hapter

FORCE AND LAWS OF MoTION

In the previous chapter, we described the In our everyday life we observe that some
motion of an object along a straight line in effort is required to put a object
terms of its position, velocity and acceleration.
stationary
into motion or to stop a moving object. We
We saw that such a motion can be uniform ordinarily experience this as a muscular effort
or non-uniform. We have not yet discovered and say that we must push or hit or pull on
what causes the motion. Why does the speed an object to change its state of motion. The
of an object change with time? Do all motions of force is based on this push, hit or
require a cause? If so, what is the nature of
concept
pull. Let us now ponder about a 'force'. What
this cause? In this chapter we shall make an is it? In fact, no one has seen, tasted or felt a
to quench all such curiosities. Torce. However, we always see or feel the effect
attempt
For many centuries, the problem of of a force. It can only be explained by
motion and its causes had puzzled scientists describing what happens when a force is
and philosophers. A ball on the ground, when applied to an object. Pushing. hitting and
given a small hit, does not move forever. Such pulling of objects are all ways of bringing
observations suggest that rest is the "natural objects motion (Fig. 8.1). They move because
in
state" of an object. This remained the belief we make a force act on them.
until Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton From your studies in earlier classes, you
developed an entirely different approach to are also familiar with the fact that a force can
understand motion. be used to change the magnitude of velocity
of an
object (that is, to make the object move
faster or slower) or to change its direction of
motion. We also know that a force can change
the shape and size of objects (Fig. 8.2).

(a) The trolley moves along the b) The drawer s pulled

direction we push it. O00000000
la)

c) The hockey stick hits the ball forward Fig. 8.2: (a) A spring expands on application of force
FIg. 8.1: Pushing. pulling, or hitting objects change (b) A spherical rubber ball becomes oblong
their state as we apply force on it.
of motion.
8.1 Balanced and Unbalanced box with a small force, the box does not move
because of friction acting in a direction
Forces opposite to the push [Fig. 8.4(a)1. This friction
Iorce arises between two surfaces in contact;
Fig. 8.3 shows a wooden block on a horizontal
in this case, between the bottom of the box
table. Two strings X and Y are tied to the two
and floor's rough surface. It balances the
opposite faces of the block as shown. If we
apply a lorce by pulling the string X, the block Pusning lorce andtherefore the box does not
move. In Fig. 8.4(b), the children push the box
to move to the right. Similarly. if we
begins
pull the string Y, the block moves to the left.
harder but the box still does not move. This is
But, if the block is pulled from both the sides because the friction force still balances the
pushing force. If the children push the box
with equal forces, the block will not move.
Such forces are called balanced forces and harder still, the pushing force becomes bigger
do not change the state of rest or of motion of than the friction force [Fig. 8.4(c)].
an object. Now, let us consider a situation in There is an unbalanced force. So the box
which two opposite forces of different Starts moving.
What happens when we ride a bicycle?
magnitudes pull the block. In this case, the
would to move in the direction of When we stop pedalling. the bicycle begins
block begin
the greater force. Thus, the two forces are to slow down. This is again because of the
not balanced and the unbalanced force acts Iriction forces acting opposite to the direction
in the direction the block moves. This of motion. In order to keep the bicycle moving.
suggests that an unbalanced force acting on we have to start pedalling again. It thus
an object brings it in motion. appears that an object maintains its motion
under the continuous application of an
unbalanced force, However, it is quite
incorrect. An object moves with a uniform
velocity when the forces (pushing force and
frictional force)acting on the object
are
balanced and there is no net external force
on it. If an unbalanced force is applied on
the object, there will be a change either in its
speed or in the direction of its motion. Thus,
to accelerate the motion of an object, an
FIg. 8.3: Two forces acting on a wooden block unbalanced force is required. And the change
in its speed (or in the direction of motion)
What happens when some children try to would continue as long as this unbalanced
push a box on a rough loor? If they push the force is applied. However, if this force is

(a) (b)

FIg. 8.4

s8 ScENCE
removed completely, the object would continue
to move with the velocity it has acquired till
then.

