Fig: 3.28 Noninverting input sensor If point is moved to-V power: Supply the circuits will detect a negative voltage, Figure 2.42 shows the arrangement with a sinusoidal iver voltage applied to Ashinverting input of the henzero-level detector, v The resulting outputis shawn Figure 3.4b, Waveforms (for nonzero-level detector) Veto = e Via 4 tot 2 tt 7 eet Now (09 i— + a dil id Vout 0 —_}——» t “Vos case, iss a ‘BASIC LINEAR AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS: eae a Linear applications are those in which the output signal is directly proportional to 4 the input signal. pica a Negative feedback is one of the most useful concepts in electronics, particularly in op-amp linear applications. Negative feedback is the process whereby a ae portion of the output voltage of an amplifier is returned to the input with a phase is angle that opposes (or subtracts ftom) the input signal. w.‘The usefulness of an op-amp ifi an open-loop mode (Le. without negative <) feedback) is severely restricted and is generaly lrnited to comparator and other g nonlinear applications. As the inherent open-loop voltage gain of a typical op- ‘amp is very high therefore, an extremely small input voltage drives the op-amnp {nto ils saturated output states and the op-amp becomes nonlinear. With negative feedback, the closed-loop voltage gain can be reduced and controlled so that the op-amp can function as a linear amplifier. Negative feedback is fustrated in fe Figure 3.5. ee) Nustration of negative feedback a Taga i oabect} = ee] ES OV {nlemetiniersion makes V, 180" outogphase witha Fig. 35 ‘The inverting input effectively makes the feedback signal 180° out of phase with {he input signal. The "negative feedback network’ closes the loop around the op- amp. The gain of op-amp in such contiguratians is called the closed loop gain lnverting Amplifier ‘An op-amp connected as an invertin 1g amplifier with a controlled amount of voltage gain is shown in Figure 3.6. verting ampfilier (de epitier) | The input signal is applied throug input, Also the output is fed ba input is grounded, ‘The gain ofthe circuit is calculated by the formula Ave “RR (the minus sign ‘palates only that the polarity of tre output voltage is opposite lo the potanty of the-input voltage) or can be found by Ay= -VoulVin “The junction of Rand Ri at the inverting input is ehoutthe same vellage as the noninferting input and is referred to as virtual ground. To reduce the offset bias currents, the noninverting input is not directly grounded buta resistor Ry is used. Ry is equal to the value of Ry, and Rrin parallel (Ra=RinRdRint Ri), When inverting amplifier is use: input an output terminals, to block any de voltage from the circuit which might couse fistortion. The frequency response of an op-amp cicut depends on ie gain the lower the gain, the wider the frequency response. Noninverting Amplifier An op-amp connected as a noninverting am) voltage gain ig shawn in Figure 3.7. Noninverting arapitier (6c amplifier) ih a series input resistor Ri, io the inverting ick through R; to the same input. The noninverting ¢ for ac signals, capacitors are used at th plifier with a controtted amount of Rr us) The input signal is applied to the noninver the inverting input through the feedsack resistor Rq and the feedback resistor Ry. The gain of the circu is calculated by te formula A= RYRixt1 OF Avs VouVig When the noninverting amplifier is Used for ac signals, capacitors are used at the input and oulput terminals, to block any de voltage form the circult that might cause distortion. Even though the inpul voltage changes, an ampllier's gain remains the same. A noninverting amplifier is used for high input imoeciance, where Re cannot be made larger, because of affeciifigtttie gain of the circuit avid creating more noise, Voltage followers (or Source followers ~ * ge followers ars special cases of the noninverting and inverting amplifiers. A noninverting amplifier with Re=0 and Ria==, becomes a noninverting voltage follower as shovin in Figure 3.6a. it has a