HSC PHYSICS FOR NSW – STUDY GUIDE SERIES

MODULE 5 ADVANCED MECHANICS

Student Name:

YEAR 12
First Published 2018 by ERScience, Educational Resources for Science, PO Box 563, Matraville, 2026.
Enquires: Email: [email protected]
Copyright  D. Stevenson 2018

National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry

Stevenson, David, 1952 -

HSC Physics for NSW - study guide series

ISBN 978-0-6481873-1-8

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electrical, magnetic media, mechanical, photocopying, recording
or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher.

Copyright free within the Purchasing Institution.

The information provided is compiled from the best knowledge available. However, since the syllabus can
change over time check the NESA website and download a copy of the latest syllabus.

Acknowledgements
We would like to thank NESA for permission to reproduce copyright material.

About the author

David Stevenson completed his degree in Scotland and worked in London for British Oxygen as a
development scientist. David then moved into science teaching and has taught in the UK, Southern Africa,
Victoria and in New South Wales. He was Head of Science for thirteen years and has lectured and tutored
students extensively. He has also marked the Physics HSC and has extensive experience writing preliminary
and HSC exam papers.
David has authored other books including Chemical Safety Guide for Science Laboratories in NSW and
Health and Safety in NSW schools.

For the student

This series of study guides is meant to be used in conjunction with your school work, the aim being to
reinforce the important principles and concepts of the stage 6 NSW Physics course. Students should teach
themselves by absorbing the basic facts and concepts, then working through the many worked examples
and questions.
Revision questions are supplied at the end of each study guide to check your understanding and model the
style of questions which may be used in assessment tasks.

This advanced mechanics module is part of the HSC Physics for NSW - study guide series which consists
of the following:
Advanced Mechanics - module 5
Electromagnetism - module 6
The Nature of Light - module 7
From the Universe to the Atom - module 8
Table of contents for Module 5 – Advanced Mechanics
Introduction to Advanced Mechanics ...................................................................................................................... 1
Projectile Motion ......................................................................................................................................................... 2
Question sheet 5.1 ......................................................................................................................................... 4
Practical investigation – two ball projectile experiment ............................................................................. 6
Analysing the motion of projectiles ...................................................................................................................... 7
Practical investigation – verifying projectile relationships ....................................................................... 13
Question sheet 5.2 ....................................................................................................................................... 14
Circular motion .......................................................................................................................................................... 17
Uniform circular motion ........................................................................................................................................ 18
Question sheet 5.3 ....................................................................................................................................... 20
Question sheet 5.4 ....................................................................................................................................... 25
Practical investigation – uniform circular motion ...................................................................................... 27
Question sheet 5.5 ....................................................................................................................................... 29
Motion in gravitational fields ................................................................................................................................... 32
Gravitation ............................................................................................................................................................. 33
Practical investigation – PhET simulation - gravity force lab ................................................................. 35
Question sheet 5.6 ....................................................................................................................................... 36
Question sheet 5.7 ....................................................................................................................................... 38
Practical investigation – viewing the ISS .................................................................................................. 40
Question sheet 5.8 ....................................................................................................................................... 42
Gravitational potential energy ............................................................................................................................. 44
Question sheet 5.9 ....................................................................................................................................... 45
Question sheet 5.10 ..................................................................................................................................... 48
Escape velocity ..................................................................................................................................................... 49
Question sheet 5.11 ..................................................................................................................................... 50
Student evaluation of Module 5 Advanced Mechanics ............................................................................... 53
Advanced mechanics - revision questions................................................................................................ 54

Learning Across the Curriculum Icons

You will notice that the syllabus and these study guides have some strange looking icons throughout. These are
described as “Learning Across the Curriculum Icons” and give students and teachers some additional guidance on
cross-curriculum priorities, general capabilities and other areas identified as important learning for all students. The
icons are as follows:
Cross-curriculum priorities
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories and cultures
Asia and Australia’s engagement with Asia
Sustainability
General capabilities
Critical and creative thinking
Ethical understanding
Information and communication technology capability
Intercultural understanding
Literacy
Numeracy
Personal and social capability
Other learning across the curriculum areas
Civics and citizenship
Difference and diversity
Work and enterprise

NSW Physics Stage 6 syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2017.
Advanced Mechanics Glossary
angular displacement θ The angle through which an object moves on a circular path. Angular
displacement is measured in radians (rad).
angular velocity ω A measurement of how quickly an object moves through an angle.
Angular velocity is measured in units of rad s-1.
artificial satellite A man-made object that orbits a much larger object, for example, a
geostationary satellite that is in orbit around the Earth.
banked track When a track is inclined at an angle, usually towards the inside of the turn.
centripetal acceleration An acceleration that causes an object to move in a circular path. The
acceleration is directed into the centre of the circular path.
centripetal force A force which acts on an object moving in a circular path and is directed
towards the centre of the path.
circular orbit An orbit where the object remains at a constant radius as it travels around
a larger mass.
escape velocity The minimum velocity needed for an object to escape the gravitational
pull of a larger object, for example, the Earth.
geostationary orbit A circular orbit in the plane of the equator. Any object on this plane
revolves about the Earth in the same direction and with the same period as
the Earth's rotation.
gravitational potential The stored energy that an object has by being at a height.
energy U
horizontal range The distance travelled along the horizontal plane.
LEO orbit An orbit with an altitude of between 180 and 2000 km.
mechanics The study of motion and forces producing motion.
natural satellite A natural object that orbits a much larger object, for example, the Moon is
a natural satellite of the Earth.
non-circular orbit An orbit which is not circular, for example, Pluto has a very elliptical
orbit.
orbital period The period of a satellite is the time it takes to make one full orbit around
an object.
primary data Information that you collect from a practical investigation.
projectile An object upon which the only force acting is gravity.
radians A unit of measurement of angle. 2π radians = 3600.
rectilinear Moving in a straight line.
secondary data Information that was collected by someone other than yourself.
time of flight The amount of time an object spends in the air.
torque τ The twisting force that tends to cause rotation. Torque has units of N m.
trajectory The curved path caused by gravity that an object follows after it has been
thrown into the air.
uniform circular motion The motion of an object moving in a circle travelling at a constant speed.

Data sheet:
Earth's gravitational acceleration, g = 9.8 m s-2
Universal gravitational constant, G = 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2
Mass of Earth = 6.0 x 1024 kg
Radius of the Earth = 6370 km

Formulae sheet:
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 𝑊 = 𝐹∥ 𝑠 = 𝐹𝑠cos𝜃
2
𝑣2 2𝜋𝑟 𝑚𝑣 2 Δθ
𝑎 = 𝑣 = 𝐹𝑐 = 𝜔 = 𝜏 = 𝑟⊥ 𝐹 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝜃 F = ma W = Fnet s
𝑟 𝑇 𝑟 t
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀 r3 GM 2𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀𝑚 ∆𝐸
𝐹 = g= = 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 = √ 𝑈=− ΔU = mgΔh P = Fv 𝑃 =
𝑟2 𝑟2 T2 4π2 𝑟 𝑟 𝑡
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑈+𝐾 = −
2𝑟
ERScience HSC Physics for NSW – Study Guide Series

Introduction to Advanced Mechanics

Motion in one dimension at constant velocity or constant acceleration can be explained and analysed
relatively simply. However, motion is frequently more complicated because objects move in two or three
dimensions, causing the net force to vary in size or direction.

Students develop an understanding that all forms of complex motion can be understood by analysing the
forces acting on a system, including the energy transformations taking place within and around the system.
By applying new mathematical techniques, students model and predict the motion of objects within
systems. They examine two-dimensional motion, including projectile motion and uniform circular motion,
along with the orbital motion of planets and satellites, which are modelled as an approximation to uniform
circular motion.

Outcomes
A student:
 selects and processes appropriate qualitative and quantitative data and information using a range of
appropriate media PH11/12-4
 analyses and evaluates primary and secondary data and information PH11/12-5
 solves scientific problems using primary and secondary data, critical thinking skills and scientific
processes PH11/12-6
 communicates scientific understanding using suitable language and terminology for a specific
audience or purpose PH11/12-7
 describes and analyses qualitatively and quantitatively circular motion and motion in a gravitational
field, in particular, the projectile motion of particles PH12-12
NSW Physics Stage 6 syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South
Wales, 2017.

Module 5 Advanced Mechanics 1

HSC Physics for NSW – Study Guide Series ERScience

Projectile Motion
Students:
• analyse the motion of projectiles by resolving the motion into horizontal and vertical components, making
the following assumptions:
- a constant vertical acceleration due to gravity
- zero air resistance

• apply the modelling of projectile motion to quantitatively derive the relationship between the following
variables:
- initial velocity
- launch angle
- maximum height
- time of flight
- final velocity
- launch height
- horizontal range of the projectile (ACSPH099)

• conduct a practical investigation to collect primary data in order to validate the relationships derived above.

• solve problems, create models and make quantitative predictions by applying the equations of motion
relationships for uniformly accelerated and constant rectilinear motion

NSW Physics Stage 6 syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority for and on behalf of the Crown in right
of the State of New South Wales, 2017.

Inquiry question: How can models that are used to explain projectile motion be used to analyse and make
predictions?
With all inquiry questions consult with class members, come to a consensus and then summarise your answer in the
space provided.
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 ERScience HSC Physics for NSW – Study Guide Series
Revision
Before starting projectile motion, you should revise Module 1, Kinematics, especially the section on motion
in a straight line. The equations of motion you require are:
1
s = 𝑢t + 2 𝑎t2
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎t
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠

These equations refer to motion in one dimension but are modified for use in 2D motion. The section that
may need revision is when objects are thrown straight up and fall back to the ground. You need to decide
whether to use a positive or negative for the upwards direction. This type of motion is an example of one-
dimensional motion. Projectile motion is an example of two-dimensional motion.
Sample problem 5.1
A ball is projected straight up from the ground with an initial speed, u = 10 m s-1. Draw a graph to show
how the velocity of the ball changes with time, and find the maximum height reached. Assume zero air
resistance and a constant vertical acceleration due to gravity.
Solution:
Choose upward as the positive direction and set the ground as displacement, s = 0. Note we could just as
easily have chosen upwards as negative.
Sketching a diagram, and writing down the data, often helps to simplify the problem.
Diagram Data
u = + 10 m s-1
+s
a = g = - 9.8 m s-2 (minus means downward)
v = 0 at the top, i.e. smax
smax

Graph of velocity against time

v projected upwards gradient = constant = g In this case the gradient is negative
+u as upwards has been defined as
v = 0 at top
positive.
t

–v hits ground

𝑢 − 10
At maximum height, v = 0, hence 0 = u + at which gives 𝑡 = − 𝑔
= − 9.8
= 1.02 𝑠

1
Using 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2
𝑎𝑡 2 and the time at the top is 1.02 s.
1
𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 10 x 1.02 + 𝑥 (− 9.8) x 1.022 = 10.2 − 5.1 = + 5.1 m, the positive means upwards.
2
Alternatively, we can use another equation of motion:
Using 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 and the velocity at the top as zero gives:

02 = 102 + 2 x (− 9.8)x 𝑠 s = 5.1 m As you can see both equations give the same answer.

Module 5 Advanced Mechanics 3

HSC Physics for NSW – Study Guide Series ERScience
Comments:
The acceleration is constant (straight down, magnitude g), only if we can ignore air resistance. Real
projectiles do have air resistance.
The direction of acceleration is the same as the direction of the change in velocity. The change in velocity
is always downward, regardless of the direction of the velocity. At the top of the flight the velocity is
instantaneously zero but the acceleration, g, is still 9.8 m s-2 downwards.
This is illustrated below.

start
projectile
velocity the top

Δv
u v
u v Δv
going up going down

Question sheet 5.1

1. By drawing a velocity-time graph of the motion of a ball dropped from rest derive the three equations
of motion.

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2. A ball thrown up into the air comes to rest at the top of its motion. Is the object accelerating while it is
at the top of its motion? Explain your answer.
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3. A stone was thrown straight down from the top of a cliff. If the initial speed of the stone was 5 m s-1
and the cliff was 80 m high, what is its final speed just before it hits the ground.
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4. A helicopter lifts off vertically, with a constant speed v. While going up, a ball is dropped. Sketch
graphs of velocity-time and acceleration-time for the motion of the ball.

4 Module 5 Advanced Mechanics

ERScience HSC Physics for NSW – Study Guide Series
5. A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 15 m s-1.
(a) How long will it take to fall back to the starting position?
(b) What distance has the ball travelled in this time?
(c) What is the balls displacement at the end of the motion?
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6. A stone is thrown vertically upwards. It is in the air for 10 s.
(a) Calculate its initial velocity.
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(b) Sketch a graph of velocity against time and acceleration against time for the 10 seconds. Give
values for a, v and t on the axis.

7. A balloon travels upwards from rest with an acceleration of 1.8 m s-2. When it reaches an altitude of
89 m above the ground, a mass of 2 kg is released.
(a) What is the velocity of the mass when it is released?
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(b) Sketch graphs of v/t and a/t for the motion. Put numerical values on the axis.

Module 5 Advanced Mechanics 5

HSC Physics for NSW – Study Guide Series ERScience
Revision - resolving vectors into components
With velocity in two-dimensions we often resolve the velocity into two components, the horizontal and
vertical components.

Trigonometry is used to resolve the velocity.

vx = horizontal component of the velocity = v cos 
vy = vertical component of the velocity = v sin  v
v sinθ
θ

v cosθ
We have resolved velocity v into two components, vx and vy, the horizontal
and vertical components.

Practical investigation – two ball projectile experiment

Your school may have equipment to illustrate what happens when one ball is projected horizontally and at
the same time another ball falls vertically from the same height. This can be difficult to observe however
you should be able to hear the noise of the balls hitting the ground and from this decide which ball hits the
ground first.

As an alternative you could watch a YouTube video putting into the search function “horizontal versus
vertical fall, Physics experiment”.

Describe with the aid of a labelled diagram the investigation you observed with two balls, one projected
horizontally and the other dropped vertically.

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What information does this give on the horizontal and vertical components of projectile motion?
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6 Module 5 Advanced Mechanics

ERScience HSC Physics for NSW – Study Guide Series

Analysing the motion of projectiles

A projectile is an object falling in the Earth’s gravitational field. The path of the projectile is described as
its trajectory. The motion is made up of the two components of the velocity, the horizontal and vertical
components.
We analyse projectile motion by resolving the velocity into horizontal and vertical components and using
the equations of motion on these separately.

Study the diagram below of two balls released at the same time, one vertically and the other projected
horizontally to the Earth’s gravitational field.
Note: The time between each image is one second.

0
5
height fallen (m)
20

45

80

125

180

245

320
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

range (m)

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HSC Physics for NSW – Study Guide Series ERScience
Calculate the time for the balls to reach the ground.

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Calculate the velocity of the ball projected horizontally.
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Calculate the horizontal and vertical acceleration of the balls.
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Graphs of vertical components
For an object dropped with an initial velocity uy
sy vy ay

parabolic
curve

Gradient of s/t graph

Gradient of v/t graph
gives velocity
gives acceleration

time time time

1
The displacement-time graph shows a parabolic shape. The equation is: 𝑠𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑡2
2 𝑦

The gradient of the displacement-time graph gives the velocity. You may recognise this as a derivative of
the displacement-time graph. The equation of the velocity time graph is: 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 t

The gradient of the velocity-time graph gives the acceleration. You may recognise this as a derivative of
the velocity-time graph. The equation of the acceleration-time graph is 𝑎𝑦 = constant = g = 9.8 m s-2. That
is the graph shows constant acceleration.

𝑣𝑦 − 𝑢𝑦
As we did in the preliminary course we can rearrange 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 t so that 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑦
and then substitute
1
into 𝑠𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑡2. This gives the equation 𝑣𝑦2 = 𝑢𝑦2 + 2𝑎𝑦 𝑠𝑦
2 𝑦
In the space below show this derivation:

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Question:
Measurements of sy and vy were taken for a ball dropped from rest, that is uy = 0.
Describe how you could manipulate the data to get a straight-line graph using the relationship
𝑣𝑦2 = 𝑢𝑦2 + 2𝑎𝑦 𝑠𝑦

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What would the gradient of the straight-line graph represent?

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8 Module 5 Advanced Mechanics

ERScience HSC Physics for NSW – Study Guide Series
Graphs of horizontal components
For an object thrown horizontally with an initial velocity ux
sx vx ax

Gradient of v/t graph

Gradient of s/t graph
gives acceleration
gives velocity

time time time

The displacement-time graph shows a straight line as there is no acceleration. The equation is: 𝑠𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡.
The gradient of the displacement-time graph gives the velocity.

The equation of the velocity-time graph is: 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 .

The gradient of the velocity-time graph gives the acceleration. This shows that the acceleration is zero.

Summary
Horizontally:
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 this means that the acceleration in the x direction is zero
𝑠𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 t where sx = displacement in the horizontal direction, also known as the range.

Vertically:
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 t
𝑣𝑦2 = 𝑢𝑦2 + 2𝑎𝑦 𝑠𝑦 where sy = displacement in the vertical direction
1
𝑠𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑦 t2
2

To solve projectile problems, we need to recognise that:

• No forces act horizontally, the acceleration is zero assuming we ignore air resistance.
• The horizontal velocity does not change.
• Time links both horizontal and vertical components.
Sample problem 5.2
A ball is thrown horizontally at 3.5 m s-1 from a height of 12.0 m. Calculate:
(a) the time of flight and (b) the range.
Solution:
For projectiles thrown horizontally the time of flight depends only on the vertical height.
If we drop a ball from 12 m or throw it horizontally at any velocity then the time it takes to reach the ground
depends only on its height and can be found as follows:
Convention: take down as positive (this is a decision you have to make)
(a) The time is found from vertical components Data
1
𝑠𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 +
2
𝑎𝑦 t2 uy = 0 m s-1
12 = 0 + ½ x 9.8 x t² sy = 12 m
t = 1.6 s ay = 9.8 m s-2
t=?
(b) The range is found from horizontal components sx = the range = ?
𝑠𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 ux = 3.5 m s-1
𝑠𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 t = 1.6 s
sx = 3.5 x 1.6 = 5.6 m

Module 5 Advanced Mechanics 9

HSC Physics for NSW – Study Guide Series ERScience
Sample problem 5.3
A ball is hit with a velocity of 24 m s-1 at an angle of 60° to the horizontal. Find:
(a) the time of flight, (b) the range, (c) the maximum height.
Solution:
First draw a sketch of the situation
24 m s-1
uy
ux = ucos θ = 24 x cos 600 = 12.0 m s-1
uy = usin θ = 24 x sin 600 = 20.8 m s-1 600

ux
(a) The time of flight (this is twice the time to get to the top of the flight)
To find the time we only have to consider the vertical components.
Convention: take down as positive (this is a decision you have to make)
Look for the simplest equation of motion to get the time, write it down and substitute in.
vy = uy + ayt Data
0 = - 20.8 + 9.8 t ay = + 9.8 m s-2
20.8 = 9.8 t vy = 0 m s-1 (at the top)
t = 2.1 s uy = - 20.8 m s-1 (- means up)
The total time of flight = 2.1 x 2 = 4.2 s t=?
sy = ?
(b) The range
The horizontal velocity does not change if we ignore air resistance.
𝑠𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 ax = 0
sx = 12 x 4.2 m ux = 12.0 m s-1
sx = 50.4 m t = 4.2 s
The range = 50.4 m
(c) Maximum height
(this is at the top of its flight when vy = 0 m s-1)
1
𝑠𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑦 t2
1
𝑠𝑦 = − 20.8 x 2.1 + 2 x 9.8 x 2.12
sy = - 43.7 + 21.6
sy = - 22.1 m (- means up)

The maximum height = 22.1 m

You can also use 𝑣𝑦2 = 𝑢𝑦2 + 2𝑎𝑠𝑦 to find the maximum height. Try this below.

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ERScience HSC Physics for NSW – Study Guide Series
Sample problem 5.4
A ball is projected from the top of a cliff at 27 m s-1 at
an angle of 650. Find the time of flight, range and final 27 m s-1
velocity of the ball if the cliff is 75 m high. 650

75 m

Solution:
To calculate the time - use vertical components:
One way to answer this problem is to divide into sections. Find the time to reach the highest point. Find
how high it goes and then find the time it takes to fall from the highest point.
In this example down is taken as positive. Data
vy = uy + ayt ux = u cos θ = 27 x cos 650 = 11.4 m s-1
0 = - 24.5 + 9.8 t uy = u sin θ = - 27 x sin 650 = - 24.5 m s-1
24.5 = 9.8 t ay = + 9.8 m s-2
t = 2.5 s at the top of its flight.
1
𝑠𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑦 t2 sy = ?
2
1
𝑠𝑦 = − 24.5 x 2.5 + x 9.8 x 2.52
2
sy = - 61.2 + 30.6
sy = - 30.6 m (negative means up)

Total height = 30.6 + 75 = 105.6 m

1
Time to fall 105.6 m is found from 𝑠𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎 t2
2 𝑦
105.6 = 0 + ½ x 9.8 x t2 t = 4.6 s
Total time of flight = 2.5 + 4.6 = 7.1 s

To calculate the range - use horizontal components:

Use 𝑠𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 to find the range. (t in this case is the total time of flight)
𝑠𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 = 11.4 x 7.1 = 81 m

To get the final velocity:

Find the final vertical velocity and add vectorially to the horizontal velocity.

vy = uy + ayt The time is equal to 4.6 s as we are taking the motion from the top with uy = 0.
vy = 0 + 9.8 x 4.6 = 45.1 m s-1

𝑣 2 = 45.12 + 11.42
v = 46.5 m s-1
45.1
The direction is given by tan 𝜃 = 11.4 This gives the angle as 760 below the horizontal.

Note: this is one way to solve the problem, there are others.

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Summary
Projectile motion can be divided into horizontal and
vertical components giving a resultant shape as shown
opposite that is parabolic.

Note:
The horizontal component of velocity is constant
because no horizontal forces act on the object. That is
we assume there is no air resistance.
The vertical component of the velocity changes because
the object experiences a constant vertical acceleration
downwards due to the Earth’s gravitational field.

uy

ux

Modelling projectile motion

We can model projectile motion by
investigating a projectile launched at an angle initial velocity u
of θ to the horizontal. initial vertical
velocity
θ

initial horizontal velocity

The initial velocity is resolved into horizontal and vertical components.

The horizontal component of the velocity is given by ux = u cos θ.

The vertical component of the velocity is given by uy = u sin θ.

The range is the maximum displacement, sx, in the

horizontal direction.
The maximum height, sy, is from the launch position until
the vertical velocity is zero, that is, at the top of its flight.
maximum height sy

range sx

The final velocity is found by the addition of

the horizontal and vertical final velocities final horizontal velocity
together. θ is the angle to the horizontal. θ
final vertical velocity
final velocity v

When giving the final velocity remember to give both magnitude and direction.

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Practical investigation – verifying projectile relationships

The syllabus requires you to collect primary data to verify the relationships of projectile motion. Your task
here is to design an investigation that will allow you to do this. You might all decide to do the same
investigation or use a variety of different methods depending on class size and available equipment.

Task
In small groups brainstorm an experiment which will allow you to verify the projectile relationships. You
need to outline the design of the experiment with a labelled diagram, list of equipment, data to be measured,
etc.

Include how you will collect and analyse the data. Which variables you will control, which are the
independent and dependent variables. A risk assessment should also be written. You need to make sure that
your investigation will validate the projectile motion relationships.

It may help in the design of this investigation and risk assessment to review the year 11 module, Working
Scientifically. Once you have decided on your investigation, write up below and get your teacher to check
before carrying out the investigation.

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Presentation of results
This might be an opportunity to look at some other methods of presentation rather than paper and pen.
Discuss with your group what you might do, for example, video presentation, oral presentation, typed
report, and check with your teacher.

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Question sheet 5.2

1. A pilot wishes to drop a bomb so that it lands as close as possible to a target. If the plane travels with a
horizontal velocity of 96 m s-1 and is flying 195 m above the target, how far away, horizontally, from
the target must the pilot drop the bomb?

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2. A bullet is fired with a horizontal velocity of 285 m s-1 from a height of 1.35 m above the ground.
Assuming the ground is level how far from the gun will the bullet hit the ground?
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3. A rock is thrown horizontally from the top of a cliff 62 m high, with a horizontal speed of 34 m s-1.
(a) How long is the rock in the air?
(b) How far from the base of the cliff does the rock land?
(c) With what velocity does the rock hit?
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4. A student hits a ball giving it a velocity of 48 m s-1 at an angle of 400 above the horizontal.
(a) What are the vertical and horizontal components of the ball's initial velocity?
(b) How long is the ball in the air?
(c) What is the horizontal distance covered by the ball while in flight?
(d) What velocity does the ball have at the top of its trajectory?
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5. A golf ball was hit on the Moon. It was given a velocity of 53 m s-1 at an angle of 35˚ to the horizontal.
On the Moon, g = 1.6 m s-2.
(a) What are the vertical and horizontal components of the ball's initial velocity?
(b) How long is the ball in flight for?
(c) How far will the ball travel horizontally?
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14 Module 5 Advanced Mechanics

ERScience HSC Physics for NSW – Study Guide Series
6. A ball is thrown with a velocity of 12 m s-1 at an angle of 28˚ to the horizontal.
(a) What are the vertical and horizontal components of the initial velocity?
(b) How long is the ball in the air?
(c) How far away will the ball land?
(d) What is the maximum height of the ball?
(e) With what velocity will the ball land?
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7. A ball is fired with a velocity of 36 m s-1. If it is fired at an angle of 40˚ above the horizontal, what height
will it reach? If its flight is stopped by a vertical wall 7 m away, at what height will it hit the wall?

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8. A ball is thrown forward and upwards. The ball is in the air for 3.4 s and strikes the ground 28 m from
the thrower. What was the ball's initial velocity?
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Inquiry question: How can models that are used to explain projectile motion be used to analyse and make
predictions?
Now that you have covered this section you should be better able to answer the inquiry question with your new
understanding of projectile motion.

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Summary
Write a summary of projectile motion, review your summary with others in the class, update as necessary.
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16 Module 5 Advanced Mechanics

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Circular motion
Students:
• conduct investigations to explain and evaluate, for objects executing uniform circular motion, the
relationships that exist between:
- centripetal force
- mass
- speed
- radius

• analyse the forces acting on an object executing uniform circular motion in a variety of situations,
for example:
- cars moving around horizontal circular bends
- a mass on a string
- objects on banked tracks (ACSPH100)

• solve problems, model and make quantitative predictions about objects executing uniform circular
motion in a variety of situations using the following relationships:
𝑣2
- 𝑎 = 𝑟
2𝜋𝑟
- 𝑣 = 𝑇
𝑚𝑣 2
- 𝐹𝑐 = 𝑟
Δθ
- 𝜔 = t

• investigate the relationship between the total energy and work done on an object executing uniform
circular motion

• investigate the relationship between the rotation of mechanical systems and the applied torque
𝜏 = 𝑟⊥ 𝐹 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝜃

NSW Physics Stage 6 syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority for and on behalf of the Crown in right
of the State of New South Wales, 2017.

Inquiry question: Why do objects move in circles?

With all inquiry questions consult with class members, come to a consensus and then summarise your answer in the
space provided.
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Module 5 Advanced Mechanics 17

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Uniform circular motion 4

A body moving with uniform circular motion travels in a circular path
with constant speed. An example of this type of motion is a mass on the
end of a string moving in a horizontal plane.

In the diagram opposite the body is moving with the same linear speed 3 1
at positions 1, 2, 3 and 4 hence we describe this motion as uniform
circular motion.

2
Radians and degrees
We usually use degrees to measure angles but another unit that is used is the radian (rad). We can work
out the conversion between radian and degrees as follows:
360
2 rad = 360° hence 1 rad = therefore 1 radian = 57.3°
2𝜋

Similarly, we can change 1° to radians as follows:

2𝜋
360° = 2 rad hence 1° = = 0.0175 radians
360

Angular displacement () - measured in radians

𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑠 radius r
Angular displacement is defined as 𝜃 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
= 𝑟
θ
If the angular displacement is 360° then we have arc length = 2r arc length s
𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 2𝜋𝑟
hence angular displacement 𝜃 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 = 𝑟 = 2π

If the angular displacement is 90° then we have arc length = ¼ of the

circumference = ¼ x 2r = ½ r
𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝜋
hence angular displacement 𝜃 = =
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 2
r

900
s=½πr

Angular velocity () - measured in rad s-1

Angular velocity is defined as the rate of change of angular displacement.

change in angular displacement 𝛥𝜃

angular velocity ω = =
change in time 𝑡

Note:  is the lower case Greek letter omega.

Period (T)
The period is the time for one complete revolution measured in seconds.
For one complete revolution the angular displacement  = 2 and time T, the period.

Linear velocity (v)

𝑠 2𝜋𝑟
The linear velocity, that is the velocity in a straight line is found from 𝑣 = 𝑡
= 𝑇

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Change in velocity of an object undergoing uniform circular motion
With uniform circular motion although speed remains the same, an object travelling in a circular path must
be accelerating since its velocity is changing continually.
The change in velocity Δv = v – u = v + (- u). This change in velocity is into the centre of the circle. Take
an object travelling in a circular motion at constant speed. At position A it is moving to the right and at
position B it is moving downwards. We can see from the diagram below that the change in velocity, Δv, is
into the centre of the circle.
A u

Δv
v
B

v -u

Centripetal acceleration (ac)

When an object is in circular motion it is accelerating and by Newton’s second law there must be an
unbalanced force acting. With a mass on a string it is the tension in the string which provides the force. If
the string breaks then the mass will not accelerate but will move in a straight line. This is an example of
Newton’s first law.

As the change in velocity of the object is towards the centre of the circle then the acceleration and force
must also be towards the centre.
These are the centripetal acceleration (ac) and centripetal force (Fc).
The relationships are:
𝑣2
ac the centripetal acceleration is given by 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2
Fc the centripetal force is given by 𝐹𝑐 = 𝑟

Sample problem 5.5

A 150 g mass attached to a string of length 3.0 m is rotating in a horizontal circle with a period of 0.85 s.
(a) Calculate the centripetal acceleration of the mass.
(b) Calculate the tension in the string.
Solution:
(a)
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋 x 3.0
𝑣= = = 22.2 m s −1
𝑇 0.85
𝑣2 22.22
𝑎𝑐 = = = 164 m s −2
𝑟 3.0
(b)
The tension is the same as the centripetal force.
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑚𝑎𝑐 = 0.15 x 164 = 24.6 𝑁

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Question sheet 5.3

1. What length of arc would produce an angle of 1.8 radians at the centre of a circle of radius 3.9 m?
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2. An angle is produced at the centre of a circle of radius 4.6 m by an arc of length 2.8 m. How many
radians are in this angle?
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3. An angle of 0.8 radians is produced at the centre of a circle by an arc of length 3.8 cm. What is the
radius of the circle?
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4. Convert the following angles to radians:
(a) 90° …………… (b) 45° ………… (c) 180° …………. (d) 270° …………… (e) 102° ………....
5. Convert the following radians to degrees:
(a) 1.1 radians …… (b) 0.8 radians … (c) 3.5 radians …… (d) 2.4 radians ……. (e) 0.5 radians ……
6. An object carrying out uniform circular motion has a linear velocity of 12 m s-1. At one moment in time
it is travelling West and a short time afterwards travelling North. What is the change in velocity between
these two times? Remember that both magnitude and direction are required as velocity is a vector
quantity. Drawing a small diagram may help your understanding.
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7. An object moves in a circular path of radius 13 m with a constant speed of 8 m s-1:
(a) What is its period?
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(b) What is its centripetal acceleration?
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8. An object travels around a circular path of radius 2.6 metres with an angular velocity of 2.6 rad s-1.
(a) What is the circumference of the circle?
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(b) How long does it take to complete one circuit?
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(c) What is the speed of the object?
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20 Module 5 Advanced Mechanics

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9. Measurements are taken of the acceleration of a toy car as it moves at different speeds around a
circular horizontal path. The table shows the data collected.

acceleration (m s-2) 0 2.5 6.9 15.5 30.2 40.0

velocity (m s-1) 0 1.5 2.4 3.6 5.1 5.7

(a) Plot a graph of acceleration against velocity on the grid below. Assume velocity is the controlled
variable hence it goes on the X axis. Draw a smooth curve of best fit through your data.

(b) Manipulate the velocity data entering into the space in the table and use this to plot a straight line
on the grid below.

(c) Calculate the gradient of this graph including units.

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(d) What does the gradient of the graph represent?
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(e) Write an equation for your line of best fit.
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Force on a mass on a string
Consider a mass on a string moving with uniform circular motion on a
frictionless horizontal surface. The tension in the string is the only force
acting, note we ignore weight and the normal force as they are equal and
T
opposite.

m𝑣 2
The tension supplies the centripetal force: Tension = r

Experiment
You can experience this by whirling a mass on the end of a string. Caution make sure the mass is light for
example, a small roll of sticky tape, to reduce the risk of injury. Make sure eyes are protected by safety
glasses.
Decrease the length of the string by allowing it to wrap around your fingers. What do you observe?
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Increase the speed of the mass keeping the same length. What do you observe?
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Increase the size of the mass, keeping the same length and velocity. What do you observe?
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Force on cars moving around a horizontal circular bend
A car travelling on a horizontal surface depends on friction of the tyres with the road surface to supply the
centripetal force. In this case the force of friction is equal to the centripetal force.
𝑚𝑣 2
The force of friction =
𝑟

There is a limit to the friction that tyres can supply. This depends on the type of tyres, the road surface and
the condition of the tyres.
If a car takes a bend in the road at high speed then the force of friction may not be large enough to supply
the centripetal force and the car may not make it around the bend but instead will continue on in a straight
line.
Similarly, if the radius of curvature is small then the car tyres may not provide enough friction. This explain
the speed limits placed before bends in a road to advise the driver of the maximum speed to take the bend.

Review of friction from Module 2 - dynamics

The maximum magnitude of friction is proportional to the size of the normal force. The force of friction is
given by the relationship, friction = μFn where μ is the coefficient of friction, which is dependent on the
two surfaces in contact and must be found experimentally. Fn is the normal force, at 900 to the surface.
The value for the coefficient of friction depends on whether the object is moving μk, kinetic friction, or
stationary μs, static friction. In the following examples we are dealing with kinetic friction.

Sample problem 5.6

A 1200 kg car travels with a maximum speed of 19 m s-1 in a circular path on a level road surface where
the coefficient of friction is 0.78 between the car tyres and the road. What is the radius of this circular path?

Solution:
Friction = μFn = 0.78 x 1200 x 9.8 = 9170 N
𝑚𝑣 2 1200 x 192 1200 x 192
Force of friction = 𝑟
9170 = 𝑟
r= 9170
= 47 m

22 Module 5 Advanced Mechanics

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Force on objects moving around a banked track with no friction
When a car is on a level surface if there is no friction, then there is no force that can supply the centripetal
force needed to make the car move in a circular path. It is not possible for the car to turn. However, if the
car is on a banked turn, the normal force is not vertical. The normal force has a horizontal component, and
it is this component that provides the centripetal force on the car. This is shown below. Note the diagram
shows a car travelling on a banked track with the car moving out of the page.

N 𝑚𝑔
cos 𝜃 =
θ 𝑁
N
mg
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡
tan 𝜃 =
𝑚𝑔

Fnet

Fnet
Resolving the normal force, N,
mg into horizontal and vertical
 components.

The banking angle between the road and the horizontal is θ. As the acceleration is horizontal - towards the
centre of the car's circular path then the normal force, N, needs to be resolved into horizontal and vertical
components.
In the vertical direction there is no acceleration, hence N cosθ = mg
𝑚𝑣 2
In the horizontal direction Fnet = mg tanθ and as Fnet = Fc then 𝑚𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
r

Rearranging this equation, we get: 𝑣 = √𝑔𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

A car moving at this velocity v could safely travel around a banked curve even if the road is covered with
ice.
Sample problem 5.7
A curve in a road has a radius of 45 meters and a banking angle of 12o. At what speed will no friction be
required between the car's tyres and the road surface for a car on this curve?
Solution:
𝑣 = √𝑔𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = √9.8 x 45 x tan 12 = 9.7 m s−1

If the car has a speed of 9.7 m s-1, it can go around the curve without any friction being required.
Sample problem 5.8
A turn of radius 125 m is being designed for a speed of 18 m s-1. At what angle should the turn be banked?
Solution:
𝑣 = √𝑔𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
18 = √9.8 x 125 x tan 𝜃

The angle = 150

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HSC Physics for NSW – Study Guide Series ERScience
Force on objects moving around a banked track with friction
When the car is on a banked turn and there is friction acting then the centripetal force on the car is provided
by the addition of the frictional force and the horizontal component of the normal force.

N 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡
sin 𝜃 =
θ 𝑁
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 N
cos 𝜃 = mg
𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Fnet

Ffriction Fnet
mg


The centripetal force = component of force due to weight + the component of Ffriction parallel to the net force
The centripetal force = N sin θ + Ffriction cos θ

Sample problem 5.9

A 1000 kg car travels in a circular path on a road surface banked at 150 where the sideways friction between
the car tyres and the road is 7320 N. If the maximum speed is 23 m s-1 then what should be the radius of
this circular path?

Solution:
The component of Ffriction parallel to the net force = Ffriction cos θ = 7320 cos 150 = 7070 N
The component of force due to weight = N sin θ = 1000 x 9.8 x sin 150 = 2540 N
Total centripetal force = 7070 + 2540 = 9610 N
𝑚𝑣 2 1000 x 232 1000 x 232
𝑟
= 9610 = 𝑟
r= 9610
= 55.1 m

24 Module 5 Advanced Mechanics

ERScience HSC Physics for NSW – Study Guide Series

Question sheet 5.4

1. How can a stone on the end of a string be spun round at a constant speed and yet still experience an
acceleration and force?
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2. Give three examples of objects moving in circular paths.
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3. For each of your examples in question 2 state what provides the centripetal force.
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4. A mass is tied to a string and swung in a circle, the string then winds itself round your finger. Explain
what happens to the velocity of the mass and the tension in the string.
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5. An astronaut is trained in a centrifuge with a radius of 5.8 m. If the astronaut can withstand an
acceleration of 7 g for a short time, then:
(a) what is the maximum linear velocity of the astronaut?
(b) what is the period of the centrifuge at this velocity?
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6. A motorway includes a smooth bend of radius 82 m. At what angle must it be banked so that a car can
take the bend at 18 m s-1 for which no friction is required between the car's tyres and the road surface.
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7. Calculate the acceleration of a 2.8 kg mass travelling in a circle of radius 4.2 m at a constant speed of
5.0 m s-1.
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8. A stone of mass 3.5 kg is tied to string and swung in a horizontal circle of radius 2.1 m with a speed of
3.7 m s-1.
(a) what is the force on the stone?
(b) in what direction will the stone move if the string is cut?
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9. The force of friction between a car and the road is 9000 N. If the mass of the car is 1200 kg what is the
maximum speed that it can take a corner of radius 35 m without any banking?
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10. A 1000 kg car is going around unbanked curve with radius 30 meters. If the coefficient of friction
between the car's tyres and the road is 0.5, what is the maximum speed at which the car can make the
turn?
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11. The coefficient of friction between a tyre and a road surface is 0.78. What should be the minimum
radius for curves on this road if the speed limit is 70 km h-1?
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12. A curve has a radius of 60 meters and a banking angle of 150. What is the ideal speed, that is the speed
for which no friction is required between the car's tyres and the surface, for a car on this curve? Draw
a diagram to show the forces and derive a relationship for the velocity and calculate its value.

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13. A turn of radius 100 m is being designed for a speed of 28 m s-1 for which no friction is required between
the car's tyres and the surface. At what angle should the turn be banked?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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14. A 1540 kg car travels in a circular path on a road surface banked at 12 0 where the sideways friction
between the car tyres and the road is 8660 N. If the maximum speed is 18 m s-1 then what should be the
radius of this circular path?
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Practical investigation – uniform circular motion

The syllabus requires you to conduct investigations to explain and evaluate, for objects executing uniform
circular motion, the relationships that exist between:
• mass
• speed
• radius
• centripetal force
Task
In small groups brainstorm an investigation which will allow you to verify these relationships. You need
to outline the design of the experiment with a labelled diagram, list of equipment and data to be measured.
Include how you will collect and analyse the data. Which variables you will control, what are the
independent and dependent variables. A risk assessment also needs to be written. You need to make sure
that your investigation will explain and evaluate these relationships.

Suggestions:
You may find that a YouTube video will give you some ideas to help you.

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The total energy and work done on an object executing uniform circular motion
When an object is carrying out uniform circular motion then the centripetal force is at 900 to the objects
motion. As work done, 𝑊 = 𝐹∥ 𝑠 = 𝐹𝑠cos𝜃 and θ is 900 then no work is done, hence the total energy of the
system remains constant.
The Earth orbits the Sun in centripetal motion. No work is done, if it were then the Earth should have
spiralled into the Sun a long time ago.
Applied torque τ
The turning effect of a force depends on how far the force is from the axis of rotation. You can observe this
by holding a heavy bag at the side of your body. How difficult is this?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Now hold the same bag but this time at 900 to your body. As it is the same bag you must be applying the
same force to hold it as previously. However, is this more difficult than holding the bag at your side?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
The difference between these two situations is due to the placement of the force. When a force causes a
rotation, the effect of the force depends on how far the force is from the axis of rotation.
The larger the force and the further from the axis of rotation the greater the applied torque. The applied
torque is given by the size of the force multiplied by the distance at which the force acts from the axis of
rotation. Applied torque 𝜏 = 𝑟⊥ 𝐹 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝜃
The spanner
With the diagram below when θ is 900 then the sine of 900 is 1, hence we have maximum torque. As the
angle θ decreases then the torque also decreases as the value of the sine decreases until at θ = 00 the sine is
zero and no torque is applied.
F
F

θ θ

r r
Torque is a vector quantity with units of N m. We can see this as when applying a force to the spanner we
can either tighten or loosen the nut depending on whether torque is in a clockwise or anticlockwise
direction.

The direction of the torque vector is found by using the right-

torque
hand grip rule. If a hand is curled around the axis of rotation with
the fingers pointing in the direction of the force, then the torque
vector points in the direction of the thumb as shown in the thumb points in direction of
diagram opposite. torque and fingers point in
the direction of the force

distance
force

Note that the units of torque, N m is not the same as Joules as torque is a vector quantity unlike energy
measured in Joules which is a scalar quantity.

28 Module 5 Advanced Mechanics

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Applications of torque
An application of torque is the car wrench, a large
spanner. When used to tighten or slacken wheel nuts
both the length of the wrench and the force control
the size of the torque. This is where an extension to
increase the distance of the force from the axis of
rotation can come in useful.

Sample problem 5.10

A 5 kg mass is held in a student’s hand. What is the torque if their arm has a length of 0.60 m when they
hold a mass at:
(a) 900 to their body
(b) 600 to their body
(c) 00 to their body.

Solution:
(a) In this case maximum torque applies and θ = 900. Torque 𝜏 = 𝑟⊥ 𝐹 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝜃
𝜏 = 0.60 x 5 x 9.8 x sin 90 = 29.4 N m

(b) In this case θ = 600. Torque 𝜏 = 𝑟⊥ 𝐹 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝜃

𝜏 = 0.60 x 5 x 9.8 x sin 60 = 14.7 N m

(c) In this case θ = 00. Torque 𝜏 = 𝑟⊥ 𝐹 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝜃

𝜏 = 0.60 x 5 x 9.8 x sin 0 = 0 N m. There is no torque acting.

Question sheet 5.5

1. The diagram opposite shows a spanner which is used to loosen
a nut. The three forces are all identical. Explain which
arrangement is best. F1 F2

F3

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2. A student uses a spanner to apply a constant force to turn a nut.
They apply the force at different angles and measure the F
magnitude of torque produced at each of the angles.
θ

0.45 m
The data collected is shown in the table below:
torque (N m) 5.0 9.9 12.1 16.0 20.0
θ (degrees) 14 29 37 53 90

(a) Remembering that 𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝜃 what quantities do you need to plot to produce a straight-line
relationship?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

(b) Use the blank row in the table above to enter these quantities.

(c) Plot a graph of torque and the manipulated variable.

(d) Calculate the gradient of your line including units.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(e) What does the gradient represent?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(f) Use the gradient of your graph to determine the size of the constant force the student used.

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Inquiry question: Why do objects move in circles?
Now that you have covered this section you should be better able to answer the inquiry question with your new
understanding of circular motion.

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Summary
Write a summary of circular motion, review your summary with others in the class, update as necessary.
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Motion in gravitational fields

Students:
• apply qualitatively and quantitatively Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation to:
𝐺𝑀𝑚
- determine the force of gravity between two objects 𝐹 = 𝑟2
𝐺𝑀
- investigate the factors that affect the gravitational field strength g = 𝑟2
- predict the gravitational field strength at any point in a gravitational field, including at the
surface of a planet (ACSPH094, ACSPH095, ACSPH097)

• investigate the orbital motion of planets and artificial satellites when applying the relationships
between the following quantities:
- gravitational force
- centripetal force
- centripetal acceleration
- mass
- orbital radius
- orbital velocity
- orbital period

• predict quantitatively the orbital properties of planets and satellites in a variety of situations,
including near the Earth and geostationary orbits, and relate these to their uses (ACSPH101)

• investigate the relationship of Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion to the forces acting on, and the
total energy of, planets in circular and non-circular orbits using: (ACSPH101)
2𝜋𝑟
- 𝑣 = 𝑇
r3 GM
- T2
= 4π2

• derive quantitatively and apply the concepts of gravitational force and gravitational potential energy
in radial gravitational fields to a variety of situations, including but not limited to:
2𝐺𝑀
- the concept of escape velocity 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 = √ 𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚
- total potential energy of a planet or satellite in its orbit 𝑈 = − 𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚
- total energy of a planet or satellite in its orbit 𝑈 + 𝐾 = − 2𝑟
- energy changes that occur when satellites move between orbits (ACSPH096)
- Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion (ACSPH101)

NSW Physics Stage 6 syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority for and on behalf of the Crown in right
of the State of New South Wales, 2017.

Inquiry question: How does the force of gravity determine the motion of planets and satellites?
With all inquiry questions consult with class members, come to a consensus and then summarise your answer in the
space provided.
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Gravitation
Isaac Newton realized that mass exerts a gravitational pull known as gravity and that it applies to all masses
including small objects, like apples, and large objects, like the Moon and the Earth. Newton worked out the
mathematical relationship that exists between masses known as Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation.
We now investigate this relationship.
The gravitational force between two masses
The gravitational force between two masses depends on the size of the masses and their separation. We do
not have sensitive enough equipment in the school laboratory to take measurements so we use secondary
data.
Changing the separation distance, r, keeping M and m constant
Measurements of the force between two identical masses, M and m, as a function of their separation
distance, r, were taken. A diagram of the arrangement is shown below. We usually describe these masses
as point masses because the physical dimensions of the masses are very small, that is negligible, compared
to the separation of the masses. In the case below this is not realistic as we have large masses and small
separation distances.

M r m
force measurer

Mass M is held stationary and the force on mass m measured. The separation distance r is then varied and
the force measured. As gravitation is a weak force then we have very small values of force. The
measurements are shown below.

Separation r (m) Force x 10-6 (N)

1.0 66.7
2.0 16.7
3.0 7.3
4.0 4.2
5.0 2.7

Plot a graph of force, F, against separation, r, on the grid below. Draw a smooth curve of best fit.

What does the relationship between F and r look like? ….…………………………………………………

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Work out how to modify (manipulate) the separation value, r, so that when you plot another graph a linear
relationship is obtained. A blank column is provided in the table for these manipulated values.

What is the relationship between the variables you plotted? .……………………………………………

Write an equation for your line of best fit …………………………………………………………..……

Changing the mass, M, keeping the distance and m constant

In this case the distance is kept constant at 4.0 m and measurements taken by changing one of the masses,
M and measuring the force.

mass M (x 103 kg) Force x 10-6 (N)

1.0 4.2
2.0 8.3
3.0 12.6
4.0 16.9
5.0 20.8

Plot a graph of force, F, against mass, M, on the grid below. Draw a line of best fit.

What is the relationship between F and M? ………….……………………………………………………

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If the experiment is repeated with F and m the same relationship is found.
1
This gives: 𝐹 
r2
𝐺𝑀𝑚
FM putting these together we get 𝐹 = 𝑟2
Fm

The constant of proportion is G, the universal gravitational constant with a value of 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2.
We often refer to G as big G.

This relationship was first described by Newton and is called Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation.

Practical investigation – PhET simulation - gravity force lab

A simulation of Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation can be found at the PhET web site.
With this simulation you can change the values of the red and blue masses and vary the distance. When
recording force values express your values in powers of ten.
Repeat the measurements as you have done in the previous example. Draw tables and graphs of the
relationships between F and distance. You could use Excel to enter the values directly into a table and then
plot graphs.

Sample problem 5.11

A student of mass 50 kg stands on the surface of the Earth. Calculate the force of gravity acting on the
student. Take the mass of the Earth as 6.0 x 1024 kg and radius as 6370 km.

Solution:
𝐺𝑀𝑚 6.67 x 10−11 x 6.0 x 1024 x 50
𝐹 = 2
= = 490 N
𝑟 (6370 x 103 )2
Note: this is the same as found from using weight = mg = 50 x 9.8 = 490 N

Sample problem 5.12

Calculate the force of the Sun on the Earth. Take the mass of the Sun as 2.0 x 1030 kg and the distance
from the Earth as 150 x 106 km.

Solution:
𝐺𝑀𝑚 6.67 x 10−11 x 2.0 x 1030 x 6.0 x 1024
𝐹 = 2
= = 3.6 𝑥 1022 N
𝑟 (150 x 109 )2

Sample problem 5.13

Two students of mass 76 kg and the other 70 kg stand 0.50 m from each other. Calculate and comment on
the force of gravity acting between them.

Solution:
𝐺𝑀𝑚 6.67 x 10−11 x 76 x 70
𝐹 = 2
= = 1.4 x 10−6 N
𝑟 (0.5)2

The force is very small and is insignificant compared to the force of gravity from the Earth.

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Question sheet 5.6

1. Imagine standing on the surface of the Moon holding a ball. If you let go of the ball, what happens to
it? Explain your answer?
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2. Using Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation work out the units of big G.
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3. How would the size of the force between the Earth and the Sun change if the Earth were made four
times greater in mass?
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4. How would the size of the force between the Sun and the Earth change if the distance between the Earth
and the Sun were increased by four times?
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5. Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation is an inverse square law. Explain what this means.
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6. (a) The Sun has a much larger mass than the Earth. Which is greater, the strength of the gravitational
force that the Earth exerts on the Sun, or the strength of the gravitational force that the Sun exerts on
the Earth? Explain your answer.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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(b) Consider the following conversation between two students about their answer to part (a) above.
Student 1: I was taught that whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object
also exerts a force that is equal in strength, but in the other direction. So even though the Sun is
bigger and more massive than the Earth, they still attract each other with the same gravitational
force just in different directions.
Student 2: You are mistaken. The Sun exerts the stronger force because it is much bigger than the
Earth. Because its mass is bigger the gravitational force the Sun exerts has to be bigger too. I think
you are confusing Newton's third law with the law of universal gravitation.
Which student is correct or are they both wrong? Explain your answer.
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7. The diagram below shows a
spacecraft travelling from Earth to
Mercury at the halfway point
between the two planets.

Earth

Mercury

(a) On the diagram, draw a circle to represent where the spacecraft would be when the gravitational force
by the Earth on the spacecraft is stronger than the gravitational force by Mercury on the spacecraft.
Explain your answer.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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(b) On the diagram, draw a circle to represent where the spacecraft would be when the gravitational force
by Mercury on the spacecraft is stronger than the gravitational force by the Earth on the spacecraft.
Explain your answer.
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(c) Where would the spacecraft experience the strongest resultant gravitational force exerted on it by the
Earth and Mercury? Explain your answer.
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(d) When the spacecraft is at the halfway point, how does the strength and direction of the gravitational
force on the spacecraft by Earth compare with the strength and direction of the gravitational force on
the spacecraft by Mercury? Explain your answer.
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(e) If the spacecraft were stationary at the midpoint between Earth and Mercury, would the spacecraft stay
at the midpoint or would it start to move? Ignore the influence of the Sun and other planets on the
motion. If you think it would move, then:
• describe the direction it would move
• describe its motion
• describe how the resultant force on the spacecraft would change during this motion
• identify where the spacecraft would have the greatest acceleration.
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Gravitational fields
We can visualise the gravitational attraction of masses with gravitational
fields. The greater the gravitational field the closer the field lines are to
each other.
We can represent the inverse square law of gravity by drawing the radial
field lines that surround the Earth as shown opposite. The arrows show
the direction of the force on a mass in that field.

Factors affecting gravitational field strength

The force due to gravity is given by F = mg, so we can write:
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔 =
𝑟2
𝐺𝑀
This gives 𝑔 = 𝑟2 where M is the mass of the Earth.

This equation shows that the gravitational field strength, g, depends on G, the universal gravitational
constant, the mass of the Earth and the inverse square of the distance.
Note: the distance r in this case means from the centre of the Earth.

Sample problem 5.14

Calculate the size of the gravitational field strength at the surface of the Moon. Take the mass of the Moon
as 7.4 x 1022 kg and the radius as 1720 km.

Solution:
𝐺𝑀 6.67 x 10−11 x 7.4 x 1022
𝑔= = = 1.67 N kg −1
𝑟2 (1.72 x 106 )2

Note when writing g as gravitational field strength the units are usually expressed as N kg-1. When
writing as g the acceleration due to gravity we normally use m s-2.

Question sheet 5.7

1. Calculate the gravitational field strength at the surface of the Earth.
Mass of Earth = 6.0 x 1024 kg, radius of Earth = 6370 km.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..………
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2. Calculate the gravitational field strength at a height of 2400 km above the Earth’s surface.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..………
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3. Sirius a bright star has a radius of 1.2 x 109 m and a mass of 4.0 x 1030 kg. What is the gravitational
force on a 1.0 kg mass at its surface?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..………
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4. An object is dropped from high above the Moon. It falls with increasing acceleration. Explain this
observation.
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The orbital motion of planets and artificial satellites
An artificial satellite is a man-made object, for example, the International Space Station, that orbits a much
larger object, the Earth. A natural satellite is a natural object that orbits a much larger object, for example,
the Moon is a natural satellite of the Earth. The Earth is a natural satellite of the Sun.

As the velocity of an object moving in a circular path is always changing, we say that it is accelerating,
even if its speed remains constant. If it is accelerating, it must have a force acting on it, the centripetal
(centre-seeking) force.

Consider a mass on the end of a string being rotated around

a person’s head. The person holding the string experiences
a force in the string which we call the tension. The diagram velocity v
opposite shows the forces involved. mass m
tension
The centripetal force Fc is supplied by the tension in the
string.
𝑣2
ac the centripetal acceleration is given by 𝑎𝑐 = r
𝑚𝑣 2
Fc the centripetal force is given by 𝐹𝑐 = 𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2
Hence the tension is equal to 𝑟

Forces on satellites orbiting the Earth

In this case the centripetal force is provided by the gravitational force between the satellite and the Earth.

𝐹𝑐 = 𝐹𝑔

𝑚𝑠 𝑣 2 𝐺 𝑚𝑠 𝑀𝐸 𝐺 𝑀𝐸 velocity v
𝑟
= 𝑟2
and simplifying we get 𝑣 2 = 𝑟
Earth satellite
𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 2𝜋𝑟 mass ME mass ms
The velocity is given by 𝑣 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
= 𝑇
radius r

2𝜋𝑟 2 𝐺 𝑀𝐸
Hence 𝑣 2 = ( ) =
𝑇 𝑟

𝑟3 𝐺 𝑀𝐸 𝐺𝑀
When simplified this gives: = or 𝑟 3 = ( 4𝜋2𝐸) 𝑇 2
𝑇2 4𝜋2

This relationship r3  T2 was discovered by Johannes Kepler and is known as Kepler’s law of periods. This
relationship works for circular orbits. We can use it to calculate the radius of orbit of a planet or satellite if
we know the orbital period, or, if we know the radius and period, to calculate the mass of the object which
is being orbited.

𝑟3 𝐺 𝑀𝐸
As = we see that as the radius decreases then the orbital period decreases. This means that the
𝑇2 4𝜋2
satellite or planet moves faster as they get closer to the object they are orbiting.

Non-circular orbits and Kepler’s first law

Planets and satellites do not orbit their parent body in circles instead their orbits are elliptical. Kepler
observed this and stated this in his first law: “The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of
the two foci.”

If we use an average distance for the radius then we can ignore the elliptical nature of the orbits of planets
and satellites and still use r3  T2, Kepler’s law of periods.

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Kepler's law of periods
𝑟3 𝐺𝑀𝐸
We can use Kepler's law of periods 2 = to calculate the altitude of a satellite such that it goes around
𝑇 4𝜋2
the Earth once every 24 hours which, at the equator, will make it stay ‘fixed’ above the one point. A satellite
like this is described as being geostationary and can be used to ‘bounce’ communications from one part of
the Earth to another.
Question:
A satellite orbiting the Earth has a period of 24 hours. What is the radius, altitude and velocity of the
satellites orbit?
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Practical investigation – viewing the ISS
Risk assessment - discuss with fellow students and your teacher possible risks to night viewing.
A website that shows where various satellites are in the night sky is heavens above found at:
www.heavens-above.com. Login on to this site. It is best to register so that you will not need to set your
location every time you use the site.
Configure heavens above so that it has the correct latitude and longitude information for your location.
Begin by clicking on “Select from map”. Select where you live and click submit.
Next make sure you set the clock to the correct time zone for your location.
Observing a satellite
Look at the items listed below the word “Satellites.” Heavens above has links allowing users to calculate
visibility information for a small number of “high interest spacecraft,” that is satellites a lot of people want
to observe - like the International Space Station (ISS).
Brightness (mag) is a numerical way to represent the apparent brightness of sky objects. Objects with high
values like “4, 5, or 6,” are the dimmest ones. Those that have values like “3, 2, 1” are brighter. Those with
negative values like “- 1, - 2, etc.” are very bright.
Altitude (Alt.) refers to the vertical height of objects measured in degrees. Satellites that reach maximum
altitudes greater than 45 degrees are usually the easiest ones to observe.
Azimuth (Az.) is a way to describe the compass directions given in degrees. North has an azimuth value of
0 degrees. An object that appears due East has an azimuth of 90 degrees. An object that is due South has
an azimuth of 180 degrees. If an object lies due West, it has an azimuth of 270 degrees.
In you live in the centre of a large town or city then try to observe objects with a magnitude of - 1 or
brighter. If you live where the sky has less light pollution then you can observe dimmer satellites.
Obviously cloudy skies are not good for observing so check the weather forecast.
If you are not sure whether it is the ISS you have observed then check out YouTube, “ISS as seen from
Earth”. This should help to confirm your observations.
Observations
Describe what you observed below.
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Orbital velocity
The centripetal force, Fc, keeping the satellite in a circular orbit is equal to the force of gravity between the
satellite and the Earth and is given by:
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑣 2 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀
𝐹𝑔 = 𝑟2
and 𝐹𝑐 = 𝑟
hence 𝑟
= 𝑟2
or 𝑣 2 = 𝑟

𝐺𝑀
or 𝑣orbital = √ 𝑟

This relationship allows you to find the orbital velocity of satellites.

Sample problem 5.15
A geostationary satellite has a period of one day and orbits at a height of 35786 km. Taking the mass of the
Earth as 6.0 x 1024 kg and it radius as 6370 km, calculate the velocity of the satellite.

Solution:
𝐺𝑀 6.67 x 10−11 x 6.0 x 1024
v= √ = √ (6370 + 35 786) x 103
= 3080 m s −1
𝑟

Sample problem 5.16

Calculate the velocity of a satellite orbiting at 700 km above the Earth’s surface.

Solution:
𝐺𝑀 6.67 x 10−11 x 6.0 x 1024
v= √ = √ (6370 + 700) x 103
= 7520 m s −1
𝑟

Note this type of satellite is classified as a Low Earth Orbit satellite (LEO).
You should notice that LEO satellites have a greater speed than geostationary satellites.

Research task
Research the different types of satellites that orbit the Earth including those in near Earth orbits and
geostationary orbits. Calculate their radius, altitude, and velocity and relate to their use.
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Question sheet 5.8

1. A satellite has a mass of 800 kg and is in circular orbit around the Earth at a distance of 1120 km above
the surface. Explain how the speed of this satellite as it orbits could be found and calculate its value.
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2. A 450 kg satellite is orbiting 35900 km above the Earth’s surface.
(a) Calculate the centripetal force acting on the satellite.
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(b) Calculate its orbital speed.
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(c) Calculate its orbital period.
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3. One of Jupiter’s moons, Europa has a period of 3.06 x 105 s and an orbital radius of 6.71 x 108 m. Use
this information to calculate Jupiter’s mass.
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4. A satellite is in orbit at an altitude of 500 km. The value for g at this height is 8.48 m s-2. This gravity
provides the centripetal acceleration.
(a) Calculate the speed of the satellite.
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(b) Calculate the orbital period of the satellite in minutes.
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5. Jupiter has four large moons that can be observed with a small telescope. These moons, and their period
and orbital radius about Jupiter are given below.

Radius Period (s)

Moon
(x 108 m) (x 105 s)
Callisto 18.8 14.4

Ganymede 10.7 6.19

Europa 6.71 3.06

Io 4.22 1.53

(a) What should you plot to get a straight-line relationship?

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(b) Using your answer to part (a) complete the missing columns in the table. Remember to put quantity,
units and powers of ten in the top row.

(c) Plot a graph using your data from part (b) to give a straight line and measure the gradient of the
straight line. Make sure you include units and powers of ten in your gradient.

(d) From your gradient calculate the mass of Jupiter.

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Gravitational potential energy

The relationship Δ𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔Δℎ that is used to calculate the change in gravitational potential energy works
when an object is near the surface of the Earth where g does not significantly vary with height, h.
A more general expression for gravitational potential energy which takes into account the variation of g
𝐺𝑀 𝑚
with height is 𝑈 = − 𝑟𝐸
where: ME is the mass of the Earth in kg
m is the mass of the object in kg
r is the distance from the centre of the Earth to the mass in metres
G is the universal gravitational constant, 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2
U is the gravitational potential energy in Joules

A question often asked is why we have a

negative in this relationship. This is a U = 0 which is maximum
consequence of the definition of gravitational potential energy
potential energy. We define the gravitational
more potential energy
potential energy at a very large distance,
infinity, from Earth as zero. For an object at the
surface of the Earth we have to add energy to
remove it from the Earth’s gravitational field. If Earth
less potential energy
we add energy to get zero then the object must
have had negative energy on the surface of the
Earth. Hence the reason for the negative in the energy has to be added to reach infinity
relationship. This is illustrated in the diagram
opposite. ∞ infinity
𝐺𝑀 𝑚
Looking at the relationship 𝑈 = − 𝑟𝐸 we
see:
• as r becomes very large the potential energy approaches zero - the maximum value
• as r becomes smaller, closer to the Earth, the object has less potential energy. It becomes more negative.
We can also see that it distance r
U=0
requires less energy to move
an object to infinity from
gravitational
high above the surface of the
potential energy
Earth than from closer to the
Earth’s surface. A graph of 𝑀𝐸 𝑚
gravitational potential 𝑈 = −𝐺
energy against r is shown 𝑟
opposite.

surface of
Earth

1
This shape is what we expect for a 𝑟
graph.

44 Module 5 Advanced Mechanics

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Sample problem 5.17
A mass of 1000 kg at 100 m above the Earth’s surface is moved to a height of 200 m.
(a) Calculate the change in gravitational potential energy.
(b) If the same mass is then moved from 100 m to 500000 m, calculate the change in gravitational potential
energy.
Solution:
𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚
We can attempt this question using ΔU = mgΔh and also 𝑈 = −
𝑟

(a) From 100 to 200 m

ΔU = mgΔh = 1000 x 9.8 x (200 – 100) = 980000 J

𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚
𝑈= −
𝑟
6.67 x 10−11 x 6.0 x 1024 x 1000
At 100 m 𝑈100 = − (6370000 + 100)
= − 6.282476 x 1010
6.67 x 10−11 x 6.0 x 1024 x 1000
At 200 m 𝑈200 = − = − 6.282377 x 1010
(6370000 + 200)
U200 – U100 = - 6.282377 x 10 - - 6.282476 x 1010 = 990000 J
10

These two values are the same taking into account significant figures.
(b) From 100 to 500000 m
ΔU = mgΔh = 1000 x 9.8 x (500000 – 100) = 4.90 x 109 J
6.67 𝑥 10−11 𝑥 6.0 𝑥 1024 𝑥 1000
At 100 m 𝑈100 = − (6370000 + 100)
= − 6.282 𝑥 1010
6.67 𝑥 10 −11 24
𝑥 6.0 𝑥 10 𝑥 1000
At 500000 m 𝑈200 = − (6370000 + 500000)
= − 5.825 𝑥 1010
U500000 – U100 = - 5.825 x 10 - - 6.282 x 10 = 4.57 x 10 J
10 10 9

These are different values. ΔU = mgΔh can only be used where Δh is small so that g does not
significantly change with height.

Question sheet 5.9

𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚
1. Why does the equation for potential energy 𝑈 = − 𝑟
have a negative sign in it?

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𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚
2. Use the equation 𝑈 = − 𝑟
to show that the units of G are N m2 kg-2. Note that the Joule is a N m.

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3. How much work is required to raise a 5.7 x 103 kg object to an altitude of 6.9 x 106 m above the Earth’s
surface?
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4. (a) What is the gravitational potential energy at an altitude of 36000 km from the Earth’s surface of a
mass of 2000 kg? Note this is the altitude of a geostationary orbit.
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(b) What is the difference in gravitational potential energy between the surface of the Earth, and this
geostationary altitude?
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5. Complete the graph opposite to show how gravitational potential energy varies with distance. The circle
represents a planet. The y axis is gravitational potential energy and the x axis is distance from the centre
of the planet.
Discuss the shape of the graph you have drawn.
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6. The International Space Station (ISS) orbits the Earth at an altitude of 450 km. Its mass is 420 000 kg.
(a) Calculate the gravitational potential energy of the ISS.
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(b) Calculate the gravitational potential energy of the ISS if it was at the Earth’s surface.
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(c) Calculate the change in gravitational potential energy to move the ISS from the surface of the
Earth to an altitude of 450 km.
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(d) Compare the gravitational potential energy of the ISS at these two locations.
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7. A 1500 kg object is initially at rest 420 km above the Earth’s surface. The object falls straight down
and releases 1.8 × 109 J of heat energy while falling to an altitude of 70 km. What is the velocity of the
object at this altitude?

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46 Module 5 Advanced Mechanics

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Kinetic energy of a planet or satellite in its orbit
The kinetic energy of a mass is found from the relationship K = ½ mv2, the mass in this case being that of
the object in orbit.
As we saw previously for an object in orbit the velocity is found from the relationship: Fg = Fc

𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑣 2 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀
𝐹𝑔 = 𝑟2
and 𝐹𝑐 = 𝑟
hence 𝑟
= 𝑟2
or 𝑣 2 = 𝑟
or 𝑣orbital = √ 𝑟

2
1 2 1 𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀𝑚
Hence the Kinetic Energy = 2 𝑚 𝑣 = 2 𝑚 (√ 𝑟
) =
2𝑟

The total energy of a planet or satellite in its orbit

A satellite in orbit around the Earth has both kinetic energy, K and potential energy U.
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚 − 2𝐺𝑀𝑚+𝐺𝑀𝑚
The total energy = U + K = − 𝑟
+ 2𝑟
= 2𝑟

𝐺𝑀𝑚
Hence 𝑈 + 𝐾 = − 2𝑟

From these equations we see that the kinetic energy of a satellite in orbit is half its gravitational energy and
is positive instead of negative. When U and K are combined, their total value is half the gravitational
potential energy.

The total energy of the satellite is the sum of the gravitational potential energy and its kinetic energy. As a
satellite moves further away from the Earth its potential energy increases and its kinetic energy decreases
by an equivalent amount in keeping with conservation of energy. That is, the sum of kinetic and potential
energies is unchanged, total energy is conserved. Whether in circular or elliptical motion, there are no
external forces capable of changing the total energy of the satellite.

The variation of these three quantities with the radius of orbit is

shown in the graph opposite.

Sample problem 5.18

Determine the total energy of a 4000 kg satellite in a geostationary orbit.
Solution:
First the radius of the geostationary orbit needs to be found. This was calculated earlier from Kepler’s law
𝑟3 𝐺 𝑀𝐸
of periods, 𝑇 2 = 4𝜋2
and gives a value of 42100 km.
𝐺𝑀𝑚
The total energy is given by: 𝑈 + 𝐾 = − 2𝑟

𝐺𝑀𝑚 6.67 x 10−11 x 6.0 x 1024 x 4000

𝑈+𝐾 =− 2𝑟
=− 2 x 42100 x 103
= - 1.90 x 1010 J

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A video of the total energy of a satellite in its orbit
A video which may be helpful to review this work is “Flipping Physics.” Put in “Mechanical Energy of a
Satellite in Circular Orbit and Flipping Physics” to a YouTube search. You may get more from this video
if you take notes as you watch it.

Question sheet 5.10

1. A 2.85 x 103 kg space probe is taken from the surface of the Moon and placed into a circular orbit at a
height of 2.7 x 106 m above the surface of the Moon. Take mass of the Moon as 7.4 x 1022 kg and its
radius as 1720 km.
(a) Calculate the speed at this height.
(b) Calculate the kinetic energy at this height.
(c) Calculate the potential energy at this height.
(d) Calculate the total energy at this height.
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2. A 4800 kg satellite orbits the Earth at an altitude of 700 km.
(a) What is the satellite’s orbital speed at this altitude?
(b) What is the satellite’s total energy at this altitude?
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3. Calculate the minimum energy required to place a spacecraft of mass 1.24 x 105 kg in orbit at an altitude
of 500 km.
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4. Complete the following table to calculate the kinetic energy K, potential energy U and total energy for
a 1000 kg satellite at different distances in orbit around the Earth. Don’t forget the sign of the values, K
should be positive and U and total energy are both negative.

Distance from the centre of kinetic energy K potential energy U total energy
the Earth in km K+U
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000

Plot a graph of these values either in Excel or on graph paper. Use powers of ten. You should see a
similar shape to that shown on the previous page.

48 Module 5 Advanced Mechanics

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Escape velocity
To just escape from the Earth’s gravitational field, that is to reach infinity, we must have a total energy of
zero. This means that the initial velocity is just enough so that when the object reaches infinity, its velocity
is zero.

If we consider an object of mass m projected vertically upwards from the Earth’s surface, mass ME and
radius r, we have the following relationship:
𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚
Total Energy = Kinetic Energy (K) + Potential Energy (U) = ½ mv2 + (− 𝑟
)

For an object to escape from the Earth we need to add enough kinetic energy, K, to cancel out the potential
energy U, that is U + K = 0 or K = - U

1 𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚 2𝐺𝑀𝐸 2𝐺𝑀

𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑣2 = or 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 = √
2 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟

This velocity vescape is known as the escape velocity, the velocity required to escape from a planet’s
gravitational field. As you can see from this relationship the escape velocity is independent of the mass of
the object.

Sample problem 5.19

Calculate the escape velocity for the planets Earth and Mercury.
The mass of Mercury is 3.3 x 1023 kg and its radius is 2440 km.

Solution:
For Earth
2 x 6.67 x 10−11 x 6.0 x 1024
𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 = √ = 11.2 x 103 m s-1
6370 x 103

The escape velocity from Earth is 11.2 x 103 m s-1.

For Mercury
2 x 6.67 x 10−11 x 3.3 x 1023
𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 = √ 2440 x 103
= 4.3 x 103 m s-1

The escape velocity from Mercury is 4.3 x 103 m s-1.

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Question sheet 5.11

1. The escape velocity for a rocket on Earth must be more than 1·1 x 104 m s-1.

Planet Diameter (km) Mass (kg)

Jupiter 142 800 1·9 x 1027
Mars 6 787 6·5 x 1023

How would the escape velocity from Jupiter and Mars compare to that from Earth?
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2. A 6.3 x 104 kg space vehicle leaves the surface of the Earth with a speed of 1.4 x 10 4 m s-1. What will
its speed be when it is infinitely far from the Earth?
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3. With what velocity would an object need to be projected from the surface of the Sun in order to escape
its gravitational pull? Take the mass of Sun as 1.99 x 1030 kg and its radius as 6.95 x 108 m.
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4. A spacecraft is in an orbit around Earth at an altitude of 36000 km. What is the escape velocity from
this location?
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5. NASA in 2008 reported measuring an object of mass about 8 x 1030 kg with a radius of 10 km. Calculate
and comment on the escape velocity of such an object.
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Depth studies - possibilities for advanced mechanics
Your teacher may decide to do a depth study in this module. Depth studies are designed to provide
opportunities for students to:
• consolidate their learning - and/or
• develop competence and confidence in relation to their knowledge and skills - and/or
• foster creativity by allowing students to apply their knowledge and skills to new situations.

Possibilities include:

Analysis of projectile motion

This could involve taking a video of projectile motion, analysing the video with software, drawing graphs
of the motion, and critically analysing the experiment.

Producing a presentation
Produce a presentation on a topic which you find difficult, for example:
• why the gravitational potential energy formulae has a negative in front of it.
• projectile motion
• the forces acting on banked tracks
• the forces on objects undergoing centripetal motion.

If videos are produced then they should be of a high standard such that they can be uploaded onto YouTube
to assist other HSC Physics students.

Summarise below any suggestions you have for depth studies.

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Inquiry question: How does the force of gravity determine the motion of planets and satellites?
Now that you have covered this section you should be better able to answer the inquiry question with your new
understanding of motion in gravitational fields.

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Summary
Write a summary of motion in gravitational fields, review your summary with others in the class, update as
necessary.
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Advanced mechanics - revision questions

1. A helicopter travels upwards from rest with an acceleration of 2.9 m s-2. When it reaches an altitude of
150 m above the ground, a wheel of mass 80 kg falls off.
(a) What is the speed of the wheel just before it hits the ground?
(b) Sketch graphs of v/t and a/t for the motion. Put numerical values on the axis.

2. A bullet is fired with a velocity of 325 m s-1 at 300 to the horizontal from the top of a cliff 85 m high.
(a) Calculate the maximum height reached above the bottom of the cliff.
(b) Calculate the time of flight.
(c) Calculate the range.
(d) Calculate the final velocity of the bullet

3. A bike pedal is 45 cm from the axle. How much torque does a 60 kg cyclist standing on the pedal exert
when
(a) it is horizontal?
(b) it is at its lowest point?

4. An Olympic hammer thrower swings a mass of 4.0 kg at the end of a light wire in a circular motion. In
the final complete swing, the hammer moves at a constant speed and takes 0.8 s to complete a circle of
radius 1.8 m.
(a) What is the angular velocity of the hammer during its final swing?
(b) The hammer moves at a constant speed however it still accelerates. Explain why this is the case.
(c) Calculate the acceleration of the hammer during its final swing.
(d) Calculate the kinetic energy of the hammer as it is released.

5. The space around Earth has many different types of satellites. With the help of a table outline two major
categories of satellites giving their radius of orbit, velocity, and usage.

6. The table below gives the orbital distances, orbital periods, and masses of four planets.

Planet Orbital distance Orbital period

(AU) (years)
Mercury 0.38 0.24
Venus 0.72 0.61
Earth 1.00 1.00
Mars 1.52 1.88

(a) Using this table and by plotting a graph verify Kepler’s law of periods.
(b) Use the gradient of your line of best fit to find the mass of the Sun

7. A satellite, in a circular orbit around the Earth, has an orbital period of 90 minutes.
(a) Calculate the height, above the Earth’s surface, of the satellite.
(b) Calculate the orbital velocity of the satellite.
(c) Discuss uses of satellites in this orbit.
(d) There are limits to the smallest and largest periods of a satellite in orbit around the Earth. Explain
why this is the case.

8. A spacecraft is in a circular orbit around a comet with a radius of 1.9 × 103 m and mass of 7·9 × 1012
kg. The spacecraft released a probe to land on the comet. The probe however bounced back vertically
when it hit the surface of the comet with a velocity of 0·34 m s-1.
(a) Calculate the escape velocity of the comet.
(b) Using your answer to part (a) explain what will happen to the probe.
(c) Calculate the gravitational field strength at the surface of the comet.

9. A 220 kg mass is released from rest at an altitude of 1.80 x 107 m above the Earth’s surface. What is
its speed when it reaches the ground? Assume no air resistance.

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10. Two students, Janice and Shelley, are discussing how to escape from the Earth’s gravitational field.
They make the following statements:
Janice: A spacecraft has to accelerate until it reaches the escape velocity of the Earth in order to
escape its gravitational field.
Shelley: The Moon has a velocity less than that of the escape velocity of the Earth and it has obviously
escaped.
Comment on the validity of these statements.

11. A satellite of mass 2100 kg orbits the Earth at a distance of 520 km above the surface.
(a) Calculate the gravitational potential energy of the satellite.
(b) Calculate the gravitational potential energy of the same satellite in a Geostationary orbit at a
distance of 35890 km above the surface of the Earth.
(c) What is the minimum energy needed to move a satellite from 520 km to an altitude of 35890 km.

12. A 1600 kg car travels with a maximum speed of 28 m s-1 in a circular path on a level road surface where
the coefficient of friction = 0.85 between the car tyres and the road. What is the radius of this circular
path?

13. A ball attached to a wire in swung in a horizontal path with uniform circular motion. The ball is swung
at a speed of 6.5 m s-1. The ball has a mass of 4.8 kg and rotates at a radius of 1.1 m. Calculate the
magnitude of the force that causes the centripetal acceleration of the ball.

14. A satellite in geostationary orbit has a mass of 2210 kg, and orbits the Earth at a radius of 4.21 ×107 m.
(a) Calculate the magnitude of the gravitational force that the Earth exerts on the satellite. The mass
of the Earth is 6.0 ×1024 kg.
(b) Calculate the speed of the satellite.
(c) Calculate the gravitational potential energy of the satellite.
(d) Calculate the total energy of the satellite in this orbit.

15. A student hits a ball giving it a velocity of 29 m s-1 at an angle of 280 with the horizontal. How far will
the ball travel before it is caught assuming it is caught at the same height that it is hit?

16. The table below provides some information on Mars.

mass radius of planet period of rotation

6.42 x 1023 kg 3400 km 8.86 x 104 s

(a) Find the acceleration due to gravity on Mars’s surface.

(b) What is the period of orbit of a Mars synchronous satellite of mass 1000 kg? This is similar to a
geostationary satellite in orbit around the Earth.
(c) Calculate the radius of orbit of this satellite.
(d) Calculate the gravitational potential energy of the satellite in this orbit.
(e) Calculate the total energy of the satellite in this orbit.

17. An astronaut is spun in a centrifuge with a radius of 3.4 m. What must their velocity be so that the
maximum acceleration is 7.5g? Note 7.5g means 7.5 x 9.8.

18. How close must two people each of mass 60 kg be so that the gravitational attraction between them is
1.0 x 10-6 N?

19. When a satellite of mass m orbits a planet of mass M with orbital radius, R and orbital period, T the
centripetal force to keep it in orbit is provided by the gravitational attraction. Using this information
work out the relationship for R3/T2.

20. The value of this ratio R3/T2, for Jupiter’s moons is about 1/1000 of its value for the Earth in orbit round
the Sun. What can you work out from this?

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