8.2 First Law of Motion

By observing the motion of objects on an (a) (b)
inclined plane Galileo deduced that objects
move with a constant speed when no
acts on them. He observed that when a marble
force
rolls down an inclined plane, its velocity
increases [Fig. 8.5{a)]. In the next chapter,. you
will learn that the marble falls under the
unbalanced force of gravity as it rolls down
and attains a definite velocity by the time it
reaches the bottom. Its velocity decreases
when it climbs up as shown in Fig. 8.5[b). (c)
Fig. 8.5(c) shows a marble resting on an ideal
frictionless plane inclined on both sides. Fig. 8.5: (a) the downward motion: (b) the upward
motion ofa marble on an incined plane
Galileo argued that when the marble is
and (c) on a double inclined plane.
released from left, it would roll down the slope
and go up on the opposite side to the same
Newton further studied Galileo's ideas on
height from which it was released. If the
inclinations of the planes on both sides are
force and motion and presented three
fundamental laws that govern the motion of
equal then the marble will climb the same known
hese three laws are as

distance that it covered while rolling down. If oDects

Newton's laws of motion. The first law of
the angle of inclination of the right-side plane motion is stated as:
were gradually decreased, then the marble An object remains in a state of rest or of
would travel further distances till it reaches uniform motion in a straight line unless
theoriginal height.Iftheright-side planewere compelled to change that state by an
ultimately made horizontal (that is, the slope applied force.
is reduced to zero), the marble would continue In other words, all objects resist a change
to travel forever trying to reach the same in their state of motion. In a qualitative way,
height that it was released from. The the tendency of undisturbed objects to stay
unbalanced forces on the marble in this case at rest or to keep moving with the same
are zero. It thus suggests that an unbalanced velocity is called inertia. This is why, the first
(external) force is required to change the law of motion is also known as the law
motion of the marble but no net force is of inertia.
needed to sustain the uniform motion of the Certain experiences that we come across
marble. In practical situations it is difficult while travelling in a motorcar can be
to achieve a zero unbalanced force. This is explained on the basis of the law of inertia.
because of the presence of the frictional force We tend to remain at rest with respect to the
acting opposite to the direction of motion. seat until the driver applies a braking force
Thus, in practice the marble stops after to stop the motorcar. With the application of
travelling some distance. The effect of the brakes, the car slows down but our body
frictional force may be minimised by using a tends to continue in the same state of motion
smooth marble and a smooth plane and because of its inertia. A sudden application of
providing a lubricant on top of the planes. brakes may thus cause injury to us by impact

FoRCE AND LAws OF MoTON 89

 or collision with the panels in front. Safety belts
Galileo Galilei was born
are worn to prevent such accidents. Safety belts
on 15 February 1564 in
exert a force on our body to make the forward
Pisa, Italy. Galileo, right
his childhood. had motion slower. An opposite experience is
from we are standing in a bus
interest in mathematics encountered when
and the bus begins to move suddenly. Now
and natural philosophy.
But his father we tend to fall backwards. This is because the
Vincenzo Galilei wanted
to become a medical
sudden start of the brings motion to the
bus
him bus as well as to our feet in contact with the
doctor. Accordingly
Galileo enrolled himself
Galileo Galilet loor of the bus. But the rest of our body
(1564-1642) opposes this motion because of its inertia.
for a medical degree at the When a motorcar makes a sharp turn at a
University of Pisa in 1581 which he never high speed, we thrown to one side.
tend get
to
because of his real interest in
completed In 1586, he wrote his first
This can again be explained on the basis of
mathematics.
scientific book The Little Balance La
the law of inertia. We tend to continue in our
straight-line motion. When an unbalanced
Balancittal'. in which he described by the engine to change the
Archimedes' method of finding the relative force is applied
of
densities (or specific gravities)
of substances direction motion of the motorcar, we slip to
one side of the seat due to the inertia of
using a
balance. In 1589, in his series of
essays De Motu. he presented his theories our body.
about falling objects using an inclined plane The fact that a body will remain at rest
to slow down the rate of descent. unless acted upon by an unbalanced force
In 1592, he was appointed professor of be illustrated
can through the
mathematics at the University of Padua in following activities:
theRepublic of Venice. Here he continued his
observations on the theory of motion and
through his study of inclined planes and the
Activity 8.1
pendulum, formulated the correct law for Make a pile of similar carom coins on
that the a table, as shown in Fig. 8.6.
uniformly accelerated objects
is proportional to Attempt a sharp horizontal hit at the
distance
the
the object moves bottom of the pile using another carom
square ofthe time taken. coin or the striker. If the hit is strong
Galileo was also a remarkable craftsman.
He developed a series of telescopes whose enough, the bottom coin moves out
quickly. Once the lowest coin is
optical performance was much better than removed, the inertia of the other coins
that of other telescopes available during those
makes them "fall' vertically on the
days. Around 1640. he designed the first
table.
pendulum clock. In his book 'Starry
Messenger' on his astronomical discoveries.
Galileo elaimed to have seen mountains on
the moon, the milky way made up of tiny
stars, and four small bodies orbiting Jupiter.
In his books Discourse on Floating Bodies
and Letters on the Sunspots, he disclosed
his observations of
sunspots.
Using his own telescopes and through his
observations on Saturn and Venus, Galileo
argued that all the planets must orbit the Sun
Fig. 8.6: Only the carom coin at the bottom of a
and not the earth, contrary to what was
pile is removed whena fast movng carom
believed at that time..
coin (or strker) hits it.

