PSY 111 INTRODUCTION TO “the study of science of the mind”.

PSYCHOLOGY Early Greek philosophers who were

opposed to the earlier definition of
Nature and Definition of Modern
psychology held this definition.
Psychology
However, this definition did not last
Psychology is a relatively young because by calling itself a science, it
science. Nevertheless, it was Rudolf was not automatic whether
Goeckle (1590) who used the word psychology was a positive or
psychology for the first time. normative science. Finally, the
However, it was Wilhelm Wundt thinkers who used the term mind did
(1879) who established the first ever not agree on its nature.
psychology laboratory in Leipzig,
Psychology was later defined as “the
Germany that led to the separation
science of consciousness”. In the
of psychology from philosophy (see
view of James Sully, psychology has
school of structuralism in the next
to do with the inner world and has to
block)
employ introspection as its method.
The word psychology is derived Wilhelm Wundt (1879) was of the
from a combination of two Greek opinion that psychology being the
words “Psyche” and “logos”. study of consciousness deals with
Pysche means “soul” and logos internal experience which includes
means “knowledge”. Thus sensation, perception, thinking,
psychology literally came to be reasoning and problem solving
known as “the study of the soul”. behaviours.
The early thinkers (philosophers)
This definition was later on
ascribed the mental activities of
discarded on the ground that social
human being to a power that was not
thinkers who used the word
tangible and which was hidden from
consciousness did not agree on its
the outer senses. They called this
nature. Secondly, the definition did
intangible power the soul. The soul
not include unconsciousness and
was the main concern of both
subconsiousness levels of the mind.
philosophy and religion.
Later on, psychology was defined as
The definition above was found to
the science of human behaviour.
be inadequate for several reasons.
Watson, the founder of the school of
First, it was rejected because
behaviorism, defined psychology as
Aristotle and his associates could
“a science of behaviour”. William
not satisfactorily explain the relation
McDougal defined it as “a positive
of soul and to the body. Secondly, it
science of the conduct of living
“was rejected to dualism nature that
beings”. However, these definitions
involves the study of physical and
faced some criticisms. Firstly, by
spiritual matters. Later on the word
merely calling it a science, it is not
soul was replaced by the term mind.
clear whether psychology is a
So psychology came to be known as
positive or normative science. science psychologists main concern
Secondly, Watson took a very sense is to understand people’s behaviour
of behaviour. Behaviour as Watson through carefully controlled
saw it, was merely stimulus – observations. It is a positive science
response (S-R) connection. because it uses those methods,
which are strictly scientific, and
In the words of Woodworth,
which give us knowledge that can be
psychology is “the scientific study
verified everywhere. It is therefore
of human behaviour and all
based on generalizations drawn on
activities in relation to its
the basis of factual data analyzed
environment”. Psychology, in the
and compared. Therefore,
view of Woodworth, is a positive
psychology can be distinguished
science because it studies facts. The
front mental philosophy on the basis
psychological judgments are factual.
of its methods. It became a science
It is not concerned with values,
when the earlier psychologists began
thought or axiological judgment.
to perform experiments, make
It can be realized from the foregoing observations and seek evidence
explanations that the definition of more or less like in pure or natural
psychology has gone through sciences.
various changes during the short
The second term “behaviour” refers
period that it has existed. In the
to all overt actions that can be
1980s, 1990s and perhaps in the 21”
observed directly such as speaking,
Century, psychology has been
laughing, facial expressions, etc.
explicitly defined as “the scientific
study of behaviour and mental Lastly, but by no means the least,
processes”. The definitions that are “mental process” refer to
going to be given below are experiences and higher
therefore some of the definitions of mental/cognitive processes such as
modern psychology. sensation, perception, learning,
memory, intelligence, emotions,
Baron (1996) defined psychology as
imaginations, etc.