gain of 1 because of the zero fesistance feedback loop. Itis referred to as voltage follower since the ouput “ollows* the inaut and is in phase withthe it. Becausé of gain of 4, this circuit is also named as the unity’gain amplifier. The impedaro¥'ta this circuit can be” made very high ing input, The outputis appiied back to circuit (closed loop) formed by the input, Noninverting votage follower Ri Ma > fig: 388 Aa inverting amplifier with R=Ry becomes an Inverting voltage follower as shown in Figure 3.80, Inverling voltage follower ReeRe Ven Fig: 388 . The gain of this circuitis + (Ay= RyRy) and the output voltage is 180° out of phase with the input voltage, The input impedance to this circuit is lower; being limited by the value of Ry. Voltage followers are used to match circuit impedances and act as butfer mplifiers, isolating ore circuit from another. ing, Ans !'more than one inputis used on an inverting amplifier, t becomes 2 summing Sireuit or edder as shown in Figure 3.9, Summing amplitier Fly: 3.9 {Re output voltage isthe algebraic sum of the inputs, but Inverted, and can be found by the formula Ry R, None | BEM +N + sone (Fev Ry where Ry and V,are the number of input resistors and input voltages. The output Voltage is weighted sum of the input signals (Way Vasses.Ma). This circuit is therefore called weighted summer. Each summing coefficient may be independently adjusted by adjusting the cotresponding “feed-in" resistors (Ry to Ry). ~ When all the resistors in the summing amnplifier are of the same vaiue, the circuit becomes unity gain sumraing amplifier and the formula for Vau simplifies to ou =—(VytVa at Vy) ve {Mhen all input resistors are ofthe came value with Ry a larger value, the circuit Becomes summing amplifier with gain, Vou fs given by Von = Yt where R is the value of each equai-value input resistor. ‘When in the suraming amplifier with gain, the ratio RVR is set equal to the Hobrocal of the number of inputs (n), the circuit hecomes “averaging amplifier” Hence the summing amplifie yProthices the mathematical average of the input any Voltages when.RUR=IIn, When different weights are aésigned to each iny adjusting the values of the input resisto iput of a summing amplifier, by 8, the circuit becomes scaling adder. in input (Ry Re). For example, if an input voltage is to have 4 weight if then. Or, ita weight of 0.5 is required, Ry=2R;. The stnaller the value of input resistance R,, the grester the weight, and viee verse The input currents anc current tt ‘ought Ryadd up fo zero at the inverting input, referred to as the current summing point. The summing amplifier can also be Used as an audio signal mixer. Difference Amplitior a a Both inputs are used (or active) for a difference amplifier or subtractor, as shown in Figure 3.40. The output voltage is found by the formula Ray, « (Ral), MRR)? Oilferenca amplifier Ry v1 Flr 2.40 \eall resistors are equal, the formula simplifies to VeysVarV4; however; the. ~ - « * polarity of thé output voliage depends on the relationship of the inverling and’ noninverting inputs polarities, similar to @ comparator cirouit, Adifferenes amplifier may have gain or use scaling input arrangement where one input has more influence on the output. DIFFERENTIATOR, INTEGRATOR AND SQUARE WAVE GENERATOR CIRCUITS: Op-afnp Differentiator ‘An op-amp differentiator simulates mathematicel differentiation, which is a process of determining the instantaneous rate of change of a function. The basic op-amp differentiator, shown in Figure 3.11, is similar to the basic inverting amplifier, except that the input element is a capacitor. This clrcult produces output that is proportional to the rate of change of the input voltage and is given by a, Vou = “RC ou = “RCT ‘The product RiC is called the time constant and it should be approximately equal to the period of the input signal to be differentiated. * : Differentiator Re vet be Fig. An op-amp integrator simulates mathematical integration, which is basically a sutaming process thet detenmines the total area under the