90 ScENCE

2.24
 8.2 five-rupees coin if we use a one-rupee coin, we
Activity find that a lesser force is required to perform
Set a five-rupee coin on a stiff card the activity. A force that is just enough to cause
covering an empty glass tumbler a small cart to pick up a large velocity will
standing on a table as shown in produce a negligible change in the motion offa
Fig. 8.7.
This is to the
Give the card a sharp horizontal flick train. because, in comparison
cart the train has a much lesser tendency to
with a finger. If we do it fast then the
card shoots away, allowing the coin to change its state of motion. Accordingly, we say
fall vertically into the glass tumbler due that the train has more inertia than the cart.
to its inertia. Clearly, heavier or more massive objects offer
The inertia of the coin tries to larger inertia. Quantitatively, the inertia of an
maintain its state of rest even when object is measured by its mass. We may thus
the card nows off. relate inertia and mass as follows:
Inertia is the natural tendency of an object to
resist a change
in its state of motion or of
rest. The mass of an object is a measure of
its inertia.

estions
Fig. 8.7: When the card is flicked with the
finger the coin placed over it falls in the
1. Which of the following has more
umbler.
inertia: (a) a rubber ball and a
stone of the same size? [b) a
bicyele and a train? (c) a five
Activity 8.3
rupees con and a one-rupee coin?
Place a water-filled tumbler on a tray. 2. In the lollowing example, try to
Hold the tray and turn around as fast
as you can.
identify the numberoftimes the
velocity of the ball changes:
We observe that the water spills. Why? A football player kicks a footbal
e to another player ofhis team who
Observe that a groove is provided in aa kicks the football towards the
saucer for placing the tea cup. It prevents goal. The goalkeeper of the
the cup from toppling over in case of opposite team collects the football
sudden jerks. and kicks it towards a player of
his own team"
8.3 Inertia and Mass Also identify the agent supplying
the lorce in each case
All the examples and activities given so far 3. Explain why some of the leaves
illustrate that there is a resistance offered by may get detached from a tree if
an object to change its state of motion. If it is we vigorously shake its branch.
at it to remain if it is
rest tends at rest;
it tends to keep moving. This property of an
moving 4 Why do you fall in the forward
direction when a moving bus
object is called its inertia. Do all bodies have brakes to a stop and lall
the same inertia? We know that it is easier to backwards when it accelerates
push an empty box than a box full of books. from rest?
Similarly., if we kick a football it flies away.
But if we kick a stone of the same size with
equal force, it hardly moves. We may, in fact,
8.4 Second Law of Motion
get an injury in our foot while doing so! The first law of motion indicates that when an
Similarly. in activity 8.2, instead of a unbalanced external force acts on an object,