“the science of behaviour and
cognitive processes”. Rathus (1993) However, many psychologists
defined psychology as “a scientific particularly behaviorists (Pavloy,
study of behaviour and mental Skinner, Watson) would restrict the
processes”. Rod Plotnik (1996) periphery of psychology to overt
defined psychology as “the behaviour such as the pressing of a
systematic, scientific study of lever, eating, mating, turning right or
behavior and mental processes”. left, etc. Gestalt psychologists (Max
Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kholer and
There are three key terms common
Kurt Koffka) on the other hand,
in the above definitions” science,
would confine the scope of
behavior and mental processes.
psychology to the mental framework
Psychology is considered as a
of the world around us by will choose another abusive partner,
emphasizing understanding, and can therefore intervene to
problem solving behaviours, biases, change this negative behavior.
perception etc. Social psychologists
5. Improve – Not only do
such as Bandura and Walter would
psychologists attempt to control
confine the scope of psychology to
behavior, they want to do so in a
observable social learning activities.
positive manner, they want to
In all, the various schools of
improve a person’s life, not make it
psychology do not clearly agree
worse. This is not always the case,
upon the scope of psychology.
but it should always be the intention.
Major Schools of Thought in
Goals of Psychology Psychology
The study of psychology has five When psychology was first
basic goals: established as a science separate
from biology and philosophy, the
1. Describe – The first goal is to
debate over how to describe and
observe behavior and describe, often
explain the human mind and
in minute detail, what was observed
behavior began. The first school of
as objectively as possible
thought, structuralism, was
2. Explain – While descriptions advocated by the founder of the first
come from observable data, psychology lab, Wilhelm Wundt.
psychologists must go beyond what Almost immediately, other theories
is obvious and explain their began to emerge and vie for
observations. In other words, why dominance in psychology. The
did the subject do what he or she following are some of the major
did? schools of thought that have
influenced our knowledge and
3. Predict – Once we know what
understanding of psychology:
happens, and why it happens, we can
begin to speculate what will happen Structuralism vs. Functionalism:
in the future. There’s an old saying, Structuralism was the first school of
which very often holds true: "the psychology, and focused on breaking
best predictor of future behavior is down mental processes into the most
past behavior." basic components. Major
structuralist thinkers include
4. Control – Once we know what
Wilhelm Wundt and Edward
happens, why it happens and what is
Titchener. Functionalism was based
likely to happen in the future, we
on studying human psyche through
can excerpt control over it. In other
its mental functioning and was
words, if we know you choose
heavily influenced by the work of
abusive partners because your father
William James. Major functionalist
was abusive, we can assume you
thinkers included John Dewey and late 19th century in response to the
Harvey Carr. molecular approach of structuralism.
Rather that breaking down thoughts
Behaviorism: Behaviorism became
and behavior to their smallest
the dominant school of thought
element, the gestalt psychologists
during the 1950s. Based upon the
believed that you must look at the
work of thinkers such as John B.
whole of experience. According to
Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and B. F.
the gestalt thinkers, the whole is
Skinner, behaviorism holds that all
greater than the sum of its parts.
behavior can be explained by
environmental causes, rather than by Cognitive Psychology: Cognitive
internal forces. Behaviorism is psychology is the branch of
focused on observable behavior. psychology that studies mental
Theories of learning including processes including how people
classical conditioning and operant think, perceive, remember, and
conditioning were the focus of a learn. As part of the larger field of
great deal of research. cognitive science, this branch of
psychology is related to other
Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud
disciplines including neuroscience,
was the found of psychodynamic
philosophy, and linguistics. One of
approach. This school of thought
the most influential theories from
emphasizes the influence of the
this school of thought was the stages
unconscious mind on behavior.
of cognitive development theory
Freud believed that the human mind
proposed by Jean Piaget. You can
was composed of three elements: the
find more information in this
id, the ego, and the superego. Other
overview of cognitive psychology or
major psychodynamic thinkers
learn more about professional
include Anna Freud, Carl Jung, and
options in this field in this cognitive
Erik Erikson.
psychology career profile. Fields of
Humanistic Psychology: Psychology
Humanistic psychology developed
There is an astoundingly diverse
as a response to psychoanalysis and
range of issues with which
behaviorism. Humanistic
psychologists are concerned and
psychology instead focused on
settings in which American
individual free will, personal
psychologists work. Let's look at the
growth, and selfactualization. Major
various subfields of psychology,
humanist thinkers included Abraham
keeping in mind that within each
Maslow and Carl Rogers. Gestalt
subfield, psychologists can engage
Psychology: Gestalt psychology is
in many different activities. Most
based upon the idea that we
conduct research, teach, and/or
experience things as unified wholes.
apply psychological principles to the
This approach to psychology began
solution of the real life problems of
in Germany and Austria during the
individuals and society.
