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Pulse-Width-Modulation Techniques: A Review

a b
R M Jalnekar MIETE & K S Jog FIETE
a
Department of Computer Engineering, Bharati Vidyapeeth's College of Engineering,
Katraj-Dhankawadi, Pune 411 043, India.
b
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering, Government
College of Engineering, Shivaji Nagar, Pune 411 005, India.
Published online: 26 Mar 2015.

To cite this article: R M Jalnekar MIETE & K S Jog FIETE (2000) Pulse-Width-Modulation Techniques: A Review, IETE
Journal of Research, 46:3, 175-183, DOI: 10.1080/03772063.2000.11416153

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 JETE Journal of Research
Vol46, No 3, May-June 2000, pp 175-183.

Pulse-Width-Modulation Techniques · A Review

R M JALNEKAR, MIETE
Department of Computer Engineering, Bharati Vidyapeeth's College of Engineering, Katraj-Dhankawadi,
Pune 411 043, India.
AND

K S JOG, FIETE
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering, Government College of Engineering, Shivaji Nagar,
Pune 411 005, India.

Pulse-width-Modulation techniques are used for, harmonic elimination and/or reduction

at the output of the inverter and simultaneously achieving the output voltage control.
Microprocessor based implementation offers many advantages hence stress is to develop PWM
techniques so that on-line micrQprocessor based implementation is easily possible. Different
PWM techniques like Square-Wave, Sinusoidal, Regular-Sampled, harmonic elimination PWM
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and the Regular-Sampled Harmonic-Elimination PWM are the available options for a designer.
Depending on the requirements, a suitable PWM scheme is selected. This paper reviews these
PWM techniques in details. Their theoretical development and harmonic plots (Harmonic
amplitudes versus Modulation index) are presented. The paper also compares all the PWM
schemes.

Indexing terms : PWM techniques, Carrier based PWM, Harmonic elimination PWM,
Modulation index.

Nomenclature vc (t) Equation of the carrier wave

vm (t) Equation of the modulating wave
tpw Pulse-width
Wm Angular frequency of the carrier wave
Tc Carrier time period
M Number of switches in one quarter cycle of the
t rk, t,f kth rising and falling edges
PWM wave
m" Modulation Index
p Number of pulses in one half cycle of the PWM
n nth harmonic wave

vn. ell nth harmonic rms and peak voltages vdc Supply voltage.

DIFFERENT PWM TECHNIQUES

I NVERTERS are widely used in motor drives and UPS
systems. It control the quality of the output delivered to
the load. The non-sinusoidal waveform of the inverter Broadly the PWM techniques are classified into,
results in increased copper loss, reduced power-factor,
motor derating, torque pulsation, motor fatigue and speed Carrier based PWM (CBPWM)
ripple etc. Use of LC filter is not recommended as they
They control the amplitudes of the lower order
increase the cost and complexity and reduce the efficiency
harmonics depending on the number of pulses per half cycle
and reliability. For a VVVF Inverter drive the filter design
used. They can be either Square wave PWM (SWPWM) or
is difficult. Pulse Width Modulation Technique serve the
Sinusoidal PWM (sin PWM). Carrier based PWM can use
dual purpose of harmonic reduction or elimination and
either leading edge, trailing edge or double edge modulation
voltage control within the inverter without any extra
depending on which edge is modulated. Most of the carrier
hardware cost. The complexity of the control circuitry is
based PWM schemes use double edge modulation as it has
reduced if microprocessors are used. They also offer
quarter wave symmetry.
advantages like universal hardware and flexible software,
low drift and noise problems and ability to modify the Harmonic elimination PWM (HEPWM)
software at a later date.
Also called programmed PWM (PPWM) technique. Can
Paper No 33-A; Copyright © 2000 by the JETE. completely eliminate certain number of harmonics
175
 176 JETE JOURNAL OF RESEARCH. Vol 46, No 3, 2000

depending on the number of switches per quarter cycle M. SQUARE WAVE PWM (SWPWM)
Recently it has received wide attention. The two popular
schemes are simple HEPWM and regular sampled HEPWM The power device is switched M times in a given quarter
(RSHEPWM). cycle [IJ_ All pulse widths are equal, proportional to m0 T,.
The PWM wave can also be bipolar or unipolar depend- The modulation process is shown in Fig I and the harmonic
ing on whether the wave has two or one polarity in one plot in Fig 2 for p = I and in Fig 3 for p = 5. Following
half cycle. conclusions can be drawn.
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Fig I Modulation process for MPSWPWM

12,-----------------------------------------------~

08

06

02

MOd.lndeJI. 12

Fig 2 Harmonic plot for MPPWM for p=l

••
••
07

II OJ . ••
IIIIM........
•• 07
•• ••
Fig 3 Harmonic plot for MPPWM for p=5
 JALNEKAR & JOG : PWM TECHNIQUES: A REVIEW 177

Only odd harmonics are present that have higher · vc(t)=(-1)~((2k-1)-4t/TJ (1)
amplitudes particularly at low output voltages for p = I. As
p increases, considerable reduction in the lower order (2)
harmonics is achieved. The higher harmonics are increased where the two waves intercepts we get the switching angles
which can be easily filtered. For large p the switching loss,
cooling requirement and cost of the power devices is Vc (tk) = vm (tk) and vc (tk + 1) = vm (tk + 1)
increased. Can be implemented on-line using micro-
processor. Using equations (1) and (2) we get,

SINUSOIDAL PWM

The modulating signal is sinewave and hence the name.