FORCE AND LAws OF MonoN 91

its velocity changes, that is, the object gets an on the time rate at which the momentum is
acceleration. We would now like to study how changed.
the acceleration of an object depends on the The second law of motion states that the
force applied to it and how we measure a force. rate of change of momentum of an object is
Let us recount some observations from our proportional the
to applied unbalanced force
everyday life. During the game of table tennis in the direction of force.
if the ball hits a player it does not hurt him.
On the other hand, when a fast moving cricket 8.4.1 MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION OF
ball hits a spectator, it may hurt him. A truck
SECOND LAW OF MOTION
at not
rest does require any attention when
parked along a roadside. But a moving truck, Suppose an object of mass, m is moving along
even at speeds as low as 5 ms', may kill a a straight line with an initial velocity, u. It is
person standing in its path. A small mass, uniformly accelerated to velocity, vin time, t
such as a bullet may kill a person when fired by the application of a constant force, F
from a gun. These observations suggest that throughout the time, t. The initial and final
the impact produced by the objects depends momentum of the object will be. P, = mu and
on their mass and velocity. Similarly, if an P= mvrespectively.
object is to be accelerated, we know that a The change in momentum
greater force is required to give a greater P-P
mv-mu
velocity. In other words, there appears to exist cmx (v- u).
some quantity of importance that combines
the object's mass and its velocity. One such (U-u)
The rate of change of momentum o
property called momentum was introduced by
Newton. The momentum, p of an object is
Or, the applied force.
defined as the product of its mass, m and
velocity, v. That is, F mx(U-u)
P = mv (8.1)
Momentum has both direction and P= km x(U-u)
magnitude. Its direction is the same as that
e p
(8.2)
of velocity. v. The SI unit of momentum is kma (8.3)
kilogram-metre per second (kg m s). Since
Here a [ = (V- u)/t] is the acceleration,.
the application of an unbalanced force brings
a change in the velocity of the object, it is which is the rate of change of velocity. The
therefore clear that a force also produces a quantity, k is a constant of proportionality.
change of momentum. The SI units of mass and acceleration are kg
Let us consider a situation in which a car and m s respectively. The unit of force is so
with a dead battery is to be pushed along a chosen that the vallue of the constant, k
straight road to give it a speed of I ms', which becomes one. For this, one unit of force is
is sufficient to start its engine. If one or two defined as the amount that produces an
persons give a sudden push (unbalanced force) acceleration of 1 m s in an object of 1 kg
to it, it hardly starts. But a continuous push mass. That is,
over some time resuts in a gradual acceleration I unit offorce = kx (1 kgx (1 m s).
of the car to this speed. It means that the change
of momentum of the car is not only determined Thus, the value of k becomes 1. From Eq. (8.3)
by the magnitude of the force but also by the ma (8.4)
time during which the force is exerted. It may
then be concluded that the force necessary The unit of force is kg m s* or newton,
to change the momentum of an object depends which has the symbol N. The second law of

92 SCIENCE
motion gives us a method to measure the force The first law of motion can be
acting on an object as a product of its mass mathematically stated from the mathematical
and acceleration. expression for the second law of motion. Eq.
The second law of motion is often seen in (8.4) is
action in our everyday life. Have you noticed
that while catching a fast moving cricket ball, F=lma
the his
a fielder in ground gradually pulls
hands backwards with the moving bal1? In Or F =
m(U-u)
(8.5)
doing so, the fielder increases the time during
or Ft =mv-mu
which the high velocity of the moving ball
decreases to zero. Thus, the acceleration of That is, when F=0, v= u for whatever time, t
the ball is decreased and therefore the impact is taken. This means that the object wil
of catching the fast moving ball (Fig. 8.8) is continue moving with uniform velocity. u
also reduced. If the ball is stopped suddenly throughout the time, t. If u is zero then vwill
then its high velocity decreases to zero in a also be zero. That is, the object will remain
very short interval of time. Thus, the rate of
at rest.
change of momentum of the ball will be large.
Therefore, a large force would have to be
applied for holding the catch that may hurt Example 8.1 A constant force acts on an
the palm of the fielder. In a high jump athletic object of mass 5 kg for a duration of
event, the athletes are made to fall either on 2s. It increases the object's velocity
a cushioned bed or on a sand bed. This is to from 3 ms' to 7 m s', Find the
increase the time of the athlete's fall to stop magnitude of the applied force. Now, if
after making the jump. This decreases the rate the foree was applied for a duration of
of change of momentum and hence the force. 5 s, what would be the final velocity of
Try to ponder how a karate player breaks a the objeet?
slab of ice with a single blow.
Solution:
We have been given that u = 3 m s
and v 7 ms', t= 2 s and m = 5 kg.
From Eq. (8.5) we have,

m(U-u)
F=
t
Substitution of values in this relation
gives
F 5 kg (7 m s'-3 ms')/2 s = 10 N.
Now, if this force is applied for a
duration of 5 s (t = 5 s). then the final
velocity can be calculated by rewriting
Eq. (8.5) as

V = u+ Ft
m

On substituting the values of u, F, mand

t, we get the final velocity.
Fig. 8.8: A fielder pulls his hands gradually with the
moving ball while holding a catch.
V=13ms.