curve of a function, The basic op-amp integrator, shown in Figure 3,12, is similarto the basic es Tins amplifier, except that the feedback element is a capa Said to-be inverse of the differentiator circuit, which is a mathematical operation of ci The output voltage of the integrator, a ‘The product RC is the time constant and, as with their ntiator cic, made approximaiely equal to the eried of the input signal to be integrated, ; Integrator ¢ ; ee ee m the output of the op- Fava STounG and determine the aVi Assume, inially, that Vea ie UV PEPactor C; begins to charge through Ry to Wen, The rere the voltage on the Sepactor is greater than Vee at the noninverting input, the Output switches to Test The capacitor now charges toward —Viu and the'inciart greeter than Ges the output ewitches back to Vau and the proseee begins again. The square Favs Output at Voor is Vea in amplitide, The ampliudiercy Vor Is 2% and can be found by the formula R, Wy, 3. 7 Rage) cy can be found by Rg Ran Me) and Vag IF Rois 86% of Ra, the approximate output freque IRC, formula wank, oties mem g ‘Square wave generator : : Fie93 BEFORE'STARTING THE EXPERIMENTS >. Inerter check:,Before starting the experimenlsy.check that your IC fs", 2 working properiy. This can be easily done by connecting the op-amp in an inverting unily gain amplifier (as shown in figure below) and checking the ouput signal on scope for any suitable input signal. Inveiter, check “aka ven » “Gis petterto co a quiok inverter check than to waste time { experimenting with a damaged IC.) > Power supply range: Op-amps are designed to he powered from ‘woltage supply which is typically in the range of 6 fo £15 volts. To avoid damaging the op-emp.use +12 volts for voltage supply in the experiment. > {Power supply polarity: Never reverse power supply polarity to the op- ‘amps. Applying a negallve voltage to the “+V" pin and a positive to the 2" pin, even momentarily will result in destructive current flow through “the op-ampl > Power and signal sources: After wiring the circuit, cannect or turn on zlhe power and signal sources to the breadboard last! > *Planning the experiment: Plan your experiment beforehand. Know what type of resulls you are expected (0 observe, Don't minclessly take data unless you have a good idea of whal should be observed, You can ansiyze things before doing the lab or as you go along. EXPERIMENTS EXPERIMENT 4 1 ‘Toxdemonsirate the basic operation of an ov. rap as a comparator circuit, Apparatus: dual + 12V power supply, ci igital vollmeter, 744 op-amp, 10k2 pontentimeters, 40kQ resisters, bread board for constructing circuit ae Etocedure: Circuit is constructed as shown in Figure 4.1. V, definite values and ihe Corresponding values of Vayare,sax rand V2are set to i corded, indie polarity. Voltage comparator fy aw fi oaks 7 . e =, ie ei oS irate, Oo} EXPERIMENT 2 ees we § To. demojstrate the operation of an op-amp inverting ampfifier with dc and ac vollages and calculate gain of the circuit Apparatus: dual & 12V power supply, digital voltmeter, 741 op-amp, oscilloscope, AC signal generator, 10 k® potentiometer, breadboard for constructing circuit, resistors (4.7KQ, 6.8K, 10KR, 22 KO, 47K2, OOKN}, 1,F capacitors For de amplifier, circuit is constructed Begigen i in Figure 4.2a, For diferent{¥atues of Ry, Ry arid Vig (as shown in data EBB), Vou is measUFéd: Gain is calculated by the formulae: A=-RyRiy and A=Voy/Vi. : # ‘Op-amp inverting ampiifigr™ (¢campitier) ow Rou Ri] Vin | Vout (OQ) |W) LU) | ee RR | AVoulVin 47 #1 Obs berg. i _(-to0 [HW n 2 ja a 7 47. =A . AT. A Eid v1 For ac amplifier, circuits constructed as shown in Figure 4.2b. For Ry=100kR, the frequency generator is set at Vie=1Vpp and Vow is measured for different frequencies (f}. Gain is calculated b: ‘VoulVin Graph is ploited between A, and f. Same procedure Is repeated for R=A7kQ. Op-amp inverting amplifior (ac amplifier) Fig: 4.20 Observations and Calculations | Rea7ka if (kHz) Berta (OF Vin at Vou Veue if 4 Vee) 7)

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