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Body Image. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2018 September 01.
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Published in final edited form as:

Body Image. 2017 September ; 22: 148–155. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.07.003.

Body Image In Emerging Adults: The Protective Role Of Self-

Compassion
Rachel F. Rodgers1, Debra L. Franko1, Elizabeth Donovan2,3, Tara Cousineau2, Kayla
Yates1, Kayla McGowan2, Elizabeth Cook1, and Alice S. Lowy1
1APPEAR, Department of Applied Psychology, Northeastern University, Boston MA 02115
2BodiMojo Inc., 1631 Canton Ave, Milton MA 02168
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3Department of Psychology, Simmons College Boston MA 02115

Abstract
Self-compassion is thought to protect from body image concerns. However, the mechanisms of
this effect remain unclear. This study examined three positive dimensions of self-compassion as
moderators of the mediated relationship between perceived overweight status, appearance
comparison, and appearance esteem. A sample of 232 youth aged 13–18 years, mean = 18.36 (1.5)
years, reported on appearance esteem, appearance comparison, perceived weight status, and self-
compassion dimensions including self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness. Among
boys, mindfulness and common humanity moderated the perceived weight status to appearance
comparison pathway of the mediation (ps = .01), such that this relationship was weaker among
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boys with higher levels of these dimensions of self-compassion. These findings were not replicated
among girls. None of the self-compassion dimensions moderated the appearance comparison to
appearance esteem pathway. Self-compassion dimensions that decrease the focus on the self may
protect against body image concerns among boys.

Keywords
Self-compassion; body image; appearance comparison; perceived weight status; emerging adults

Western society has been described as highly appearance-focused and characterized by the
adoption of unrealistic body ideals emphasizing slenderness and leanness (Thompson,
Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999). Simultaneously, Western society is highly
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stigmatizing of overweight status (Rodgers, 2016). This standard of extreme thinness and
stigmatization of overweight status has in turn been associated with body shape and weight
concerns, particularly among youth who perceive themselves as overweight and failing to

Corresponding author: Rachel F Rodgers, 404 INV, Department of Applied Psychology, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington
Avenue, Boston MA 02115, [email protected], 617 373 2105.
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meet society’s criteria for attractiveness (Hadland, Austin, Goodenow, & Calzo, 2014;
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Sonneville et al., 2016; Strauss, 1999).

Appearance comparison, which is the tendency to engage in mostly unfavorable

comparisons of one’s physical appearance compared to others’, has been identified as a
critical mechanism in the maintenance of body image concerns (Thompson, Heinberg, &
Tantleff-Dunn, 1991). Recently, self-compassion has been explored as a useful framework
within which to ground interventions aiming to reduce body image concerns related to
appearance pressures to achieve unrealistic ideals and the stigma surrounding overweight
status (Ferreira, Pinto-Gouveia, & Duarte, 2013; Wasylkiw, MacKinnon, & MacLellan,
2012). To date, however, the capacity of self-compassion to buffer the effects of perceived
overweight on appearance comparison and subsequent body image concerns has undergone
few formal examinations.
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Sociocultural theory posits that appearance ideals are communicated to individuals through
agents such as the media as well as family members and peers (Thompson et al., 1999).
Central to these unrealistic appearance standards is the maintenance of a very low body
weight (principally among females) and a very lean physique (among males). In addition to
these ideals, Western society promotes the idea that body shape and weight are highly
controllable through healthy eating and exercise practices, despite increasing evidence
supporting the role of genetics in determining weight (Rodgers, 2016). Given this
sociocultural context, the perception of being overweight, whether correct or not, may be
perceived as a personal failure and would likely be associated with decreased body esteem.
Indeed, perceived overweight status in adolescents has been shown to be associated with a
number of indices of poor body image and lower self-esteem (e.g., Tiggemann, 2005).
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Appearance esteem, specifically, is one facet of body image that captures the positive
feelings of an individual related to their appearance (Mendelson, Mendelson, & White,
2001). In the last decade, the usefulness of considering the positive aspects of body image,
as well as the factors that promote positive body image (in contrast to a model focused on
risk and pathology) has been increasingly emphasized (Avalos, Tylka, & Wood-Barcalow,
2005; Swami, Hadji-Michael, & Furnham, 2008). In addition, appearance esteem, as well as
other indices of positive body image, has been found to be lower among higher weight male
and female young adults (Streeter, Milhausen, & Buchholz, 2012; Swami et al., 2008). Thus,
examining the factors that can help protect and foster positive body image in youth across
weight status is an important direction for research.