Can be natural sampled (NSPWM) or regular sampled Similarly for unipolar PWM
(RSPWM). (4)

Natural sampled PWM These equations are transcendental nonlinear and need off-
line calculations. When microprocessors are used the pulse-
This is the basic type of sin PWM. The modulation
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widths are calculated off-line for predefined values of the

process for bipolar and unipolar scheme is shown in Fig 4 modulation index rna and stored in the microprocessor
and 5 respectively·. The switching angle equation for memory using look up tables (LUT's).
BPPWM is derived as follows.
The harmonic spectrum is superior but it suffers from
The equation of the Kth carrier wave and the sinewave limited resolution, off-line calculations and large memory
are given by requirement.

Fig 4 Modulation process for bipolar NSPWM

Fig 5 Harmonic process for unipolar NSPWM

 178 IETE JOURNAL OF RESEARCH. Vol 46, No 3, 2000

Regular sampled PWM Using equations (I) and (5) and noting that

The modulating signal is sampled at regular intervals (-I) 2k = + I, we get,

and the resulting step wave is compared with the carrier
wave to generate either the symmetric (SRSPWM) or
asymmetric (ARSPWM) PWM.
(6)
Symmetric RSPWM
Similarly for unipolar PWM
In SRSPWM £21 thesampling is done at the positive
peaks of the carrier wave at the rate of J;_ = (I IT). The
(7)
modulation process for bipolar and unipolar scheme is The rising and the falling edges are given by
shown in Figs 6 and 7 respectively.

For the derivation of the pulse-width equation the

modulating wave of equation (2) is sampled regularly at (8)
tk =(2k- I) Tc 12 and the sampled amplitude is given by,
The harmonic plots for bipolar and unipolar PWM are
(5) shown in Figs 8 and 9 respectively. The following
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conclusions can be drawn.

The Kth sample of the sine wave intercepts the 2Kth and
the (2K + I )th carrier wave thus, The pulse width equations are linear algebraic. Only
one multiplication (and an addition for bipolar PWM) is
required for the unipolar PWM. For calculation of the

--
Fig 6 Modulation process for bipolar SRSPWM

Fig 7 Modulation process for unipolar SRSPWM

 JALNEKAR & JOG : PWM TECHNIQUES: A REVIEW 179
"r---------------------------------------------,
10

0' 02 04
••
Mod.""'-•
•• 07
•• ••
Fig 8 Harmonic plot for bipolar SRSPWM p =5 for half bridge inverter
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.
01

I.
••

••
J..
IS

0.1 .. •• . .. ...
............ 0.7
•• 0.1

Fig 9 Harmonic plot for unipolar SRSPWM, p = 5 for half bridge inverter

switching angles one more addition (or subtraction) is (-1 ) k = + 1, we get,

necessary. On-line microprocessor based implementation
is possible. With unipolar scheme the inverter switching
frequency can be higher. The dominant harmonics in
BPPWM are 2p, 2p- I, 2p + I, 4p- 1, 4p + I and in
UPPWM are 2p- 1, 2p + I, 4p- I, 4p + I. The fundamental
The rising and the falling edges are given by
voltage increases linearly with the modulation index.
Maximum obtainable fundamental voltage is 90% of the
supply voltage.
t fk =KTc + tpw (sym)/2 + tpw (asym) (10)
Asymmetric RSPWM
The Harmonic plot is shown in Fig 11. The following
The sampling is done at both the negative and positive
conclusions can be drawn.
peaks of the carrier wave at the rate 2J;. 121. The modulation
process is shown in Fig 10. For the derivation of the pulse The pulse width equation is linear algebraic and on-
width equation the modulating signal of equation (2) is line microprocessor based implementation is possible. For
now sampled regularly at tk = (k- 1) Tc 12. calculating the switching angles additional overhead of
calculating the pulse-width of SRSPWM doubles the
The Kth sample intercepts with the Kth carrier wave.
number of calculations. This limits the maximum switching
Hence,
frequency. The fundamental output voltage increases
linearly. The .dominant harmonics are same as SRSPWM
but have decreased amplitudes for the same modulation
Using equations (1) and (5) and noting that index.
 180 IETE JOURNAL OF RESEARCH, Vol 46, No 3, 2000

