1.

Describe the structure and function of epithelial tissue types and give examples of sites where
each may be found, focused on stratified squamous, transitional, ciliated pseudostratified, and
columnar epitheliums.
a. stratified squamous epithelium: This epithelium is strong against frictions because it is
stratified. It can protect tissues and organs under it. It is in skin, oral cavity, oropharynx,
esophagus, anal canal, vagina, urethra.
b. transitional epithelium: The cells of this epithelium are all connected to basement
membrane, so it is classified as simple epithelium. It can stretch, so it can store fluid like
urine. It can protect the urinary system against the toxic effect of urine. It is located in renal
calix, renal pelvis, ureter, and urinary bladder.
c. pseudostratified columnar epithelium: All these epithelial cells are connected to basement
membrane, so it is classified as simple epithelium. This epithelium is called
“pseudostratified” because the place of each nucleus is different. It has many cilia and goblet
cells, which secrete mucus. It is in airway, such as nasal cavity, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea
and bronchus.
d. simple columnar epithelium: The cells of this epithelium are long and connected to
basement membrane. Some cells of this epithelium have abilities like absorption or
secretion. So, it is in stomach, small intestine, gallbladder, uterus, uterine, and duct of
secretory gland.
2. Explain the structure, function and molecular background of four types of junctions found in
epithelial cell-cell interaction.
a. tight junction: It is cell-cell adhesion which exists on the lumen’s side. It prevents protein and
fat from going out of cells and regulates diffusion in cellular interval. It consists of Claudin
and Occluding.
b. adherent junction: It is cell-cell adhesion which exists under tight junction. It connects cells
strongly. It consists of actin, catenin, and cadherin.
c. desmosome: It is cell-cell adhesion. It connects cells strongly. It consists of intermediate
filaments and cadherin.
d. gap junction: It is cell-cell adhesion. It becomes a pathway through which some molecules
come and go between cells. It consists of Connexin.
3. Explain the mechanism of osteogenesis using two types of bone cells, osteoblast, and
osteoclasts.
➢ Osteoblast makes bone matrix and osteoclast destroys bone matrix at the same time. If the
velocity of making bone is faster, bones grow. If the velocity of destroying bone is faster, the
density of bones is reduced. (Osteoporosis）
4. Describe the morphology of cartilage. Which organ and/or tissue each type of cartilage is found
in?
a. hyaline cartilage: It contains a lot of proteoglycans. It is located in upper respiratory tract
(trachea, bronchus), articular end, epiphyseal plate of long bone and fetal skeleton.
b. elastic cartilage: It contains a lot of elastic fibers such as elastin. It exists in auditory system,
epiglottis, and cartilage of pharynx.
c. fibro cartilage: It contains a lot of collagen and chondroitin. It exists in intervertebral disc,
pubic, symphysis and tendon.
5. Make drawings of longitudinal and transverse sections of 3 types of muscles.

a. The nucleus of skeletal muscle is located on the surface of the cell.

b. The nucleus of cardiac muscle is in the center of the cell.
c. Skeletal muscle is striated.
d. Cardiac muscle is not striated.
e. Intercalated disc exists parallel with muscle striation.
6. Explain the mechanisms of skeletal muscle contraction and forming muscle striation.
a. Muscle contraction : Ach is released → binds to receptor in muscle cell → Produces
action potential → when action potential reaches T-tubules → activation of
sarcoplasmic reticulum (L-system)→ sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca into
sarcoplasm → Ca ions bind to troponin C of Actin Thin filament → tropomyosin
slips away from active sites of actin → cross-bridge can be formed between Actin
filament and myosin filament → with ATP, thick myosin filament power strokes the
actin filament which causes muscle contraction.
b. Muscle striations:
• The I band consists of mostly actin filaments which gives it a lighter color.
• The A band consists of mostly thick myosin filaments which gives it a darker
color.
• The I and A band alternate each other in arrangement causing the light and
dark striation pattern.

7. Explain Reflex arc, strictly using the histological terms, the axon and dendrite of motor neurons
in the anterior horn of spinal cord, and the axon and dendrite of sensory neurons in the DRG
(dorsal root ganglia).
➢ Receptor receives stimulus → Action potential (signal) passes through the dendrite of the
sensory neuron → reaches the soma of sensory neuron in dorsal root ganglia → signal passes
through the axon of sensory neuron then synapses with a relay neuron → relay neuron synapses
with the dendrite of the motor neuron in the anterior horn of the spinal cord → Axon of motor
neuron gets excited → signal travels to the motor end plate → activation of effector.
8. Describe the pathway of “The Knee Jerk Reflex.”
a. Patella tendon of knee gets hit by hammer → Patella tendon slightly stretches → it
also stretches the extrafusal muscles and muscle spindle attached to it → muscle
spindle proprioceptors receive stretch stimulus → Action potential is sent through
sensory neuron from muscle spindle → signal enters the DRG → passes through the
gray matter of the spinal cord →
b. synapses within the ventral horn with extensor motor neuron(α-neuron) →
Quadriceps contract.
c. It also synapses within the ventral horn with inhibitory interneuron → then synapses
with flexor motor neuron → inhibition of hamstring → hamstring relaxes.
9. Explain the functions of neurons, astrocyte, oligodendrocyte, microglia, and Ependymal cell.
a. Neurons: a cell that receives, processes, and transmits information through electrical and
chemical signals.
b. Oligodendrocytes: found in the central nervous system, myelinating cells that
function as an insulating system. It covers the axon with a material (myelin sheath)
that prevents the passage, transfer and leakage of electricity.
c. Astrocytes: cells critical for nutrient provision to the nervous tissue, maintenance of ion
homeostasis in the brain and spinal cord. Bring excessive neurotransmitter and ions in
synapse and send them back to blood vessel.
d. Microglia: small macrophage-like glial cell in CNS. Engages in phagocytosis and
involved in immune responses. Involved in development and remodeling of the
nervous system.
e. Ependymal: located in ventricle of CNS → involves in the production of Cerebral spinal fluid.