FORCE AND LAWS OF MonON 93

 Solution:
Example 8.2 Which would require a
greater force-accelerating a 2 kg mass From Eq. (8.4) we have m, = F/a,; and
at 5 ms or a 4 kg mass at 2 ms*? m, =
F/a, Here, a, = 10 m s;
a,= 20 ms and F= 5 N.
Solution:
Thus, m, = 5 N/10 ms*= 0.50 kg; and
From Eq. (8.4). we have F= ma. m, = 5 N/20 m s* =0.25 kg.
Here we have m, =2 kg: a, = 5 ms If the two masses were tied together,
and m,=4 kg: a, = 2 ms2, the total mass, m would be
Thus, F,= ma, =2 kg x 5 ms*= 10 N: m =0.50 kg+ 0.25 kg = 0.75 kg.
and F, = ma, = 4 kg x 2 ms2 = 8 N. The acceleration, a produced in the
F> F combined mass by the 5 N force would
Thus, accelerating a 2 kg mass at be, a =
F/m =5 N/0.75 kg 6.67 ms =

5 ms would require a greater force.

Example 8.5 The velocity-time graph of a
Example 8.3 A motorcar is moving witha ball of mass 20 g moving along a
velocity of 108 km/h and it takes 4 s to straight line on a long table is given in
stop after the brakes are applied. Fig. 8.9.
Calculate the force exerted by the
brakes on the motorcar ifits mass along 25 ish
with the passengers is 1000 kg.

Solution:
The initial velocity of the motorcar
u= 108 km/h
= 108 x 1000 m/(60 x 60 s)
30 m s'
time (s)
and the final velocity of the motorcar
V= 0 m s r e

The total mass of the motorcar alongg Fig. 8.9

with its passengers =1000 kg and the
time How much force does the table exert on
taken to stop the motorcar,
From Eq. (8.5) we have the magnitude
t= 4
s. the ball to bring it to rest?
of the force (F) applied by the brakes as
m{v-u)/t Solution:
On substituting the values, we get
F 1000 kg x (0-30) m s'/4s
The initial velocity of the ball is 20 cm s'
Due to the frictional force exerted by the
= - 7500 kg m s2 or -7500 N. table, the velocity of the ball decreasess
The negative sign tells us that the force down to zero in 10 s. Thus, u= 20 cm s ;
exerted by the brakes is opposite to the V = 0 cm s ' and t = 10 s. Since the
direction of motion of the motorcar. velocity-time graph is a straight line, it is
clear that the ball moves with a constant
acceleration. The acceleration a is
Example 8.4 A force of 5 N gives a mass
s* and a a -u
m, an acceleration of 10 m
mass m. an acceleration of 20 m s2. t

What acceleration would it give if both = (0 cm s ' - 20 cm s ) / 1 0 s

the masses were tied together? =-2 cm s* = -0.02 m s ,

94 SCIENCE
 The force exerted on the ball Fis. B

F= ma= (20/1000) kg x (-0.02 ms9

-0.0004 N.
The negative sign implies that the
frictional force exerted by the table is
FIg. 8.10: Action and reaction forces are equal and
opposite to the direction of motion of
oPposite.
the ball.
Suppose you are standing at rest and
intend to start walking on a road. You must
8.5 Third Law of Motion accelerate, and this requires a force in
accordance with the second law of motion.
The first two laws of motion tell us how an
Which is this force? Is it the muscular effort
applied force changes the motion and provide
you exert on the road? Is it in the direction
us with a method of determining the force.
we intend to move? No, you push the road
The third law of motion states that when one
object exerts a force on another object, the below backwards. The road exerts an equal
second object instantaneously exerts a forceand opposite lorce on your feet to make you

back on the first. These two forces are always move lorward.
It is important to note that even though
equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
the action and reaction foreces are always
These forces act on different objects and never
on the same object. In the game of football cqual in
magnitude, these forces may not
sometimes we, while looking at the football produce accelerations of equal magnitudes.
This is because each force acts on a different
and trying to kick it with a greater force,
object that may have a different mass.
collide with a player of the opposite team.
When a gun is fired, it exerts a forward
Both feel hurt because each applies a forece
force on the bullet. The bullet exerts an equal
to the other. In other words, there is a pair of
and oppositeforce on the gun. This results in
forces and not just one force: The two
opposing forces are also known as action and he recoll ol the gun (Fig. 8.11). Since the gun
reaction forces.
has a much greater mass than the bullet, the
less than the
Let us
spring balances
consider two acceleration ol the gun is much
acceleration of the bullet. The third law of
connected together as shown in Fig. 8.10. The
motion can also be illustrated when a sailor
fixed end of balance B is attached with a rigid
Support, like a wall. When a force is applied Jumps out a ol
rowing boat. As the sailor
through the free end of spring balance A. it is umps lorward, the force on the boat moves it
Dackwards (Fig. 8.12).
observed that both the spring balances show
the same readings on their scales. It means Accelerating force
that the force exerted by spring balance A on on the bullet
B is equal but in direction
balance opposite
to the force exerted by the balance B on Recoll force
on the gun
balance A. Any of these two forces can be called
as action and the other as reaction. This gives
us an alternative statement of the third law of
motion i.e., to every action there is an equal
and opposite reaction. However, it must be
remembered that the action and reaction
8.1l: A forward force on the bullet and recoil
always act on two different objects, Pg.
of the gun.
simultaneously.