HARMONIC-ELIMINATION PWM The swithcing angles a'k s are calculated to completely

eliminate particular harmonics. The fourier series for the
The HEPWM 12•51 can completely eliminate q harmo- bipolar wave can shown to be,
nics for number of switches per quarter cycle M = q + I. M
Typical bipolar and unipolar waves are shown in Fig 12. cn=-4Vdclnn[l+2 L (-l)kcosine(nak)] (II)
k=l
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Fig I0 Modulation process for bipolar ARSPWM

••r---------------------------------------------,
10

,..
I"
u

-- ..
II .. •• .
Fig II Harmonic plot for bipolar ARSPWM p =5 for half bridge inverter

Fig 12 Bipolar and unipolar HEPWM waves

 JALNEKAR & JOG : PWM TECHNIQUES: A REVIEW 181

Similarly for unipolar PWM, (D) For fundamental voltages between 0.8 to 1.15 per
M unit, the switching angles vary non-linearly with the
en=4Vdclnn L (-J)k+lcosine(nak) (12) fundamental voltages.
k=l
(E) For fundamental voltages greater than 1.15 per unit
To eliminate the nth harmonic we equate en= 0. the harmonic solution does not exist.

Using the above characteristics the modulation process

e 3 =e5 = .......................... en= 0 forM >=3 has been defined 14 ·61. Two sine-waves, phase
shifted by angles q> 1 and q>2 are regularly sampled at the
TheM equations can be solved using Newton method. center tk = KT" of the pulses of the HEPWM. This sampling
The M switching angles a k's are found out for all the process results into switching angle equations given below,
predetermined values of the fundamental voltages from 0
to Vmax in convenient steps depending on the desired (i) The switching angle equation for fundamental
resolution. These switching angles are then stored in look vt>ltage between 0 to 0.8 per unit and for odd and
up tables. It is not necessary to eliminate the first M lower even k are given respectively by,
order harmonics to eliminate the Mth harmonic. Any
ak=(K+ I)TJ2-maTJ2sin[(k+ I)T,J2+q>Jl
desired harmonic can be eliminated at random.
(13)
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The results for eliminating the 3rd harmonic (M = 2)

a k = K TJ 2 + ma T,.l 2 sin [k TJ 2 + q> 2] (14)
are used from ref [3] for fundamental voltage values from
0.01 to 1.06 per unit. The Harmonic plot is shown in where K= 1,2,3, ... , M
Fig 13.
q> 1 = M TJ 2 and q> 2 = TJ4 (15)
The fundamental voltage increases linearly. The desired
harmonics are completely eliminated. The scheme does not (ii) For fundamental voltages between 0.8 to 1.15 per
have a defined modulation process and hence is not suited unit the basic switching angle equation remains
for on-line microprocessor based implementation. the same. However the sampling period is different
and is given by,
REGULAR SAMPLED HEPWM
T, = T, I 2 ( I +cosine ( x 2 n I 2)]
The HEPWM exhibits some important characteristics
that can help to define the modulation process. where x = (ma- 0.8) I 0.4 (16)

(A) Quarter wave symmetry.

The variation of the switching angles with the
fundamental voltage and the harmonic plot for M = 5 are
(B) All switching angles are constrained to lie between shown in Figs 14 and 15 respectively. The results obtained
0 to 60 or 90 degrees. are same as HEPWM. The pulse-width equation is linear
algebraic and easy on-line microprocessor based imple-
(C) For fundamental voltages between 0 to 0.8 per unit, mentation is possible.
the switching angles vary linearly with fundamental
voltage. The HEPWM offers some distinct advantages over the
carrier based PWM like reduced operating frequency of
(i) The odd and even switching angles have parallel the power devices by a factor of two, higher fundamental
characteristics with negative and positive slope output voltage due to the possibility of over modulation
respectively. and reduced size of the de link filter due to high quality
output voltage and current wave forms.
(ii) All the switching angles converge at zero funda-
mental voltage with an angular separation given CONCLUSION
by T, =2n I 3 (M + I).
The amplitudes of the lower order harmonics for
SWPWM can be decreased by increasing p. The funda-
mental voltage increases linearly with the modulation index
for all the PWM schemes except SWPWM with p = I. The
NSPWM gives most superior harmonic spectrum but needs
off-line calculations hence when used the analogue
implementation is preferred. The SRSPWM, ARSPWM and
0 Mod. Index.
RSHEPWM can be implemented on-line using micro-
Fig 13 Harmonic plot for HEPWM forM= 2 processors. The dominant harmonics in RSPWM are 2p,
 182 IETE JOURNAL OF RESEARCH, Vol 46, No 3, 2000

. r-==================5~
=3]
50

rF===~·
I'"
fm[-====~2
10
===1_]
01 0.2 0.3 o.4 o.s o.e 0.7 0.1 0.0
P., unit Fund. Vol&ltll.

Fig 14 Switching angle versus fund voltage M = 5

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....
.,
....
1..
1 u

II

•..
II
•• u
•. L--------------------------1
•• . .. ...
Fig 15 Harmonic plot for RSHEPWM M = 5, for three phase inverter

TABLE 1 Comparison of PWM schemes

Parameter SWPWM NSPWM SRSPWM ARSPWM HEPWM RSHEPWM

Pulse width Linear Transcendenta I Linear Linear Non-linear Linear

Equation Algebraic nonlinear Algebraic Algebraic equations Algebraic
Number of one Off-line One addition Double than Off-line Same as
Calculations multiplication calculations and multip. SRSPWM calculations SRSPWM
Dominant All odd 2p, 2p ±I, Same as Same as Eliminates q Same as
harmonics Harmonics 4p± l,p± 2, NSPWM SRSPWM harmonics for HEPWM.
p ± 4 etc. with increased with lesser M=q+ I.
amplitudes of amplitudes
the suppressed
harmonics
Remarks Rarely used Analogue On-line Superior No defined Modulation
implementation implementation spectrum than modulation process for
preferred ofCBPWM SRSPWM process HEPWM
 JALNEKAR & JOG : PWM TECHNIQUES: A REVIEW 133

4p- 1, 4p + 1, 2p- 1, 2p + 1 etc. The ARSPWM has reduced monic Elimination, IEEE Trans lnd Applicat, vol IA-9,
amplitudes for the same harmonics at a given modulation pp310-317, 1973.
index. However the number of calculations are doubled 2. S R Bowes & R R Clements, Computer-Aided Design of
which limits the maximum switching frequency. There is PWM Inverter Systems, lEE 129. pt B, no I, pp 1-16,
not much difference in the harmonic spectrum of UPPWM Jan 1982.
and BPPWM except that the 2pth harmonic is very dominant
3. A Zuckerberger & Abraham Alexandrovitz Determination
in the BPPWM that is completely absent in the UPPWM.
of Commutation Sequence with a View to Eliminate Har-
The BPPWM requires more number of calculations than
monics in Microprocessor-Controller PWM Voltage In-
the UPPWM. The simple HEPWM has no defined verter, IEEE Trans on lnd Elect, vol IE-33, no 3, pp 262-
modulation process and needs off-line calculations. It 270, August 1986.
=
eliminates q number of harmonics if M q + 1. The
RSHEPWM has the limitation that the switching angle 4. S R Bowes & P R Clark, Transmitter Based Harmonic-
Elimination PWM Control of Inverter Drives, IEEE Trans
equations are defined only for odd M >= 3. The choice of
On lnd Applicat, vol 28, no I, pp 72-80, 1992.
a particular PWM scheme depends on the load, the
operating frequency, on-line/off-line microprocessor based 5. H S Patel & R G Hoft, Generalized Techniques of Har-
implementation, required voltage and frequency resolution, monic Elimination and Voltage Control in Thyristorized
and the particular harmonics that are to be eliminated. Inverters, Part-2- Voltage Control Techniques, IEEE
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Comparison of the PWM scheme is given in Table 1. Trans lnd Applicat, voilA- 10, pp 666-673, 1974.
6. S R Bowes & P R Clark, Regular-Sampled Harmonic-
REFERENCES Elimination PWM Control of Inverter Drives, IEEE Trans
on Power Electronics, vol 10, no 5, pp 521-531,
I. H S Patel & R G Hoft, Generalized Techniques of Har- Sept 1995.

AUTHORS
R M Jalnekar, is presently working papers and books· on Power-electronics. His field of
as Professor and Head of the interest includes PWM-Techniques and signal-
Computer Engineering at BVCOE processing. Presently he is working for his PhD in Power-
Pune. He obtained BE (E&TIC) and Electronics and likely to submit the thesis in Feb 2000.
ME (E&T/C) from GCOEP Pune. He He is a life Member of JETE, ISTE and BMESI.
worked as R&D Engineer at DB-
Electronics Pune and was * * * *
Technical-Director of Micro-Power-
Systems Pune. He worked as K S Jog, is working as Professor and Head, Electronics
Assistant-Professor and taught courses on Power- and Telecommunication Department, Govt College of
Electronics for last ten years at BVCOE Pune. Engineering Pune. She obtained her PhD degree from
Pune University. She is a Life member of ISTE, a Life
He has worked on UPS-system, IGBT-based Motor- fellow of JETE and a member of IEEE. Her areas of
Drives, SMPS and PWM-Converters. He is a consultant interest include Modelling, Image Processing and
to many small-scale industries. He has published several Networking.