One of the principal mechanisms highlighted by sociocultural theory that accounts for the
effect of unrealistically thin appearance ideals, i.e. the thin-ideal, on body esteem is
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appearance comparison, which is the process of comparing one’s appearance to that of

others (van den Berg, Thompson, Obremski-Brandon, & Coovert, 2002). Social identity
theory, from which the theory of appearance comparison is derived, would posit that heavier
individuals are thought to engage in more numerous appearance comparisons due to heavier
weight, potentially constituting a threat to appearance esteem in a context that places a high
value on thinness (Festinger, 1954). Unfortunately, the majority of social appearance

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comparisons are unfavorable which likely in turn leads to greater concerns regarding
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appearance (Fitzsimmons-Craft, Bardone-Cone, & Harney, 2012).

Consistent with this, appearance comparison has been found to be associated with self-
reported weight as well as lower body satisfaction among adolescents and adults (Rodgers,
Paxton, & Mclean, 2014; Schaefer & Thompson, 2014). In addition, appearance comparison
has been found to be associated with lower levels of weight esteem among adolescents
(Tiggemann & Miller, 2010). Thus, appearance comparisons seem to be more frequent
among individuals with lower levels of body satisfaction and who perceive themselves as
having a higher weight status. In addition, and in support of the role of appearance
comparison as a mechanism in the maintenance of low body satisfaction, appearance
comparison has been found to mediate the relationship between weight status and body
dissatisfaction (van den Berg et al., 2007). To date, the protective factors that might buffer
from the negative effects of appearance comparison on body esteem are not well understood.
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Self-compassion has been defined as being open to and non-avoidant of one’s experiences,
being caring towards and non-judgmental of oneself, particularly in times of distress, and
recognizing that experiences of oneself as inadequate are intrinsic to the human experience
(Neff, 2003). As defined by Neff (2003) self-compassion incorporates three core
components: mindfulness, self-kindness, and common humanity. Self-compassion is thought
to foster self-kindness, nurturance, and a compassionate view of one’s self and body, as well
as the capacity to respond to environmental threats or stressors (such as appearance
pressures) in a non-reactive and non-judgmental way (Ferreira et al., 2013). It is also
described as decreasing self-absorption and self-criticism (Neff, 2003). Thus, self-
compassion provides a promising framework for disrupting the pathways described within
sociocultural theory as leading to the development of low body esteem. Critically,
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acceptance-based frameworks such as self-compassion seek to disrupt the associations

between private events such as thoughts and feelings, rather than attempting to modify the
form or frequency of such events (Hayes, Strosahl, & Wilson, 1999). These approaches aim
to help individuals cultivate a different relationship to their thoughts, feeling and sensations,
in a way that is accepting and non-judgmental. In the context of body image, and the
pathways described above, this would imply that self-compassion would interrupt the
mediated pathways, rather than for example decreasing the frequency of appearance
comparison.

A small body of emerging research has started to explore the relationship between self-
compassion and body image, finding support for the role of self-compassion as a protective
factor (Braun, Park, & Gorin, 2016). Two of the main pathways for this protective factor that
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have been considered include (1) that self-compassion may have a direct relationship with
positive body image, in that it increases positive thoughts about and acceptance of one’s
appearance, and (2) that self-compassion may buffer against the effects of risk factors, such
as appearance comparison, on body image. As the majority of the research to date has been
cross-sectional, unsurprisingly, evidence to support both of these mechanisms has been
found (Braun et al., 2016).

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Specifically, with regard to the moderating hypothesis, it has been shown that self-
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compassion buffered the relationship between media pressure to be thin and internalization
of the thin-ideal among a community sample of women, such that self-compassion protected
against the effects of experiencing high levels of pressure to be thin on thin-ideal
internalization (Tylka, Russell, & Neal, 2015). Similarly, among Canadian female
undergraduates, self-compassion was shown to decrease the strength of the relationship
between body weight and weight concerns, such that among young women with high body
weight, those with higher levels of self-compassion reported fewer weight concerns (Kelly,
Vimalakanthan, & Miller, 2014). In addition, self-compassion was found to buffer the
relationship between family influences and body image among U.S undergraduate women,
such that it protected against the effects of critical messages from caregivers (Daye, Webb,
& Jafari, 2014). Thus, there is some evidence for the buffering role of self-compassion in the
pathways described within sociocultural models of body image concerns; however, all of
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these studies have been conducted among adult women, and studies including younger
populations and males are absent from the literature.

Very few studies have examined the protective role of self-compassion as related to
appearance comparison. One study among young women from the U.S. revealed that self-
compassion moderated the relationship between body comparison and body appreciation,
such that women with higher self-compassion were protected from the effects of appearance
comparison on body appreciation (Homan & Tylka, 2015). The findings from this study
supported the theory that women with higher levels of self-compassion might engage in
appearance comparisons but be protected from the detrimental effects of these comparisons
on their body image. The current study sought to replicate and extend these findings by
testing this hypothesis in both male and female emerging adulst, and examining the
moderating effect of the positive dimensions of self-compassion on the relationship between
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appearance comparison and appearance esteem. The current study differs from this previous
study in that it specifically seeks to examine the protective effect of self-compassion on
appearance esteem, as opposed to body appreciation, which captures a broader dimension of
positive body image, including an acceptance of perceived flaws and a lack of overvaluation
of appearance as part of identity (Avalos, Tylka, & Wood-Barcalow, 2005).

In addition to the moderating relationship explored by Homan and Tylka (2015), however, it
is also possible that self-compassion buffers from engaging in appearance comparison, for
example by moderating the relationship between weight perceptions and engagement in
appearance comparison. If this second pathway were correct, self-compassion would protect
from engaging in appearance comparisons. In this way, youth who perceive themselves to be
divergent from the thin-ideal, through a capacity for self-compassion, may not engage in
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appearance comparisons. The current study sought to extend previous findings by also
examining this hypothesis.

In this way, the aim of the current study was to extend previous research on the protective
role of self-compassion by examining these two moderation hypotheses among a sample of
US youth aged 13–19 years, primarily emerging adults. Specifically, given the role of
appearance comparison as a mediator in the relationship between perceived overweight
status and body esteem, we sought to examine the moderating role of the three positive

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dimensions of self-compassion: mindfulness, common humanity, and self-kindness, on the

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predictor to mediator pathway (between perceived overweight status and appearance

comparison).

While the pathways described above have been to a large extent supported in both male and
female youth, a number of gender differences in the magnitude of the relationships have
been suggested. Thus, for example, the negative association between appearance esteem and
weight has been found to differ between boys and girls (Mendelson et al., 2001; Streeter et
al., 2012). Furthermore, appearance comparison processes are less well understood among
males to date (Schaefer & Thompson, 2014). Therefore, while we expected to find similar
patterns among males and females in our study, we chose to conduct our analyses separately
by gender. We thus hypothesized that among both girls and boys:

1. The three dimensions of self-compassion (mindfulness, common humanity, and

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self-kindness) would be positively related to appearance esteem and negatively

related to appearance comparison;

2. Consistent with previous findings, a significant negative indirect effect of

perceived weight status on appearance esteem via appearance comparison would
be present;

3. The three dimensions of self-compassion would moderate the positive pathway

between perceived weight status and appearance comparison in the mediation
model, such that the overall negative indirect effect of perceived weight status on
appearance esteem would be non-significant among individuals with high levels
of self-compassion;

4. The three dimensions of self-compassion would moderate the negative pathway

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between appearance comparison and appearance esteem in the mediation model,

such that the overall negative indirect effect of perceived weight status on
appearance esteem would be non-significant among individuals with high levels
of self-compassion.

Method
Participants & Procedures
The present study utilizes the baseline data from participants recruited as part of a larger
intervention study. A sample of 232 youth, aged 13–18 years, mean age = 18.36 (1.5) years,
26% male, were recruited from the campus of a large and diverse urban university (68%), as
well as two high schools and two local youth organizations (32%).
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Participants were recruited through posters, advertisement, leaflets, and emails. The study
was approved by the Northeastern University Institutional Review Board. All participants
under the age of 18 provided assent in addition to parental consent. Participants 18 years old
and over provided informed consent. Participants were provided with a $15 gift card for
their time.

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Measures
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Demographics—Participants provided their age, gender, and race and ethnicity.

Perceived weight status—Participants were asked to rate their current body weight on a
5-point Likert-type scale ranging from “very underweight” to “obese.”

Self-compassion—The Self-Compassion Scale (SCS; Neff, 2003) is a 26-item

questionnaire that assesses participants’ feelings of self-compassion. The SCS comprises six
subscales that measure distinct components of self-compassion. The current study only
utilized the three positive subscales, given the research question: Self-Kindness (five items,
e.g., “I try to be understanding and patient towards those aspects of my personality I don’t
like”), Common Humanity (four items, e.g., “I try to see my failings as part of the human
condition”), and Mindfulness (four items, e.g., “When I’m feeling down I try to approach
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my feelings with curiosity and openness”). Items are rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale,
ranging from 1 (almost never) to 5 (almost always), with higher scores reflecting greater
self-compassion and negative items reverse coded. The scale has been previously used to
effectively measure self-compassion and demonstrates adequate psychometric properties
(Neff, 2003). In the current sample, internal reliability was acceptable ranging from α = .74
to α = .80.

Physical appearance comparison—The Physical Appearance Comparison Scale

(Thompson et al., 1991) is a five-item measure of tendencies to compare one’s physical
appearance with others’ (e.g., “At parties or other social events, I compare how I am dressed
to how other people are dressed”). Items are rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale, ranging
from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), with higher scores reflecting greater
tendencies to compare oneself to others. This scale has been previously used to effectively
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measure physical appearance comparison and demonstrates adequate internal consistency

and test-retest reliability (Thompson et al., 1991). In the current sample, α = .90.

Appearance esteem—The Appearance esteem subscale of the Body Esteem Scale for
Adults and Adolescents (Mendelson et al., 2001) is a 10-item questionnaire used to assess
appearance concerns among youth (e.g., “I like what I look like in pictures”). Items are rated
on a 5-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (always), with higher scores
reflecting greater body esteem and negatively phrased items reverse coded. The scale has
been previously used to effectively measure body esteem for adults and adolescents and
demonstrates high internal consistency and test-retest reliability (Mendelson et al., 2001). In
the current sample, α = .91.
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Data Analyses
Descriptive statistics are presented. Little’s MCAR test confirmed that the missing data were
randomly distributed (p = .163), therefore total scores were calculated using mean
substitution for the missing items (Parent, 2013). Analyses were conduced for each gender
separately. A correlation matrix was obtained to examine the association between the
variables. Correlations with perceived weight status were conducted using Spearman’s rho
to account for the 5-point single item; all others were conducted using Pearson’s coefficient.

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The magnitude of the relationships in both genders suggested that the risk of
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multicollinearity was low. The indirect effect of perceived weight status on appearance
esteem via appearance comparison was first tested using the using the PROCESS macro
(Hayes, 2013). Hayes (2013) notes that such indirect effects may exist in the absence of
significant bivariate relationships between the variables involved. In addition, it has been
suggested that indirect effects may be examined in samples as small as n = 60 (Creedon &
Hayes, 2015) The moderated mediation pathways were then also examined using the
PROCESS macro (Models 7 and 14; Hayes, 2013) that examines the conditional effects of
the moderator on specific pathways within the mediation model. Conditional effects were
reported for the mean of the moderator, as well as plus/minus on standard deviation from the
mean.

Results
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Descriptive statistics
In total, 232 participants (62 boys and 170 girls) provided their perceived weight status, of
whom 74% (n = 171) classified themselves as normal weight or less, and 26% classified
themselves as somewhat overweight or higher. Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics and
correlations between the study variables. A little over half of the sample was White (59.5%,
n = 138), another 20% (n = 47) was Asian, 10% was Black (n = 23), 8% was Hispanic (n =
19) and the remainder of the sample (2.5%) reported other racial/ethnic backgrounds.
Significant gender differences were found for all the variables such that boys reported higher
levels of appearance esteem, t(230) = −5.42, p < .001, Cohen’s d = 0.82, self-kindness,
t(230) = −2.57, p = .011, Cohen’s d = 0.38, and mindfulness, t(230) = −2.59, p = .01,
Cohen’s d = 0.38, and lower levels of appearance comparison, t(230) = 4.05, p < .001,
Cohen’s d = 0.62 (Table 1).
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Among girls, and consistent with Hypothesis 1, higher perceived weight status was
associated with lower appearance esteem (ρ = −.33, p < .001), higher appearance
comparison (ρ = .21, p < .01), and at a trend-level lower self-kindness (ρ = −.14, p = .07),
and lower scores on common humanity (ρ = −.15, p = .05). In addition, greater appearance
esteem was associated with higher levels of all three subscales of self-compassion including
self-kindness (r = .43, p < .001), mindfulness (r = .29, p < .001), and common humanity (r
= .22, p < .001). Finally, of note, higher levels of self-kindness and mindfulness were
associated with lower levels of appearance comparison (r = −.32, p <.001, and r = −.18, p = .
022, respectively). Among boys, higher perceived weight status was not associated with any
of the other variables. Greater appearance esteem was associated with higher levels of self-
kindness (r = .34, p = .07). In addition, although non-significant due to the smaller sample
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size, the relationship between higher appearance esteem and mindfulness revealed a small
effect size (r = .20, p = .116). However, none of the self-compassion variables were
associated with levels of appearance comparison. Thus, Hypothesis 1 was only supported in
girls.

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Moderated Mediation Analyses

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Examination of the mediation model—Figure 1 presents the non-moderated direct and

indirect effects among girls. Findings from 5000 bootstrap samples revealed that the
negative indirect effect of perceived weight status on appearance esteem via appearance
comparison was significant, coefficient = −1.61, 95% CI [−4.03; −1.11]. In addition, the
direct positive pathway between perceived weight status and appearance comparison was
significant, coefficient = 2.03, 95% CI [0.58; 3.48], as was the direct negative pathways
between appearance comparison and appearance esteem, coefficient = −0.79, 95% CI
[−0.94; −0.64]. Finally, the direct negative pathway between perceived weight status and
body esteem remained significant, coefficient = −2.57, 95% CI [−4.03; −1.11]. Thus, among
girls, Hypothesis 2 was supported.

Figure 2a presents the non-moderated direct and indirect effects among boys. Findings from
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5000 bootstrap samples revealed that the indirect effect of perceived weight status on
appearance esteem via appearance comparison was not significant, coefficient = −0.47, 95%
CI [−1.89; 0.72]. However, the direct negative pathway between appearance comparison and
appearance esteem was significant, coefficient = −0.58, 95% CI [−0.89; −0.27]. In addition,
the direct negative pathway between perceived weight status and body esteem remained
significant, coefficient = −2.72, 95% CI [−5.11; −0.33]. Thus, among boys, Hypothesis 2,
that a significant indirect effect of perceived weight status on appearance esteem via
appearance comparisons, would be found, was not supported.

Self-compassion as a moderator of the pathways between perceived weight

status and appearance comparison—First, we examined the moderated mediation
analysis among girls in which common humanity was posited to moderate the relationship
between perceived weight status and appearance comparison. Findings from 5000 bootstrap
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samples revealed that the interaction between perceived overweight status and common
humanity was not significant, coefficient = −0.29, 95% CI [−0.71; 0.14], p = .18. Thus, the
negative indirect effect of perceived weight status on appearance esteem via appearance
comparison remained significant at all values of the moderator.

Second, we examined the moderated mediation analysis among girls in which mindfulness
was posited to moderate the relationship between perceived weight status and appearance
comparison. Findings from 5000 bootstrap samples revealed that the interaction between
perceived overweight status and mindfulness was not significant, coefficient = −0.30, 95%
CI [−0.80; 0.19], p = .23. Thus, the negative indirect effect of perceived weight status on
appearance esteem via appearance comparison remained significant at all values of the
moderator.
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Last, we examined the moderated mediation analysis among girls in which self-kindness
was posited to moderate the relationship between perceived weight status and appearance
comparison. Findings from 5000 bootstrap samples revealed that the interaction between
perceived weight status and self-kindness was not significant, coefficient = −0.10, 95% CI
[−0.48; 0.29], p = .63. Thus, the negative indirect effect of perceived weight status on
appearance esteem via appearance comparison remained significant at all values of the
moderator. Therefore, among girls, Hypothesis 3 was not supported.

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Figure 2b presents the findings from the moderated mediation analysis among boys in which
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common humanity was posited to moderate the relationship between perceived overweight
status and appearance comparison. Findings from 5000 bootstrap samples revealed that the
interaction between perceived overweight status and common humanity was significant,
coefficient = −0.73, 95% CI [−1.38; −0.09], such that the negative indirect effect of
perceived weight status on appearance esteem via appearance comparison became
significant when levels of common humanity were low. Specifically, at the mean value and
above of the moderator, here common humanity, the indirect effect of perceived weight
status on appearance esteem via appearance comparison was non significant, coefficient
(Mean)= −0.09, 95% CI [−1.32; 1.20], coefficient (Mean+1SD)= 1.33, 95% CI [−0.02;
3.81]. However, among boys whose scores of common humanity were one SD below the
group mean, a significant negative indirect effect emerged, with higher perceived weight
status associated with lower levels of appearance esteem via appearance comparison,
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coefficient (Mean−1SD)= −1.51, 95% CI [−3.92; −0.31].

Figure 2c presents the findings from the moderated mediation analysis among boys in which
mindfulness was posited to moderate the relationship between perceived overweight status
and appearance comparison. Findings from 5000 bootstrap samples revealed that the
interaction between perceived overweight status and mindfulness was significant, coefficient
= −0.69, 95% CI [−1.24; −0.15], such that the negative indirect effect of perceived weight
status on appearance esteem via appearance comparison became significant when levels of
mindfulness were low. Specifically, at the mean value and above of the moderator, here
mindfulness, the indirect effect of perceived weight status on appearance esteem via
appearance comparison was non significant, coefficient (Mean) = −0.11, 95% CI [−1.26;
1.33], coefficient (Mean+1SD) = 1.13, 95% CI [−0.46; 3.17]. However, among boys whose
scores of mindfulness were one SD below the group mean, a significant negative indirect
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effect emerged, with higher perceived weight status associated with lower levels of
appearance esteem via appearance comparison, coefficient (Mean−1SD) = −1.35, 95% CI
[−3.97; −0.29].

A parallel analysis was conducted examining the moderated mediation model in which self-
kindness was posited to moderate the relationship between perceived overweight status and
appearance comparison. However, the findings from this analysis revealed that the
interaction was not significant, coefficient = −0.18, 95% CI [−0.68 −0.33], indicating that
self-kindness did not serve as a moderator. Therefore, among boys, Hypothesis 3 was
partially supported.

Self-compassion as a moderator of the pathways between appearance

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comparison and appearance esteem—Three similar moderated mediation models

were tested separately for girls and boys to examine the buffering effects of the three
dimensions of self-compassion on the pathway between appearance comparison and
appearance esteem. Among girls, findings from 5000 bootstrap samples revealed that the
interaction between appearance comparison and common humanity was not significant,
coefficient = −0.01, 95% CI [−0.04; 0.05], p = .83. Similarly, the interaction between
appearance comparison and mindfulness was not significant, coefficient = −0.01, 95% CI
[−0.05; 0.03], p = .70, and neither was the interaction between appearance comparison and

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self-kindness, coefficient = −0.01, 95% CI [−0.04; 0.03], p = .75. Thus at all the values of
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the three dimensions of self-compassion, examined as a moderator of the negative pathway

between appearance comparison and appearance esteem, the negative indirect relationship
between perceived weight status and appearance esteem remained significant. Therefore,
among girls, Hypothesis 4 was not supported.

Among boys, findings from 5000 bootstrap samples revealed that the interaction between
appearance comparison and common humanity was not significant, coefficient = 0.02, 95%
CI [−0.08; 0.12], p = .68. Similarly, the interaction between appearance comparison and
mindfulness was not significant, coefficient = −0.01, 95% CI [−0.11; 0.10], p = .91, and
neither was the interaction between appearance comparison and self-kindness, coefficient =
−0.01, 95% CI [−0.08; 0.06], p = .78. Thus at all the values of the three dimensions of self-
compassion, examined as a moderator of the negative pathway between appearance
comparison and appearance esteem, the negative indirect relationship between perceived
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weight status and appearance esteem remained significant. Therefore, among boys,
Hypothesis 4 was not supported.

Discussion
The aim of the current study was to examine, among a sample of emerging adults, whether
self-compassion would buffer the mediated relationship between perceived overweight status
and decreased appearance esteem, via appearance comparison. Overall, our findings provide
additional support for the role of self-compassion as a protective factor against appearance
concerns, and suggest that it might do so both by being directly protective, as evident here
among girls, and by buffering against the effects of certain risk factors among boys. These
findings highlight the usefulness of continuing to clarify the mechanisms through which
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self-compassion can contribute to the development of positive body image, healthy eating
behaviors, and overall wellbeing among youth, and the importance of developing
interventions that are grounded within this framework. Our findings suggest that developing
self-compassion skills may be helpful for promoting positive body image among both
gender, albeit through different pathways.

Consistent with previous research (Braun et al., 2016), our findings revealed that dimensions
of self-compassion were associated with higher levels of appearance esteem and lower levels
of perceived overweight status and appearance comparison, mainly among girls. To our
knowledge, only one previous study has examined the relationship between self-compassion
and body image among adolescents, in a sample of female athletes (Mosewich, Kowalski,
Sabiston, Sedgwick, & Tracy, 2011). Thus, this is the first study to examine these
relationships among emerging adult males, and reveal that the direct relationships between
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aspects of self-compassion and positive body image that were replicated here among girls
were not present among boys. These gender differences constitute an important contribution
to the literature and suggests that the mechanisms underlying the emerging protective role of
self-compassion on body image might vary according to gender.

Previous authors have described a number of different ways in which self-compassion might
be related to positive body image outcomes (Braun et al., 2016). The first of these is that

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self-compassion may have a direct relationship with positive body image, while the second
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proposes that self-compassion may buffer against the effects of risk factors, including
sociocultural factors, on body image. Our findings suggest that both of these pathways might
exist. Thus, in our data, all three dimensions of self-compassion were associated with
appearance esteem among girls, although among males the magnitudes of these relationships
were smaller, with only self-kindness revealing a significant positive relationship with
appearance esteem. In addition, both mindfulness and common humanity were found to
moderate the mediated relationship between perceived overweight status and lower
appearance esteem via appearance comparison among boys, such that the strength of the
relationship between perceived overweight status and appearance comparison was decreased
by these moderators. This finding is consistent with previous work (Kelly et al., 2014; Tylka
et al., 2015), and suggests that in this context, mindfulness and common humanity might
serve to decrease the tendency to react to perceived overweight status through appearance
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comparisons with others among amles. Mindfulness has been described as a non-judgmental
capacity to observe thoughts and feelings with kind awareness, including feelings about
one’s weight and shape (Ferreira et al., 2013). Thus, such a mechanism would be in line
with its proposed mode of action. Similarly, common humanity describes a capacity to
characterize one’s experience as being intrinsic to being human and belonging to a wider
community, including the understanding that perceptions of failure or flaws, such as failing
to embody appearance ideals, are shared by others (Neff, 2003). In other words, self-
compassion may increase boys’ capacity to observe and tolerate body-image experiences
without reacting through self-criticism and social comparison (Gilbert & Choden, 2014),
especially through skills that cultivate positive emotions, such as self-kindness and a sense
of belonging. In this way, higher levels of this dimension might allow youth to tolerate the
perception of overweight status without engaging in appearance comparisons.
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Interestingly, we did not replicate these moderation findings among girls. Given that we
found gender differences in the baseline levels of the dimensions of self-compassion, such
that these levels were higher among boys, and that the un-moderated mediation model was
not a good fit among boys, it may be that this lack of replication is in part accounted for by
gender differences in levels in appearance esteem and self-compassion. It might be that a
larger proportion of boys maintain appearance esteem due to high levels of self-compassion,
and that only those with lower levels of self-compassion experience the negative effects of
appearance comparisons on appearance esteem. In contrast, the overall lower levels of self-
compassion among girls may not allow for the moderating effect to emerge.

In addition, even among males, our findings provided no support for the moderating role of
self-kindness on the mediated pathways examined. From a developmental perspective, this
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may perhaps be related to fact that late adolescence and emerging adulthood is still a time of
construction of the self, and body image, and that self-kindness may not be sufficient to
buffer against social prescriptions regarding appearance (Eisenberg et al., 2006). However,
again consistent with previous work (Braun et al., 2016), our results did point to a direct
relationship between self-kindness and increased appearance esteem and lower perception of
overweight status and appearance comparison among both genders. Thus, youth who are
able to extend kindness towards themselves may also have greater positive self-perceptions.
Furthermore, the magnitude of the direct relationships between self-kindness and appearance

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 Rodgers et al. Page 12

esteem were somewhat larger than those present between the other two dimensions of self-
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compassion (i.e., mindfulness and common humanity) and the body image outcomes among
both genders. Thus, these findings suggest that self-kindness may exert a protective role on
body image through a slightly different pathway to mindfulness and common-humanity, not
by disrupting the relationships between sociocultural risks factors and body image
outcomes, but perhaps by protecting from the development of such risks factors, including
appearance comparison. In this way, emerging adults with higher levels of self-kindness may
display more resilience in terms of body image, regardless of social and individual risk
factors (Neff & McGehee, 2010). Longitudinal investigations of the development of the
different dimensions of self-compassion, as well as body image, are warranted to further
confirm and clarify these different pathways.

Furthermore, our findings failed to replicate those of Homan and Tylka (2015), and found no
evidence of a moderating effect of self-compassion on the pathway between appearance
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comparison and appearance esteem. A number of differences between the two studies may
contribute to explaining this lack of replication. First the Homan and Tylka (2015) study
utilized a measure of self-compassion that included both the positive dimensions assessed
here, but also the negative dimensions of over-identification, self-judgment, and isolation. It
may be that particularly among girls, experiencing lower levels of these negative
dimensions, or experiencing them in conjunction with higher levels of the positive
dimensions, may be more protective. In addition, Homan and Tylka (2015) utilized body
appreciation as an outcome as opposed to appearance esteem. Body appreciation is defined
as holding a positive attitude towards one’s body including a rejection of media-promoted
ideals (Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015), thus a more critical aware stance. In contrast,
appearance esteem represents an appreciation of one’s appearance that does not extend to
the appreciation of other aspects of one’s body, or a critically awareness of socially-
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promoted ideals. Thus, it may be that self-compassion is more strongly related to outcomes
that go beyond the appreciation of one’s appearance and constitute a broader-based
conception of positive body image.

The current study presented a number of limitations. First, although it has been previously
shown that subjective evaluation of body weight and shape may be a better predictor of body
image and body change behaviors as compared to objective weight (Jampel, Murray,
Griffiths, & Blashill, 2016; Sonneville et al., 2016), our study lacked data on actual weight,
which prevented us from examining how these relationships might differ when considering
objectively-measured weight. In addition, the terms used to anchor the scale on which
participants were invited to reported their perceived weight status may have been
experienced as stigmatizing, which could have limited the validity of this measure. Second,
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data were cross-sectional, meaning that we were unable to explore temporal precedence in
these data. It is possible that other sequencings of the variables examined here may be
present in longitudinal data. Furthermore, while it has been suggested that 80% of the
appearance comparisons made by young women are unfavorable (Fitzsimmons-Craft,
Bardone-Cone, & Harney, 2012), our measure failed to capture the directionality of the
comparisons being made by participants, which might have affected our findings. It would
also be interesting to examine the pathways under investigation here in experimental

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 Rodgers et al. Page 13

research with state as opposed to trait measures. Finally, future research should aim to
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examine ethnic difference in these relationships.

Despite these limitations, our findings provide additional support for the protective role of
self-compassion against body image and eating concerns and suggest that cultivating self-
compassion may help shield individuals from sociocultural pressures to pursue unrealistic
ideals. Further studies examining these pathways developmentally are warranted. In
addition, interventions aiming to promote the development of positive body image and
wellbeing among adolescents grounded in self-compassion have a high likelihood of success
and should be developed and evaluated.

Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health: 2 R44 DK085748-02.
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Highlights
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• The direct and indirect protective relationships between self-compassion and

appearance esteem were examined in emerging adults

• Mindfulness, self-kindness, and common humanity were associated with

greater appearance esteem

• Mindfulness and common humanity moderated the effect of perceived

overweight status on appearance comparison among boys

• Self-compassion failed to moderate the effect of appearance comparison on

appearance esteem
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Figure 1.
The direct pathway coefficient in the mediation model among girls
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Figure 2.
(a) Mediation model among boys; (b) Common humanity as a moderator of mediated
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relationship between perceived overweight and appearance esteem via appearance

comparison; (c) Mindfuless as a moderator of mediated relationship between perceived
overweight and appearance esteem via appearance comparison.

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Table 1

Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations Between Variables

Perceived Appearance Appearance Self-Kindness Mindfulness Common

weight status esteem comparison Humanity
Rodgers et al.

Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys
Appearance esteem −.33*** −.18

Appearance comparison .21** .09 −.65*** −.45***

Self-Kindness −.14 .05 .43*** .34** −.32*** −.09

Mindfulness −.09 −.05 .29*** .20 −.18* .02 .70*** .57***

Common Humanity −.15 .09 .22** .15 −.07 .06 .56*** .50*** .56*** .63***

N 170 62 202 73 202 73 202 73 202 73

M (SD) 21.11 (7.61)a 27.10 (6.95) a 18.00 (5.81) a 14.61 (5.06)a 14.51 (3.89)b 16.00 (3.92)b 13.29 (2.98)b 14.45 (3.07)b 12.15 (3.35) 13.10 (3.33)

Note.
*
p < .05,
**
p < .01,
***
p < .001.

Significant gender differences in means are indicated such that:

a
means differ at the p < .001 level;
b
means differ at the p < .05 level

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