FoRCE AND Laws Or MonoN

Fig. 8.12: As the sailor jumps in forward direction.
the boat moves backwards.

FIg. 8.13
Activity 8.4
Request two children to stand on two Now, place two children on one cart and
separate carts as shown in Fig. 8.13. one on another cart. The second law of motion
Give them a bag full of sand or some can be seen, as this arrangement would show
other heavy object. Ask them to play a different accelerations for the same force.
game of catch with the bag The cart shown in this activity can be
Does each of them experience an
constructed by using a 12 mm or 18 mm thick
instantaneous force as a result of
throwing the sand bag?
plywood board ofabout 50 cmx 100 cm with
You can paint a white line on two pairs of hard ball-bearing wheels (skate
cartwheels to observe the motion of the wheels are good to use). Skateboards are not
two carts when the children throw the as effective because it is difficult to maintain
bag towards each other. straight-line motion.

What
you have
learnt
First law of motion: An object continues to be in a state of
rest or of uniform motion along a straight line unless acted
upon by an unbalanced force.
The natural tendency of objects to resist a change in their
state of rest or of uniform motion is called inertia.
The mass of an object is a measure of its inertia. Its SI unit
is kilogram (kg.
Force of friction always opposes motion of objects.
Second law of motion: The rate of change of momentum of
an object is
proportional to the applied unbalanced force in
the direction of the force.

6 SCIENCE
 The SI unit of force is kg m s2,. This is also known as newton
and represented by the symbol N. A force of one newton
produces an acceleration of 1 m s on an object of
mass I kg.
The momentum of an object is the product of its mass and
velocity and has the same direction as that of the velocity.
Its SI unit is kg m s .
Third law of motion: To every action, there is an equal and
opposite reaction and they act on two different bodies.

Exercises
1. An object experiences a net zero external unbalanced force.
Is it possible for the object to be travelling with a non-zero
velocity? If yes, state the conditions that must be placed on
When a carpet is beaten with a stick, dust comes out of it,
Explain.
3. Why is it advised to tie any luggage kept on the roof of a bus
with a rope?
4. A batsman hits a cricket ball which then rolls on a level
ground. After covering a short distance, the ball comes to
rest. The ball slows to a stop because
(a) the batsman did not hit the ball hard enough.
(b) velocity is proportional to the force exerted on the ball.
(c) there is a force on the ball opposing the motion.
(d) there is no unbalanced force on the ball, so the ball
would want to come to rest.
5. A truck starts from rest and rolls down a hill with a constant
acceleration. It travels a distance of 400 m in 20 s. Find its
acceleration. Find the force acting on it if its mass is
7 tonnes (Hint: 1 tonne 1000 kg.)
6. A stone of 1 kg is thrown with a velocity of 20 m s across
the frozen surface of a lake and comes to rest after travelling
a distance of 50 m. What is the force of friction between the
stone and the ice?
A 8000 kg engine pulls a train of 5 wagons, each of 2000 kg.
no along a horizontal track. If the engine exerts a force of 40000
N and the track offers a friction foree of 5000 N, then
calculate:
(a) the net accelerating force and
(b) the acceleration of the train.
8. An automobile vehicle has a mass of 1500 kg. What must be
the force between the vehicle and road if the vehicle is to be

FORCE AND LAWS OF MonON 97

 stopped with a negative acceleration of 1.7 m s*?
9. What is the momentum of an object of mass m, moving with
a velocity v?

(a) (m (b) m (c) m (d) mv

10. Using a horizontal force of 200 N, we intend to move a wooden

cabinet across a floor at a constant velocity. What is the
friction force that will be exerted on the cabinet?
11. According to the third law of motion when we push on an
object, the object pushes back on us with an equal and
opposite force. If the object is a massive truck parked along
the roadside, it will probably not move. A student justifies
this by answering that the two opposite and equal forces
cancel each other. Comment on this logic and explain why
the truck does not move
12. A hockey ball of mass 200g travelling at 10 m s is struck
by a hockey stick so as to return it along its original path
with a velocity at 5 ms'. