overviews for each rule of Grammar

1. Parts of Speech:
• Nouns:
people, places, things, or ideas : “dog,” “city,” “love.”
• Pronouns:
replace nouns
• Verbs:
actions or states : “run,” “eat.”
• Adjectives:
describe nouns : “happy,” “blue,” “tall.”
• Adverbs:
describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs : “quickly,” “often,” “there.”
• Prepositions:
show relationships in terms of space, time, or direction : “at,”in,”on,”behind,”under,”between,”
beside,”above,”out,”to,”around,”through,”in front,”near,”far,”up,”down,”away,”among,”over,”past,”
into,”along.”
• Conjunctions:
connect words, phrases, or clauses : “and,” “but,” “or.”
• Interjections:
strong emotions : “Wow!” “Oh no!”
2. Sentence Structure:
• Subject:
The main noun or pronoun that the sentence is about.
• Predicate:
The verb and its modifiers, which express what the subject does or is.
• Clauses:
Groups of words containing a subject and predicate, have independent clauses (complete
thoughts) and dependent clauses (incomplete thoughts).
• Phrases:
Groups of related words without both a subject and a predicate.
3. Tenses:
• Present:
actions happening now.
• Past:
actions have already happened.
• Future:
actions will happen.
 • Each tense has
simple, continuous (progressive), perfect, and perfect continuous forms.
4. Modals:
1. Can/Could:
• Expresses ability, permission, or possibility
“She can speak Spanish.”
2. May/Might:
• Indicates possibility,permission,or uncertainty
“It may rain later.”
3. Shall/Should:
• Suggests obligation, duty, or advice
“You should complete your homework.”
4. Will/Would:
• Implies future action, willingness, or a polite
request “I will help you with the project.”
5. Must:
• Conveys necessity or strong obligation
“You must finish your chores before going out.”
5. Voice:
• Active Voice:
The subject performs the action
“The cat chased the mouse.”
• Passive Voice:
The subject receives the action
“The mouse was chased by the cat.”
6. Mood:
• Indicative:
Statements of fact
“She is reading a book.”
• Imperative:
Commands or requests
“Close the door.”
• Subjunctive:
Expresses hypothetical situations or wishes
“If I were you, I would take the job.”
7. Articles and Determiners:
• The:
Used before a specific noun that is known to the reader/listener. “I saw the movie last night.”
• A:
used before words with a consonant sound.
“I have a dog.”
• An:
used before words with a vowel sound.
“She owns an umbrella.”
• This:
Used to that is close to the speaker.
“This book is interesting.”
• That:
Used to is farther away from the speaker.
“Look at that beautiful sunset.”
• These:
Used to these are close to the speaker.
“These shoes are comfortable.”
• Those:
Used to those are farther away from the speaker.
“Can you pass me those magazines?”
• My:
Indicates possession by the speaker.
“This is my car.”
• Your:
Indicates possession by the person being addressed. “Is this your backpack?”
• His:
Indicates possession by a male person.
“I saw his presentation.”
• Her:
Indicates possession by a female person.
“Please pass her the book.”
• Its:
Indicates possession by a non-human entity.
“The cat cleaned its fur.”
• Our:
Indicates possession by a group that includes the speaker. “Our team won the game.”
• Their:
Indicates possession by a group that does not include the speaker. “I saw their new house.”
• Many:
Used for countable nouns to indicate a large quantity. “Many students attended the lecture.”
• Much:
• Much:
Used for uncountable nouns to indicate a large quantity. “There’s not much water left.”
• Some:
Used for both countable and uncountable nouns to indicate an unspecified quantity.
“I have some friends.”
• A few:
Used for countable nouns to indicate a small quantity. “I have a few books to read.”
• A little:
Used for uncountable nouns to indicate a small quantity. “There’s a little sugar in the bowl.”
• A lot of:
Used for both countable and uncountable nouns to indicate a large quantity.
“She has a lot of experience.”
• Few:
Used for countable nouns to indicate a small number. “Few people know the truth.”
• Little:
Used for uncountable nouns to indicate a small amount. “There’s little time left.”
• Several:
Used for countable nouns to indicate an indefinite but small number.
“I have several projects to complete.”
• Plenty of:
Used for both countable and uncountable nouns to indicate a sufficient or more than enough
quantity. “There’s plenty of food for everyone.”
8. Pronouns:
• Personal Pronouns:
Refer to specific people or things.
• Subject Pronouns:
I, you, he, she, it, we, they.
• Object Pronouns:
Me, you, him, her, it, us, them.
• Possessive Pronouns:
Mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs.
• Reflexive Pronouns:
Myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.
• Demonstrative Pronouns:
This, that, these, those.
• Relative and Interrogative Pronouns:
Who, whom, who’s, which, what.
• Indefinite Pronouns:
All, another, any, anybody, anyone, anything, both, each, either, everybody, everyone,
everything, few, many, neither, nobody, none, no one, nothing, several, some, somebody,
 someone, something.
8. Reciprocal Pronouns:
Each other, one another.
9. Conjunctions:
• Coordinating:
Joining words, phrases, or clauses of equal importance.
• Subordinating:
Joining an independent clause with a dependent clause.
10. Phrasal Verbs:
1. Bring up:
Raise a topic for discussion.
“He brought up an interesting point during the meeting.”
2. Break down:
Analyze or divide something into smaller parts.
“The teacher asked us to break down the problem step by step.”
3. Give in:
Surrender or yield.
“After a long negotiation, they decided to give in to the demands.”
4. Take off:
Remove clothing or depart, as in a flight taking off.
“It’s time to take off your shoes.”
“The plane will take off in an hour.”
5. Turn down:
Reject an offer or decrease the volume.
“She turned down the job offer.”
“Please turn down the music.”
6. Look forward to:
Anticipate or be eager for something to happen.
“I’m looking forward to the weekend.”
7. Run out of:
Exhaust the supply of something.
“We’ve run out of milk; I need to buy more.”
8. Put off:
Postpone or delay.
“They decided to put off the meeting until next week.”
9. Come across:
Encounter or find by chance.
“I came across an interesting book at the bookstore.”
10. Break up:
 End a relationship or disperse a group.
“They decided to break up after many years together.”
“The crowd began to break up.”
11. Modifiers:
• Adjectives:
Modify or describe nouns. “The blue sky.”
• Adverbs:
Modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
“She speaks quickly.”
• onfusing Placement:
I saw a man on the hill with a telescope.
• It’s unclear whether the man or I had the telescope.
• Clear Placement:
I saw a man with a telescope on the hill.
• The man on the hill had the telescope.
12. Negation:
. Negative Sentences with “Not”:
She is not here.
• Negative (Contraction):
I’m not going to the store.
. Negative Words:
• Nobody:
Nobody was at the party.
• Nothing:
There is nothing in the box.
• Nowhere:
We found ourselves in the middle of nowhere.
• Negative Question:
Don’t you have a car?
. Negation with Modals:
She cannot swim.
13. Conditionals: “if”
• Zero Conditional:
Present simple * Present simple
“If you heat ice, it melts.”
• First Conditional:
Present simple * will / won’t +verb
“If it rains, we will stay home.”
• Second Conditional:
Past simple * would + verb
“If I won the lottery, I would travel the world.”
• Third Conditional:
Past perfect * would have + P.P
“If she had studied, she would have passed.”
14. Direct and Indirect Speech:
• Direct Speech:
Quoting the exact words spoken
She said, “I’ll be there.”
• Indirect Speech:
Reporting someone else said without quoting exactly”She said that she would be there”
. Backshift in Verb Tenses:
• Present Simple * past simple.
• Present Continuous * past continuous.
• Present Perfect * past perfect.
• Past Simple * past perfect .
• Past Continuous * the same.
• Past Perfect * past perfect.
. Time and Place Expressions:
• Now: Changes to then.
• Today: Changes to that day.
• Tomorrow: Changes to the next day.
• Here: Changes to there.
15. Relative Clauses:
• Defining Relative Clause:
Essential to the meaning of the sentence.
“The book that I bought is interesting.”
• Non-defining Relative Clause:
Adds extra information, separated by commas.“My sister, who lives in Paris, is visiting.”
16. Gerunds and Infinitives:
• Gerunds:
Verb forms ending in -ing used as nouns. “Swimming is my favorite activity.”
• Infinitives:
Base form of a verb often preceded by
“to.” “I like to swim.”
17. Punctuation:
1. Comma (,):
 “She bought apples, oranges, and bananas.”
“After the game, they went for dinner.”
2. Period (.):
“I am going to the store.”
3. Question Mark (?):
“Are you coming to the party?”
4. Exclamation Mark (!):
“What a beautiful day!”
5. Colon (:):
“There are three things I love: books, music, and art.”
6. Semicolon (;):
“She loves to read; it’s her favorite hobby.”
7. Quotation Marks (” “):
She said, “Hello.”
8. Apostrophe (’):
“The cat’s toy” (belonging to the cat).
“It’s a beautiful day” (it is).
9. Hyphen (-):
“High-quality product.”
“Two-thirds of the class.”
10. Ellipsis (…):
“I wonder where… never mind.”
11. Parentheses (()):
“The meeting (scheduled for next week) was canceled.”
12. Brackets ([]):
She said, “I love [chocolate].”