Psychologists in some major of graduate students in the delivery
subfields within psychology are of mental health services, to
described in the booklet, administering a community mental
"Psychology: Careers in the 21st health program. Some clinical
Century" (APA, 1997, free): psychologists obtain faculty
positions in a college or university
Biopsychologists: take a
where they perform research and
comparative and ontogenetic
train graduate students. Others serve
perspective in the experimental
as adjunct (or part-time) faculty,
analysis of basic psychological
while maintaining independent
processes as they relate to the many
clinical practices. Many serve as
ways in which animal species adapt,
consultants. Ph.D. or Psy.D. needed.
survive, reproduce and evolve.
Cognitive Psychologists: are
Child Psychologists: See Child
concerned with what organisms
Clinical Psychologists,
know and how they come to know it.
Developmental Psychologists,
They study how people perceive
School Psychologists, and Social
objects and events, how they can
Worker. Child Clinical
store past events in memory, how
Psychologists: have about the same
they transform and manipulate
preparation as clinical psychologists;
knowledge by thinking, and how
in addition, they have the
they analyze their experience to
responsibility of becoming
emerge with new and abstract
acquainted with the developmental
notions.
characteristics of preadolescent.
Community Psychologists: are
Clinical Psychologists: are
concerned with the application of
concerned with the diagnosis and
concepts, tools and skills from the
treatment of psychological
fields of counseling, guidance and
disturbances. After graduate
rehabilitation psychology.
preparation in an accredited
Community psychologists are
university or school of professional
trained to counsel, treat and/or refer
psychology, supervised postdoctoral
outpatients and to assist in the
experience, and licensure or
development of community
certification by the state, some
resources for their clients.
clinical psychologists enter
Counseling Psychologists: are
independent practice/consulting
concerned with counseling,
roles. Others find themselves
teaching, consulting research, and/or
responsible for a complete range of
administration. In their work, they
psychological services in public
are particularly concerned with the
settings. Their responsibilities range
role of education and work in an
from administering and scoring
individual's functioning, and with
psychological tests, to engaging in
the interaction between individuals
therapy, to supervising the training
and the environments in which they
live. Typically, counseling Psychologists: are concerned with
psychologists work with normal or designing and using environments
moderately maladjusted persons, and systems with which human
individually or in groups. This work beings live and work. Their job is to
includes use of traditional improve the interaction between
counseling interview methods, people and their environments. They
interest, ability and personality tests, may help design work areas,
and educational and occupational equipment, and human-machine
information. Most counseling systems, as well as the training
psychologists are employed in devices, aids, and requirements
educational settings and most of needed to prepare people to make
those in colleges or universities. A such systems function. They work in
minority are employed in hospitals, many different settings, such as the
(e.g., the VA), community mental aerospace industry, communications
health or rehabilitation centers, and transportation industries, the
industry, government, or in private military, and other governmental,
or community counseling agencies. commercial and industrial
enterprises.
Developmental Psychologists: are
concerned with growth and Experimental Psychologists: a
development from conception general title applied to a variety of
through death. All aspects of the psychologists who are trained in
animal or human organism designing and conducting research
(physiological, biological, physical, in specific basic areas like learning,
cognitive, emotional, social, sensation and perception, human
cultural) may be studied. performance, and motivation and
emotion. A research oriented
Educational Psychologists: are
doctoral degree (Ph.D.) is usually
concerned with a range of activities
needed. Health or Medical
from initial design through
Psychologists: are concerned with
development and evaluation of both
understanding how psychological
materials and procedures for
factors can affect physical health.
education and training. Such
Some representative issues: how
positions exist in public schools, in
certain attitudes and behaviors may
the military, in private research and
cause heart disease; how the state of
development companies, and in
physical health affects one's
industrial concerns. They may deal
psychological well-being; and how
with analyzing education and
living with cancer can affect one's
training needs, with developing
attitude and behavior. They also
materials for instruction in various
study the psychology of how people
media, with designing the best
can better cope with physical disease
conditions for instruction, and with
evaluating the effectiveness of Industrial / Organizational
instructional programs. Engineering Psychologists: are concerned with
the relation between individuals and promotion of employees. Although
work. They are employed in positions as test administrators and
business and industry, in interviewers are available for those
government, and in colleges and with B.A.'s and M.A.'s, a Ph.D. is a
universities, and may perform a general prerequisite for a position as
variety of jobs. An a psychologist. Psycholinguists: are
industrial/organizational concerned with discovering the
psychologist working in industry psychological significance of the
may study how work is organized; properties of language, of linguistic
suggest changes to improve the organization, the meaning of words,
satisfaction of employees, the syntax and how children acquire
quality of the organization's language.
services, and productivity; consult
Psychometric (Quantitative)
with management on the
Psychologists: are directly
development of effective training
concerned with the measurement of
programs for employees; design
behavior (mostly through the use of
programs for the early identification
tests) and the design of research
of management potential; administer
investigations. Such a psychologist
career counseling and preretirement
may be analyzing complex sets of
counseling programs; develop
data; designing, developing pilot
affirmative action programs;
testing, or validating versions of
recommend changes in job
intelligence, personality, or aptitude
definition; design a system of
tests; or deriving new statistics with
performance evaluation. A master's
which to analyze data. The
degree in industrial/organizational
psychometric psychologist is
psychology is a minimum
typically well-trained in
requirement for a position as a
mathematics, statistics, and in the
psychological associate but a
programming and use of computers.
position as a psychologist requires a
Ph.D. Psychotherapists: A very broad
term. Generally, anyone can call him
Personnel Psychologists:
or herself a "Psychotherapist", but
Compared to
ONLY a person with a Ph.D. in
industrial/organizational
Psychology and a license can use the
psychologists, personnel
term "Psychologist".
psychologists focus more
Psychotherapists can include anyone
specifically on the hiring,
without a Ph.D. who tries to help
assignment, and promotion of
people deal with their problems.
employees. Such a psychologist may
Counselors and Social Workers are
be involved in the continued
psychotherapists, but not
development and validation of
Psychologists.
assessment tools for selection,
placement, classification and
School Psychologists: are The following are some of
concerned with increasing the the specific importance of
effectiveness of schools in psychology: -
improving the intellectual, social i) It helps psychologists to
and emotional development of understand the nature of
children. They may also serve as human learning and the
consultants in education for the learning processes of clients
handicapped, mentally disturbed or in general.
mentally retarded; or in developing ii) It assists in developing
special programs in adult education. positive attitudes and values
They typically function in various in the practitioners about
roles within the school system. They psychosocial problems.
may assist in implementing and Hence, practitioners are
evaluating special education expected to gain knowledge in
programs, may serve as leaders of relation to what is to be
in-service training programs for learned by clients or the
teachers, or as consultants to extent to which social
teachers regarding specific teaching behaviour can be improved.
or classroom related problems. They iii) It assists practitioners in
may also help to treat children's treating their clients with
psychological and educational empathy and understanding as
problems that influence problems in well as to study the behaviour
school. They may also administer of clients objectively.
tests and interpret their results. An iv) It assists practitioners who are
M.A. and certification by the State impartial, considerate and
Board of Education are generally sympathetic to understand and
required, and a Ph.D. may be analyze the behaviour of
required for supervisory positions. clients.
v) It helps practitioners to realize
Social Psychologists: study the
that social relationships are of
ways in which the social context
utmost importance in the
affects the behavior of the individual
process of their work. When
and groups in the real world and the
they organize their activities
laboratory. Social psychologists
well, then they will be in a
focus on topics such as social roles,
position to promote the social
attitude formation and change,
sense in their clients. Such
affiliation, interpersonal attraction
workers assist client’s
and interaction, conformity, and
participation in group
group processes
activities.
vi) It helps practitioners get
Importance of Psychology information, skills and
techniques that they can use in
 analyzing their own and xii) Helps in understanding
other’s behaviours. the roots of social difficulties
vii) It furnishes encountered by many of
practitioners with the right today’s adolescents, for
methods of mentoring their instance problems that cause
clients at different levels. them to drop out of school.
viii) It assists practitioners to xiii) Last but no means least,
organize materials to be to provide sound methods of
delimited. Hence, workers are measuring and evaluating the
able to select and organize performance of clients
their subject matter in a objectively and to make an
proper manner due to insight assessment of the native
into client’s mental intelligence of clients.
framework. Focal Area of Psychology
ix) It furnishes practitioners with
There are three focal areas in
the understanding of the
education that concern psychologists
nature of their work.
as well as workers that we shall
Psychology provides an
explain in this section.
insight into problems which
workers face in their The Client
profession.
