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EET 203 Measurements and Instrumentation- Module I

Measurements And Instrumentation (APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

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EET 203 MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION: Notes Prepared by Dr.Renuka T K, EEE, MESCE

EET 203: Measurements and Instrumentation

Syllabus
Module 1 :
Measurement standards–Errors-Types of Errors- Statistics of errors, Need for calibration. Classification
of instruments, secondary instruments–indicating, integrating and recording operating forces - essentials
of indicating instruments - deflecting, damping, controlling torques. Ammeters and voltmeters - moving
coil, moving iron, constructional details and operation principles, shunts and multipliers – extension of
range.

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1. 1 Introduction:

• Measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or the result of comparison between the quantity
(whose magnitude is unknown) and a predefined value.
• Types of measurement
• Direct measurement: Value measured is directly known ie quantity to be measured is directly
determined from the measuring device. Eg: V and I measured from voltmeter, ammeter etc
• Indirect measurement: quantity to be measured is determined indirectly by measuring other parameters.
Eg: Resistance measurement from voltmeter ammeter method R= V/I

1.1.1 The main functional elements of a measurement system :

Primary sensing element

• The measurand is first detected by primary sensor or detector followed by conversion of measurand
into an analogous electrical signal. This is done by a transducer. A transducer is defined as a device
which converts a physical quantity into an electrical quantity. The first stage of a measurement system
is known as a detector transducer stage.

Variable conversion element

• The output signal of the variable sensing element may be any kind. It could be a mechanical or electrical
signal. It may be a deflection of elastic member or some electrical parameter, such as, voltage,

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frequency etc. Sometimes, the output from the sensor is not suited to the measurement system. This
part converts this output signal from the sensor to some other suitable form while preserving the
information content of the original signal. Eg: Analog to digital converter
Variable manipulation element
• Variable manipulation means a change in numerical value of the signal. The function of a variable
manipulation element is to manipulate the signal presented to this element while preserving the original
nature of the signal. For example, a voltage amplifier acts as a variable manipulation element. The
amplifier accepts a small voltage signal as input and produces an output signal which is also voltage but
of greater magnitude. Element that follows primary sensing element in any instrument or measurement
system is called signal conditioning element.
• Data transmission element
• There are several situations where the elements of an instrument are actually physically separated. In
such situations it becomes necessary to transmit data from one element to another. The element that
performs this function is called a Data Transmission Element. For example satellites or the air planes are
physically separated from the control stations at earth.
• Data presentation element
• The function of data presentation element is to convey the information about the quantity under
measurement to the personnel handling the instrument or the system for monitoring, control, or analysis
purposes. The information conveyed must be in a convenient form.
1.1.2 Characteristics of Measurement systems
The performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly divided into two categories: i) Static characteristics
for quantities that do not change its value with time eg. length ii) Dynamic characteristics for quantities that
change their value with time

• The various static characteristics are:

• i) Accuracy
• ii) Precision
• iii) Sensitivity
• iv) Linearity
• v) Resolution
• vi) Threshold
• vii) Drift
• viii) Range or span

Static characteristics

• Accuracy: It is the degree of closeness with which the reading approaches the true value of the
quantity to be measured.
• The accuracy can be expressed in following ways:

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• a) Point accuracy: Such accuracy is specified at only one particular point of scale. It does not give
any information about the accuracy at any other Point on the scale.
• b) Accuracy as percentage of scale span: When an instrument has uniform scale, its accuracy may
be expressed in terms of scale range.
• c) Accuracy as percentage of true value: The best way to conceive the idea of accuracy is to specify
it in terms of the true value of the quantity being measured.
• Precision: It is the measure of repeatability or reproducibility i.e., given a fixed value of a quantity,
precision is a measure of the degree of agreement within a group of measurements. Eg ammeter
poses high degree of precision by virtue of its clearly legible finely divided distinct scale. At the
same time its zero adjustment is wrong ie it is precise but not accurate.
• Sensitivity: It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to a change in
the value of the quantity to be measured. Consider an ammeter which gives a deflection of 45
degree for a current of 5 A then sensitivity is 9 degree/A
• Resolution: If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary input value(nonzero), it will again
be found that output does not change at all until a certain increment is exceeded. This increment
is called resolution. Smallest measurable i/p change.
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Eg. An ammeter has a uniform scale with 50 divisions and gives a full-scale reading of 5 A. The instrument
can read up to IV th of a scale division with a fair degree of certainty. Determine the resolution of the
instrument in mA.
Solution
Full-scale reading = 5 A
Number of divisions on scale = 50
I scale deflection = (5/50) x 1000 =100mA
Resolution = i/4 th of a scale division = 100/4 = 25 mA
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• Threshold: If the instrument input is increased very gradually from zero there will be some
minimum value below which no output change can be detected. This minimum value defines the
threshold of the instrument. Smallest measurable i/p.
• Range or span: The minimum & maximum values of a quantity for which an instrument is
designed to measure is called its range or span.
• Drift: undesired change in the op-ip relationship over a period of time. No drift means that with
given ip the measured value donot vary with time.
• Linearity: If the ip and op varies in a proportional manner s/m is linear. It is closeness to which
curve approximates straight line.

Dynamic characteristics

• The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which changes rapidly with time, is called ‘dynamic
characteristics’.

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• The various dynamic characteristics are: i) Speed of response ii) Time constant iii) Fidelity iv)
Dynamic error v) settling or response time vi) dynamic range
• Speed of response: It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to
changes in the measured quantity
• Time constant: Associated with first order system. Time taken by the s/m to reach 0.632 times its
final o/p signal amplitude.
• Fidelity: Ability of the system to reproduce the o/p in the same form as the i/p. Any time lag or
phase difference is not included. Ideally a s/m should have 100 % fidelity & the o/p should appear
in the same form as i/p & no distortion produced by the system.
• Dynamic error: It is the difference between the true value of the quantity changing with time &
the value indicated by the measurement system if no static error is assumed. It is also called
measurement error.
• Settling or response time: Time required by the instrument to settle down to its final steady state
value.
• Dynamic range: Ratio of amplitudes of the largest signal to the smallest signal to which the system
is subjected and s/m can handle satisfactorily.

1.2 Measurement Standards and their Classification

• A standard of measurement is a physical representation of a unit of measurement. A unit is realized
by reference to an arbitrary material standard or to natural phenomena including physical and
atomic constants.
• The term ‘standard’ is applied to a piece of equipment having a known measure of physical
quantity. For example, the fundamental unit of mass in the SI system is the kilogram, defined as
the mass of the cubic decimeter of water at its temperature of maximum of 4°C.
• This unit of mass is represented by a material standard; the mass of the international prototype
kilogram consisting of a platinum–iridium hollow cylinder. This unit is preserved at the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sevres, near Paris, and is the material
representation of the kilogram.
• Similar standards have been developed for other units of measurement, including fundamental
units as well as for some of the derived mechanical and electrical units.
The classifications of standards are
1. International standards
2. Primary standards
3. Secondary standards
4. Working standards
5. Current standards
6. Voltage standards
7. Resistance standards

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EET 203 MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION: Notes Prepared by Dr.Renuka T K, EEE, MESCE

• International Standards
• The international standards are defined by international agreement. They represent certain units of
measurement to the closest possible accuracy that production and measurement technology allow.
International standards are periodically checked and evaluated by absolute measurements in terms
of the fundamental units. These standards are maintained at the International Bureau of Weights
and Measures and are not available to the ordinary user of measuring instruments for purposes of
comparison or calibration.
• Primary Standards
• The highest standard of either a base unit or a derived unit is called a primary standard. The primary
standards are maintained by national standards laboratories in different places of the world. These
standardized units are quite stable, independent, invariant, not relative but finite. The primary
standards, again representing the fundamental units and some of the derived mechanical and
electrical units, are independently calibrated by absolute measurements at each of the national
laboratories. The results of these measurements are compared with each other, leading to a world
average figure for the primary standard. Primary standards are not available for use outside the
national laboratories. One of the main functions of primary standards is the verification and
calibration of secondary standards.
• Secondary Standards
• Secondary standards are the basic reference calibrated standards designed and calibrated from the
primary standards used in the industrial measurement laboratories. These standards are maintained
by the particular involved industry and are checked locally against other reference standards in the
area. The responsibility for maintenance and calibration rests entirely with the industrial laboratory
itself. Secondary standards are generally sent to the national standards laboratory on a periodic
basis for calibration and comparison against the primary standards. They are then returned to the
industrial user with a certification of their measured value in terms of the primary standard.
• Working Standards
• These standards have an accuracy of one order lower than that of the secondary standards. Working
standards are the principle tools of a measurement laboratory. They are used to check and calibrate
general laboratory instruments for accuracy and performance or to perform comparison
measurements in industrial applications which are used by workers and technicians who actually
carry out the measurements.

1.3 Errors, Type of Errors, Statistics of Errors

1.3.1 Errors in measurement

True Value (A): True value of a quantity to be measured may be defined as the average of an
infinite number of measured values when the average deviation due to various contributing
factors tends to zero. ie value of unknown qty obtained on making measurements with standards
and measuring instruments is its true value, though practically it is never.
• Static Error/ Absolute Error (ϵo): The difference between the measured value Am & the true
value A of unknown qty δA = Am-A

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• Relative/ Percentage Error: Ratio of absolute error to the true value of the qty to be measured is
relative static error

• When the absolute error ε0 (=δA) is negligible, i.e., when the difference between the true value A
and the measured value Am of the unknown quantity is very small or negligible then the relative
error may be expressed as,

• Limiting or guarantee error: The measured value of the unknown quantity may be more than or
less than the true value of the measurand. So the manufacturers have to specify the deviations from
the specified value of a particular quantity in order to enable the purchaser to make proper selection
according to his requirements. The limits of these deviations from specified values are defined as
limiting or guarantee errors. The magnitude of a given quantity having a specified magnitude Am
and a maximum or a limiting error ±δA must have a magnitude between the limits A=Am±δA.
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Eg: The inductance of an inductor is specified as 20 H ± 5 percent by a manufacturer. Determine the
limits of inductance between which it is guaranteed.
Solution

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1.3.2. Types of Errors
The origination of error may be in a variety of ways. They are categorized in three main types.
• Gross error
• Systematic error: Divided into 3. Instrumental errors, environmental errors, observational errors
• Random error
1. Gross Error

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• The errors occur because of mistakes in observed readings, or using instruments and in recording
and calculating measurement results. These errors usually occur because of human mistakes and
these may be of any magnitude and cannot be subjected to mathematical treatment.

•
2. Systematic Error: These are the errors that remain constant or change according to a definite
law on repeated measurement of the given quantity.
• Instrumental errors: Such errors are may be due to inherent short comings in the instrument, misuse
of the instruments ie failure due to adjust zero, poor initial adjustment etc.

2. Misuse of instrument: A good instrument used in an un-intelligent way may give erroneous
results

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Eg:

Environmental errors: These errors are introduced due to using an instrument in different conditions
than in which it was assembled and calibrated. These may be effects of temperature, pressure , humidity,
dust, magnetic or electrostatic fields etc
• Observational errors: Errors introduced by the observer. Eg parallax error due to observer not
having line of sight on pointer exactly at right angles to plane of scale

3. Random Errors or accidental errors

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EET 203 MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION: Notes Prepared by Dr.Renuka T K, EEE, MESCE

• These errors are of variable magnitude and sign and do not maintain any known law. The presence
of random errors becomes evident when different results are obtained on repeated measurements
of one and the same quantity. The effect of random errors is minimized by measuring the given
quantity many times under the same conditions and calculating the arithmetical mean of the results
obtained.
Sources of errors
Poor design
Poor maintenance
Certain design limitations
Errors caused by operating persons
Noise
Response time
Transmission: During transmission signal may get attenuated.
Ways To Minimize Errors
• Use instruments of higher precision;
• Improve the experimental techniques.
• Adjust the zero of the instruments properly.
• Take the value of the reading by standing straight to the instrument and not from the sides to avoid
Parallax errors.
• Repeat the experiment several times and take its algebraic mean for a closer result.
• Take care of the environment if possible.
• Carefully take the measurements in order to avoid gross errors.
1.3.3 Statistics of errors

There are certain methods that are adopted to assess the measurement error which include
• Standard Error of Measurement (SEm): The standard error of measurement (SEm) estimates
how repeated measures of a person on the same instrument tend to be distributed around his or her
“true” score.

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The true score is always an unknown because no measure can be constructed that provides a perfect
reflection of the true score. SEm is directly related to the reliability of a test; that is, the larger the SEm,
the lower the reliability of the test and the less precision there is in the measures taken and scores obtained.
• Coefficient of Variation (CV): it is defined as how the values vary on repeated measurements. If
the CV is low in value implies the results are closer to the true value. The coefficient of variation
(CV) is a statistical measure of the dispersion of data points in a data series around the mean. The
coefficient of variation represents the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean
• Limits of Agreement (LOA): it gives the estimate of the interval where a proportion of the
differences lie between the measurements.
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Eg:
A resistor is marked in a laboratory with the specifications 100 ohms, 10 %. Find the true value of the
resistor?
Answer: The percentage error is given to be 10%. It means the true value is 100+ 10% or 100-10%
i.e., 10% of 100 = 10. Therefore, values = 90 ohms to 110 ohms.
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Average (Mean): Whenever possible, repeat a measurement several times and average the results. This
average is generally the best estimate of the "true" value (unless the data set is skewed by one or more
outliers which should be examined to determine if they are bad data points that should be omitted from
the average or valid measurements that require further investigation).
Standard deviation:

Calculate the standard deviation for a sample of N measurements:

Sum all the measurements and divide by N to get the average, or mean.
Now, subtract this average from each of the N measurements to obtain N "deviations".
Square each of these N deviations and add them all up.
Divide this result by (N − 1) and take the square root

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1.4 Need for Calibration

• Instrument calibration is one of the primary processes used to maintain instrument accuracy.
Calibration is the process of configuring an instrument to provide result for a sample within an
acceptable range. So basically calibration of meters is the process of design of instruments by
referencing standard instruments which are not used for ordinary purpose.
• All static performance characteristics are obtained in one form or another by a process called static
calibration. The calibration of all instruments is important since it affords the opportunity to check
the instrument against a known standard & subsequently to find errors & accuracy.
• Calibration procedures involve a comparison of particular instrument with either
A primary standard or a secondary standard with a higher accuracy than the instrument to be
calibrated or an instrument of known accuracy
Actually all working instruments ie those which are actually used for measurement work must be
calibrated against some reference instrument which have a higher accuracy. Thus reference instrument
must be calibrated against instrument of still higher grade of accuracy or against other standards of known
accuracy

1.5 Classification of Instruments

The measuring instrument categorized into three types;
• Electrical Instrument
• Electronic Instrument
• Mechanical Instrument
• The mechanical instrument uses for measuring the physical quantities. This instrument is suitable
for measuring the static and stable condition because the instrument is unable to give the response
to the dynamic condition. The electronic instrument has quick response time. The instrument
provides the quick response as compared to the electrical and mechanical instrument.
• The electrical instrument is used for measuring electrical quantities likes current, voltage, power,
etc. The ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter are the examples of the electrical measuring instrument. The
ammeter measures the current in amps; voltmeter measures voltage and Wattmeter are used for
measuring the power. The classification of the electric instruments depends on the methods of
representing the output reading.

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Absolute Instrument
• The absolute instrument gives the value of measures quantities regarding the physical constant. The
physical constant means the angle of deflection, degree and meter constant. The mathematical
calculation requires for knowing the value of a physical constant.
• The tangent galvanometer is the examples of the absolute instruments. In tangent galvanometer, the
magnitude of current passes through the coil determines by the tangent of the angle of deflection of
their coil, the horizontal component of the earth magnetic field, radius and the number of turns of wire
used. The most common applications of this type of instrument are found in laboratories.
Secondary Instrument
• In the secondary instrument, the deflection shows the magnitude of the measurable quantities. The
calibration of the instruments with the standard instrument is essential for the measurement. The
output of this type of device is directly obtained, and no mathematical calculation requires for knowing
their value.
Digital Instrument
• The digital instrument gives the output in the numeric form. The instrument is more accurate as
compared to the analogue instrument because no human error occurs in the reading.
Analog instrument
• The instrument whose output varies continuously is known as the analogue instrument. The
analogue instrument has the pointer which shows the magnitude of the measurable quantities.
The analogue device classifies into two types.

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Null Type Instrument

• In this instrument, the zero or null deflection indicates the magnitude of the measured quantity.
The instrument has high accuracy and sensitivity. When the value of the known and the unknown
measuring quantities are equal, the pointer shows the zero or null deflection. The null deflection
instrument is used in the potentiometer and in galvanometer for obtaining the null point.
Deflection Type Instrument
• The instrument in which the value of measuring quantity is determined through the deflection of
the pointer is known as the deflection type instrument. The measuring quantity deflects the
pointer of the moving system of the instrument which is fixed on the calibrated scale. Thus, the
magnitude of the measured quantity is known.
The deflection type instrument is further sub-classified into three types.
Indicating Instrument – The instrument which indicates the magnitude of the measured quantity
is known as the indicating instrument. The indicating instrument has the dial which moves on the
graduated dial. The voltmeter, ammeter, power factor meter are the examples of the indicating
instrument.
Integrating Instrument – The instrument which measures the total energy supplied at a particular
interval of time is known as the integrating instrument. The total energy measured by the instrument is
the product of the time and the measures electrical quantities. The energy meter, watt-hour meter and the
energy meter are the examples of integrating instrument.
Recording Instrument – The instrument records the circuit condition at a particular interval of
time is known as the recording instrument. The moving system of the recording instrument carries a pen
which lightly touches on the paper sheet. The movement of the coil is traced on the paper sheet. The
curve drawn on the paper shows the variation in the measurement of the electrical quantities. The
response time of the electronic instrument is very high as compared to the electrical and mechanical
device.

1.6 Essentials of Indicating Instruments or Operating Forces

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• Indicating instruments are used to indicate the quantity with respect to pointer that is being measured
at the time when it moves on a scale of an instrument. Some instruments consist of pointer which
moves over a calibrated scale. The moving system of the indicating instruments consists of
three torques. These three torques are explained below:
1.6.1 Deflecting Torque
• The deflecting torque is produced by utilizing any of the effects
like magnetic, electrostatic, electrodynamics, thermal or inductive etc. Thus the deflecting system of
an instrument converts the electric current or potential into mechanical force called deflecting force.
The deflecting system thus acts as prime mover responsible for deflection of pointer. This deflecting
torque causes the moving system to move from its zero position or when the instrument is
disconnected from the supply. (This will be discussed while studying each instrument).
1.6.2 Controlling Torque
• This force is required in order that the current produces deflection of pointer proportional to its
magnitude. This torque faces the deflecting torque and increases with the deflection of the moving
system. The pointer moves on its rest position when these two opposing torques are equal. Another
function of controlling system is to bring moving system back to zero when the force causing the
moving system to deflect is removed. During the absence of a restoring torque, the pointer doesn’t
return to its zero position when the supply is removed from the instrument. The controlling or
balancing torque in indicating instruments is obtained by two methods which are described below:
1.6.2.1 Spring control:

This is the most common method of providing controlling torque, in electrical instruments. A spiral
hairspring made of some non-magnetic material like phosphor bronze is attached to the moving system of
the instrument as shown in the figure
With the deflection of the pointer, the spring is twisted in the opposite direction. This twist in the spring
provides the controlling torque. Since the torsion torque of a spiral spring is proportional to the angle of
twist, the controlling torque (Tc ) is directly proportional to the angle of deflection of pointer (θ) i.e. Tc α

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θ. The pointer will come to rest at a position where controlling torque is equal to the deflecting torque i.e.
Td
(Springs also serve the additional purpose of leading current to the moving system (i.e. operating coil)).
To give a controlling torque which is directly proportional to the angle of deflection of the moving system,
the number of turns on the spring should be fairly large, so that the deflection per unit length is small.
The stress in the spring must be limited to such a value that there is no permanent set.
Suppose that a spiral spring is made up of a total length L m of strip whose cross section is rectangular,
the radial thickness being t m and the depth b m.
Let E be Young’s modulus (N/m2) for the material of the spring. Then, if θ radians be the deflection of
the moving system to which one end of the spring is being attached, the expression for the controlling
torque is
Tc = (Ebt3/ 12L) θ
Thus, controlling torque ∞ θ ∞ instrument deflection.

1.6.2.2 Gravity Control

In this method, a small weight is attached to the moving system, which provides necessary controlling
torque.
In the zero position of the pointer, the control weight hangs vertically downward and therefore provides
no controlling torque.

However, under the action of deflecting torque, the pointer moves from zero position and control weight
moves in opposite direction.

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Due to gravity, the control weight would tend to come in original position (i.e. vertical) and thus
provides an opposing or controlling torque.
The pointer comes to rest at a position where controlling torque is equal to the deflecting torque.In this
method, controlling torque (Tc) is proportional to the sin of angle of deflection (θ) i.e. Tc α sin θ.
Because in this method controlling torque (Tc) is not directly proportional to the angle of deflection (θ)
but it is proportional to sin θ therefore, gravity control instruments have non-uniform scales; being
crowded in beginning.

(a) Non- Uniform scale (b) Uniform scale

Comparison of Spring control and Gravity control

Gravity control has the following advantages when compared with spring control:
It is cheaper
Independent of temperature
Does not deteriorate with time
If the instrument is spring-controlled, the controlling torque being TC, when the deflection is θ
Now if the same instrument is gravity controlled, TC= kg sin θ (kg is a constant that depends upon the
control weight and its distance from the axis of rotation of the moving system)
A gravity-controlled instrument would have a scale which is ‘cramped’ at its lower
end instead of being uniformly divided, though the deflecting torque is directly
proportional to the quantity to be measured.

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(a) Vertically mounted (b) Horizontally mounted

1.6.3 Damping Torque

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1.6.3.1 Air Friction Damping

In this method, a light aluminium piston is attached to the moving system and moves in an air chamber
closed at one end.
The cross-section of this chamber may be either circular or rectangular.
The clearance between the piston and the sides of the chamber should be small and uniform.
If the piston is moving rapidly into the chamber, the air in the closed space is compressed and the
pressure opposes the motion of the piston (and, therefore, of the whole moving system). If the piston is
moving out of the chamber rapidly, the pressure in the closed space falls, and the pressure on the open
side of the piston is greater than that on the opposite side. Motion is thus again opposed.
Sometimes instead of a piston, a vane, mounted on the spindle of the moving system, moves in a closed-
sector-shaped chamber.

1.6.3.2 Fluid Friction Damping

In this type of damping, a light vane, attached to the spindle of the moving system, dips into a pot of
damping oil and should be completely submerged by the oil.
The frictional drag in the disc is always in the direction opposing motion. There is no friction force when
the disc is stationary.
In the second system increased damping is obtained by the use of vanes.

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1.6.3.3 Eddy Current Damping

• When a sheet of conducting material moves in a magnetic field so as to cut through lines of force, eddy
currents are set up in it and a force exists between these currents and the magnetic field, which is always
in the direction opposing the motion.
• The force is proportional to the magnitude of the current and to the strength of the field.
• The magnitude of the current is proportional to the velocity of movement of the conductor, and thus, if the
magnetic field is constant, the damping force is proportional to the velocity of the moving system and is
zero when there is no movement of the system.
(i) Eddy-Current Damping Torque of Metal Former
• Figure below shows a metallic former moving in the field of a permanent magnet.

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(ii) Eddy-Current Damping Torque of Metal Disc

Figure shows a metallic disc rotating in the field of a permanent magnet.In this type of damping, a
copper or aluminum disc is attached to the moving system of the pointer and permanent magnets are
attached to the poles. When the pointer moves the copper or aluminum disc cuts the magnetic flux
between the poles of a permanent magnet and eddy current is produced with the flow and produces
the damping force in a required direction.

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1.7 Ammeters and Voltmeters

Ammeter
• Connected in series with the circuit whose current is to be measured
• *power loss= I2R
• *Ammeter should have low electrical resistance so that they cause small voltage drop consequently
absorbs small power
Voltmeter
• connected in parallel with the circuit whose voltage is to be measured
• *power loss= V2/R

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• *voltmeters should have high resistance so that current drawn by them is small & power consumed is
small.

Two types of Ammeters and voltmeters

• Moving coil (M C) and Moving Iron ( M I) types
• Moving coil instruments are two types.
1. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC)
2. Dynamometer type moving coil

1.8 Moving Coil Instruments

1.8.1 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) Instrument –(DC)
• Permanent Magnet Moving Coil or PMMC Instruments are the most accurate type for the
measurement of DC current or voltage.
• Construction of PMMC Instruments
• Permanent Magnet Moving Coil or PMMC Instruments consists of following components
• Deflecting system
• Magnet System
• Control Spring
• Damping
• Pointer and Scale

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The principle on which a Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instrument operates is that a torque
is exerted on a current-carrying coil placed in the field of a permanent magnet
The coil C has a number of turns of thin insulated wires wound on a rectangular aluminium former F.
The frame is carried on a spindle S mounted in jewel bearings J1, J2.
A pointer PR is attached to the spindle so that it moves over a calibrated scale.
The whole of the moving system is made as light weight as possible to keep the friction at the bearing
to a minimum.
The coil is free to rotate in air gaps formed between the shaped soft-iron pole piece (pp) of a permanent
magnet PM and a fixed soft-iron cylindrical core IC .

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The core serves two purposes; (a) it intensifies the magnetic field by reducing the length of the air gap,
and (b) it makes the field radial and uniform in the air gap. Thus, the coil always moves at right angles
to the magnetic field .
Modern permanent magnets are made of steel alloys which are difficult to machine. Soft-iron pole
pieces (pp) are attached to the permanent magnet PM for easy machining in order to adjust the length of
the air gap.
A soft-iron yoke (Y ) is used to complete the flux path and to provide shielding from stray external
fields.
Deflecting system:
• The moving coil made up of copper is wound with many turns on the rectangular Aluminum
former. This Aluminum former is pivoted on the jewelled bearing. The coil can move freely in
the magnetic field produced by the Permanent Magnet System. The current or voltage to be
measured is passed through the coil. The coil experience a force and provide necessary
deflection.
Magnet System:
• Simple U shaped permanent magnet made of Alcomax or Alnico is widely use in PMMC
instruments. Theses magnets have high coercive force and can produce field of the order of 0.1
to 1 Wb/m2.
Control Spring:
• The controlling torque in PMMC Instruments is provided by two control spring mounted on the
jewel bearing.
Damping:
• Damping torque in PMMC instruments are produced by the movement of Aluminum former in
the magnetic field of Permanent Magnet. Due to movement of Aluminum former an emf is
induced resulting in eddy current which opposes the motion thereby provides a damping torque.
Pointer and Scale:
• The pointer is carried by the spindle and moves over a graduated scale.
Principle of Operation:
The principle on which a Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instrument operates is that a torque
is exerted on a current-carrying coil placed in the field of a permanent magnet.
When DC supply is given to moving coil DC current flows through it.
When the current carrying coil is kept in magnetic field it experiences a force. This force produces torque
and former rotates.
Pointer is attached with spindle & when former rotates pointer moves over the calibrated scale.

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This type of instrument can be operated in direct current only. In alternating current, the instrument does
not operate because in the positive half, the pointer experiences a force in one direction and in the negative
half the pointer experiences the force in the opposite direction. Due to the inertia of the pointer, it retains
it’s zero position.
If ac is supplied reversing torque is produced this cannot produce continuous deflection therefore cannot
be used in AC.
Torque Developed
• The general expression for force produced in the coil F=NBI l sinθ , Where N–Number of
turns of coil, B–flux density in the air gap , l, b – the vertical and horizontal length of the
side, I – current through the coil.
Here Field is radial so θ=90, Then F= NBI l
Torque Td is Force * Distance
i.e Td =NBI l*b= NBIA
Hence Td α I , ie Td = GI ,where G is a constant
Control Torque: The control on the movement of the pointer over the scale is provided by two spirally
wound, phosphor-bronze springs S1 and S2, one at each end of the spindle S.
• Sometimes these springs also conduct the current into and out of the coil.
• The control torque of the springs is proportional to the angle θ turned through by the coil. i.e
Ƭc = KƟ
Where K = Spring constant, Ɵ = Angular movement of coil.
• At steady state condition, deflecting and controlling torque shall be equal, i.e Ƭd = Ƭc
⇒ GI = KƟ
⇒ Ɵ = (G / K)I , Deflection directly proportional to I passing through the meter scale is uniform
(linear)
Damping Torque : When the aluminium former (F) moves with the coil in the field of the
permanent magnet, a voltage is induced, causing eddy current to flow in it.
These current exerts a force on the former. By Lenz’s law, this force opposes the motion
producing it. Thus, a damping torque is obtained. Such a damping is called eddy-current
damping.
(Swamping Resistor : The coil of the instrument is made of copper. Its resistance varies with
temperature. A resistor of low temperature coefficients, called the swamping resistor, is connected in
series with the coil. Its resistance practically remains constant with temperature. Hence the effect of
temperature on coil resistance is swamped by this resistor.)
Errors in PMMC instruments :
• Frictional error.

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• temperature error: As temp increases spring becomes more flexible and magnets weaker.
• Error owing to weakening of magnet due to ageing.
• Stray magnetic field: usually not affected but due to presence of iron in working parts effects of
external magnetic field increases.
Advantages of Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments
1. The scale is uniformly divided as the current is directly proportional to deflection of the pointer.
Hence it is very easy to measure quantities from these instruments.
2. Power consumption is also very low in these types of instruments.
3. A high torque to weight ratio.
4. These are having multiple advantages; a single instrument can be used for measuring various
quantities by using different values of shunts and multipliers.
5. Damping effective and reliable.
6. No hysteresis loss because of Al former.
7. Easily adopted as a multirange instrument
Disadvantages of Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments
1. This type of instrument can be operated in direct current only. In alternating current, the
instrument does not operate because in the positive half, the pointer experiences a force in one
direction and in the negative half the pointer experiences the force in the opposite direction. Due
to the inertia of the pointer, it retains it’s zero position.

2. The moving system is very delicate and can easily be damaged by rough handling.
3. The coil being very fine, cannot withstand prolonged overloading.
4. It is costlier.
5. The ageing of the instrument (permanent magnet and control spring) may introduce some errors.
=========================================================================
Example :
The coil of a PMMC instrument has 60 turns, on a former that is 18 mm wide, the effective length of the
conductor being 25 mm. It moves in a uniform field of flux density 0.5 Tesla. The control spring constant
is 1.5 × 10-6 Nm/degree. Calculate the current required to produce a deflection of 100 degree.
Total deflecting torque exerted on the coil,
Td = Bilnb (N-m)
= 0.5 × i x 25 × 10-3 × 60 × 18 × 10-3
The control torque of the springs is TC = ks × θ

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=1.5 × 10-6 × 100

At equilibrium, Td = TC
0.5 × i x 18 × 10-3 × 25 × 10-3 × 60 = 1.5 × 10-6 × 100
Then i = (1.5 × 10-6 × 100)/ (0.5 × 18 × 10-3 × 25 × 10-3 × 60 ) =11.11 mA
==========================================================================
A PMMC instrument has a coil of dimensions 15 mm × 12 mm. The flux density in the air gap is 1.8 ×
10-3 wb/m2 and the spring constant is 0.14 × 10-6 N-m/rad. Determine the number of turns required to
produce an angular deflection of 90° when a current of 5 mA is flowing through the coil.
Solution Total deflecting torque exerted on the coil,
Td = Bilnb (N-m)
= 1.8 × 10-3 × 5 × 10-3 × 15 × 10-3 × 12 × 10-3 × n
The control torque of the springs is
TC = ks × 6
= 0.14 × 10-6 × 90 × π/180
At equilibrium, Td = TC
1.8 × 10-3 × 5 × 10-3 × 15 × 10-3 × 12 × 10-3 × n = 0.14 × 10-6 × 90 × π/180
n=136
====================================================================
Example 2.3
A PMMC voltmeter with a resistance of 20 Ω gives a fullscale deflection of 120° when a potential
difference of 100 mV is applied across it. The moving coil has dimensions of 30 mm × 25 mm and is wound
with 100 turns. The control spring constant is 0.375 × 10-6 N-m/degree. Find the flux density in the air
gap. Find also the dimension of copper wire of coil winding if 30% of the instrument resistance is due to
coil winding. The specific resistance of copper is 1.7× 10-8 Ωm.

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1.9 Moving Iron Instruments (MI)

One of the most accurate instruments for both AC & DC measurement
Basic Principle
• When soft iron piece is kept next to current carrying coil, it gets magnetized & experience a
force causing the iron piece to move which will result in deflection of pointer which is attached
to iron piece.
Two Types: Attraction type, Repulsion Type
1.9.1 Attraction Type

• It consists of a flat disc of iron which is mounted on the spindle which carries the pointer. Damping
is provided by air friction damping and control torque is provided with the help of spring or
gravity.
• When current passes through the coil the magnetic field is developed which is stronger towards the
inner side of coil. The moving iron piece has a tendency to move from a position of weaker field to
a position of stronger field. Hence it experiences a force of attraction & moves into the coil
resulting in the deflection of pointer.

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1.9.2 Repulsion Type

It consists of two iron vanes. One is fixed & the other is movable and is surrounded by instrument coil.
When current passes through the coil both the vanes get magnetized in the same manner resulting in a
force of repulsion between two vanes. The movable vane which is attached to the spindle which carries
the pointer will move away from the fixed vane resulting in deflection of the pointer. Controlling torque
is provided by spring or gravity. Air friction damping is provided.

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Torque Equation of Moving-Iron Instruments

• To deduce the expression for torque of a moving iron instrument, energy relation can be considered
for a small increment in current supplied to the instrument. This result in a small deflection dθ and
some mechanical work will be done. Let Td be the deflecting torque.
• Therefore mechanical work done = torque × angular displacement
• Due to the change in inductance there will be a change in the energy stored in the magnetic field.

• Let I be the initial current, L be the instrument inductance and θ is the deflection. If the current
increases by dl then it causes the change in deflection dθ and the inductance by dL. In order to
involve the increment dI in the current, the applied voltage must be increase by:

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Errors in Moving Iron ( M I) instruments

• There are two types of errors which occur in moving iron instruments:
• Errors with both AC and DC.
• Errors with AC only.
• Errors with both AC and DC
The following are the main errors in moving moving iron instruments, when these are used either
on DC or AC.
• Error due to hysteresis: this error occurs as value of flux density is different for same current
for ascending and descending values. Because of hysteresis in the iron parts of the operating
system, the readings are higher for descending values but lower for ascending values. The
hysteresis error is considerably reduced by using materials which have negligible hysteresis loss.
• Error due to stray magnetic fields: Since the operating magnetic field of the moving iron
instruments in comparatively weak, therefore, stray fields (fields other than the operating
magnetic field) affect these instruments considerably. Thus the stray fields cause serious errors.
These errors can be minimized by using an iron case or a thin iron shield over the working parts.

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• Error due to temperature: The effect of temperature change on moving iron instrument arises
mainly from the temperature coefficient of spring. With the change in temperature stiffness of
the spring varies which causes errors.
• Errors with AC only
• Error in moving iron instruments due to change in frequency: The change in frequency
produces a change in impedance of the coil and change in magnitude of eddy currents. The
increase in impedance of the coil with the increase in frequency causes serious errors in case of
voltmeters only.
• Advantages
• The moving iron instruments are cheap, robust and simple in construction.
• These instruments can be used on both AC and DC.
• These instruments are reasonably accurate.
• The moving iron instruments possess high operating torque.
• These instruments can withstand overloads momentarily.
• Disadvantages
• The moving iron instruments have non-uniform scale; crowded at the beginning, therefore,
accurate readings are not possible at this end.
• These instruments are not very sensitive.
• Power consumption is quite high in the moving iron instruments.
• Errors are introduced due to change in frequency in case of AC measurements.
• Hysteresis, stray field & temp errors

1.10 Shunts And Multipliers – Extension Of Range.

1.10.1 Ammeter Shunts

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1.10.2 Voltmeter shunts

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1.10.3 Requirements of Shunt or series resistance

• Value of Rsh should not vary with time
• Temp coefficient of shunt & meter must be low as well as same as possible
• shunt is made of manganin alloy of cu Ni Manganese
• Rsh should carry current without excessive temp rise
1.10.4 Extension of the range of ammeter:

The range of ammeter can be extended using shuns resistance parallel with coil. Circuit is show in fig

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EET 203 MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION: Notes Prepared by Dr.Renuka T K, EEE, MESCE

Where I = Current to be Measured

Im = Full Scale Deflection Current
Is = Shunt Current
Rm = Resistance of ammeter
Rs = Shunt Resistance

We have I = Im + Is
Is = I - Im
(I - Im) Rs = Im Rm
Rs = Im Rm
(I - Im)

Rs = Rm
((I /Im )- 1 )
Rs = Rm
(N - 1 )
The ratio of total Current to be measured to the full scale Deflection current is called as the multiplying
power of the shunt. it may be denoted by N.

Extension of the range of Voltmeter:

The range of Voltmeter can be extended using Multiplier ( a high resistance ) Series with coil. Circuit is
show in fig

Where V = Voltage to be measured

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v = Voltage across the meter

Im = Full scale deflection current
R = Resistance in series with coil to extend the range.
Rm = Voltmeter resistance.
V = Im ( R + Rm )
V = Im R + ImRm
Im R = V - ImRm
R = (V – ImRm) / Im
R = V - (Rm/Im )
OR
The ratio of total Voltage to be measured to the voltage across the voltmeter for which it is actually
designed is known as multiplying factor . it may be denoted by m .
m = V/ v

V/ v = Im ( R + Rm ) / (Im Rm)

m = ( R /Rm )+ 1
R = Rm (m - 1 )
Hence for the measurement of voltage m times the voltage range of instrument , the series multiplying
resistance R should be (m - 1 ) times the meter resistance Rm.
Numerical Problems

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==============================================================

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==============================================================
=

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1.11 Dynamometer Type Moving Coil (DC & AC) Ammeters and voltmeters
• The basic working principle of a dynamometer type instrument is somewhat similar to that of
a permanent magnet moving coil instrument. The only difference is that here instead of using
permanent magnet we use a electromagnet ie current carrying coil for producing the operating
magnetic field. The coil used for producing the magnetic field has two halves. We place both the
halves side by side. The coil is an air-cored coil. Then, we place a moving coil in between two
halves of the fixed field coil. The Dynamometer type instrument is normally spring controlled.
We attach a pointer with the moving system. Air friction damping is used. Though these
instruments can be used both, for dc and ac measurements. But mostly it is used in Ac practically.

• Advantages of Dynamometer Type Instrument

• The system is free from hysteresis and eddy current error. Since we use air-core for both moving
coil and field coil.
• Damping effective
• Disadvantage Dynamometer Type Instrument
• The scale of the instrument is not even. Since the angle of deflection of the pointer is
proportional to the square of current or voltage to be measured.
• As the magnetic field operates the instrument, we cannot utilize eddy current damping in
dynamometer type instrument.
• These instruments have highest cost.
• Higher power consumption.
• Lower torque-weight ratio.
• Non uniform scale

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Question Bank
1. Define gross and random error
2. Write difference between accuracy, Resolution & precision?
3. What are the operating forces for indicating instruments?
4. What are the different dynamic characteristics of measuring instruments.
5. With neat sketch, describe the constructional details of PMMC type instruments.
6. Briefly explain about the different types of errors in measuring instruments.
7. Describe the various operating forces needed for proper operation of an analog indicating
instrument.
8.. Sketch the curves showing deflection versus time for analog indicating instruments for
underdamping, critical damping and overdamping.
9. What are the difference between recording and integrating instruments? Give suitable examples in
each case.
10. Derive the equation for deflection of a PMMC instrument if the instrument is spring controlled.
11. How can the current range of a PMMC instrument be extended with the help of shunts?
12. Derive the equation for deflection of a spring-controlled moving-coil instrument.
13. . What are the advantages and disadvantages of a PMMC instrument?
14. Describe the working principle and constructional details of an attraction-type moving iron
instrument.
15. Describe the working principle and constructional details of an repulsion-type moving iron
instrument.
16. What is swamping resistance? For what purpose is swamping resistance used?
17. State the purpose of shunts in voltmeter
18. Compare the spring control and gravity control system in measuring instruments
19. What are the different standards of measurement?
20. What are the needs of calibration of measuring instruments ?
Problems
(1) A moving-coil instrument has the following data: number of turns = 100, width of coil = 20 mm,
depth of coil = 30 mm, flux density in the gap = 0.1 Wb/m2. Calculate the deflecting torque when
carrying a current of 10 mA. Also calculate the deflection if the control spring constant is 2 × 10-6
N-m/degree.
[Ans. 60 × 10-6 Nm, 30°]

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(2) A moving-coil voltmeter has a resistance of 200 W and the full scale deflection is reached when a
potential difference of 100 mV is applied across the terminals. The moving coil has effective dimensions
of 30 mm × 25 mm and is wound with 100 turns. The flux density in the gap is 0.2 Wb/m2. Determine
the control constant of the spring if the final deflection is 100° and a suitable diameter of copper wire for
the coil winding if 20% of the total instrument resistance is due to the coil winding. Resistivity of copper
is 1.7 × 10-8 Ωm.
[Ans. 0.075 × 10-6 Nm/degree; 0.077 mm]
3. The coil of a moving coil voltmeter is 40 mm × 30 mm wide and has 100 turns wound on it. The
control spring exerts a torque of 0.25 × 10-3 Nm when the deflection is 50 divisions on the scale. If the
flux density of the magnetic field in the air-gap is 1 Wb/m2, find the resistance that must be put in series
with the coil to give 1 volt per division. Resistance of the voltmeter is 10000 Ω.
[Ans. 14000 Q]
4. (a) A moving-coil instrument has at normal temperature a resistance of 10 W and a current of 45 mA
gives full scale deflection. If its resistance rises to 10.2 Ω due to temperature change, calculate the
reading when a current of 2000 A is measured by means of a 0.225 × 10-3. A shunt of constant
resistance. What is the percentage error?
[Ans. 44.1 mA, -1.96%]

*****************************************

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