In any mentorship situation, the
x) It assists practitioners to have
client occupies the first place.
the knowledge of individual
Without clients, mentorship
differences among clients.
activities cannot take place.
This is important since no two
Successful mentorship to a larger
individuals are the same. The
extent depends on the personalities,
knowledge of individual
emotional state, developmental
differences will enable
stages, cognitive development, and
practitioners to plan and
psycho – social problems of clients.
adjust his/her strategies to suit
Thus, for mentorship to be effective
needs and interests of clients
a worker must have in depth
so that they realize their
knowledge about these qualities in
potentials. It also assists to
addition to the potentialities of the
adapt their mentorship
clients.
according to the learner’s
mental requirements by using The mentorship process
different mentorship methods.
The mentorship process is the means
xi) It helps in understanding how
by which people acquire changes in
children change as they grow
their behaviour, improve
up and the forces that
performance, reorganize their
contribute to this change or
thinking or reasoning, discover new
make children become
ways of solving problems, new
maladjusted.
concept formation, etc. All the situations, the mentorship process is
activities that one does in the impeded when the mentor is harsh, a
process of acquiring new client has unsympathetic colleagues,
information, ideas, skills, techniques the community is unsympathetic and
and habits can best be described as environment surrounding is
the mentorship process. The unconducive and the management
learning process can be directly does not care about the welfare of
observed as in when learners learn clients. Therefore, the psychologist
how to write, draw, solve arithmetic; is interested in finding out which
talk etc., or it can as well be environment positively facilitates
indirectly observed as in thinking, mentorship and which does not.
reasoning, remembering, problem
solving and perception. What
concerns psychologists is the way in Methods of Inquiry in Psychology
which this mentorship process takes
This refers to the different methods
place. They are eager to find out
of gathering information related to
and know what happens when
the process of psychology. Its main
clients learn and why they learn.
objective is to develop skills and
competencies in order to understand,
control and predict the behavior of
clients at different levels of
The learning and mentorship mentorship.
situation
Methods
This refers to the learning
1. Experimental research
environment in which mentorship
takes place and in which clients find In the method the process of data
themselves. All the situational collection begins after a research
factors and personal factors that problem has been defined and
surround mentorship activities form research plan mapped out. In
a learning situation. These may experimental research, performance
include the counselling setting, the of the control group (Dependent
emotional climate of the classroom, Variable; DV) and the experimental
school and the attitude the group (Independent Variable; IV)
community has towards the school are compared. The aim of this
activities. In some situations, differential treatment is to discover
mentorship is facilitated when if the (IV) has an effect on the
mentors have a sympathetic attitude, behaviour in question (DV). In
when counselling rooms are well experimental research, there are two
ventilated, sitting arrangement is types of experiments; laboratory
conducive, and client and mentor and field experiments.
have affection towards each other.
On the other hand, in some
a) Laboratory experiment is minimized. The method is
one where the researcher important for problems which
arranges to carry out need first hand study.
measurements on the subjects
in a specially isolated room or Advantages of experimental
with apparatus that affords methods
control over disturbances like a) Is not biased since the
noise/other interviewing findings rely on experiments
variables that may interfere b) Is objective since
with the behavior under study. apparatus/machines are used.
In laboratory experiment, the c) The results can easily be
behaviour of the subject is replicated /verified.
observed outside its natural d) Less time consuming
setting. Laboratory method is e) In field experiment there is no
also known as microscope interference with the natural
method. For example, in behavior of the subject
operant conditioning, Skinner f) First-hand information is
confined the rats/pigeons in a obtained.
box (Skinner box). The rats
could be observed receiving Disadvantages of experimental
reinforcement after stepping methods
on a mechanical lever. When a) Material and instruments
dealing with human beings as involved are expensive.
subjects, the laboratory b) Require trained personnel
observation takes many forms with skills to handle the
e.g. in studies on sensation instruments.
and perception human beings c) Laboratory setting may affect
are confined in a dark or quiet the behavioral patterns of the
room to study how the subject locked up in the
environment affects them. laboratory.
d) Difficult to change mental
b) In field study method a inclinations and attitude of the
researcher goes to the field to individual subjected to the
investigate the problem, to laboratory experiments.
contact people and visit the e) Difficult to carry out deeper
spot so that he has first-hand analysis.
knowledge of the problem f) Difficult to work in
which he is to subject from its unhygienic conditions such as
natural habitat does not occur. during heavy rainfalls in
The data is collected through deserts, jungles or during war.
observation so that the g) Some respondents may be un
interference with the natural cooperate
behavior of the subject is
 2. Survey Disadvantages of survey method
In this method the researcher is a) With the use of sample to
expected to go to the field to represent the entire
conduct a survey about anything. It population, it is practicable to
is opposed to experimental method go deeper into the facts
in the sense that, in this method revealed in the survey.
there is no need to have controlled b) Is expensive in terms of
situations. It is aimed at finding out resources and time.
relative incidence of certain c) Special experience/skills are
variables in the entire population. In required to be conversant with
survey research, small percentage of study design, sampling
population called sample are studies techniques and construction of
extensively with a view to making the questionnaire.
predictions as to how the entire d) The subjects are lifted from
population is likely to behave. social context to respond to
Sampling procedures are therefore the researcher’s questions in a
of great value in determining the manner that may not be
outcome of a survey research. The comparable with actual
method is used to study social behavior, feelings and
conditions, relationships and attitudes in real life situations.
behaviour of people.
3. Introspection
It uses interview and self-
administered questionnaires as a Introspection means self-
method of data collection. It is used observation. It involves looking
for descriptive explanatory and within one self to experience one’s
analytical. own mental state. It was developed
by structuralists who defined
Advantages of survey method
psychology as the study of
a) A large amount of data and conscious experiences of the
information can be collected individual. Structural psychologist’s
easily. included Wilhelm Wundt and
b) When conducted properly, Edward Telchner. They referred to
surveys can provide accurate psychology as a task that attempts to
results in relation to human understand the structures of the
behaviours such as values, mind and not its functions. They see
attitudes and beliefs of a large behaviour as a whole. To them,
population. introspection is a process of
c) It also helps in organizing examining one’s own mental process
social data and also to of thought, feelings and motives. Is
preserve the unitary character the opposite of retrospection
of the subject which is being (replying back). Here the individual
studied.
introspects, observes, analyses and d) Influence of pre- conceptions
reports his/her own feelings. is always present i.e. the
introspected can deliberately
lie and hide facts to mislead
Advantages of introspection the experimenter.
e) It cannot be applied to
a) Allows the individual to look
children, animals and
into his/her own mind and
abnormal people since it
report what he/she discovers
requires highly skilled and
i.e. it is always first foremost
trained workers to introspect.
and always.
f) Introspection cannot
b) It is the easiest and the most
introspect the introspective
readily available method to
activity i.e. it cannot be the
the individual i.e. involves no
subject, action and object at
use of any apparatus and at no
the same time.
cost.
c) Deals directly with the nature REVISION QUESTIONS
of experience itself and the
laws of mental process i.e. the 1) Define the term Psychology
theoretical part of the laws 2) Describe the five basic goals
and conditions of mental of Psychology
process. 3) Distinguish between
d) Has generated research structuralism and
resulting into the development Functionalism
of more objective research 4) Explain any five schools of
methods i.e. heuristic value. Psychology
5) Describe any five fields of
Disadvantages of introspection Psychology
6) Assess the place of
a) It is difficult to introspect
Psychology in Education
continually due to changing
7) Explain the three focal areas
psychological experiences i.e.
of Psychology
introspection changes to
8) Discuss the relevance of
retrospection.
Psychology to a teacher.
b) It is not possible to expect an
9) Describe the four methods of
individual to attend to the
inquiry in Psychology
workings of his own mind
10) Critically analyze
during a mental process e.g. in
introspection as a method of
an emotional state such as
inquiry in Psychology.
anger or fear.
c) Data collected by
introspection is highly
subjective.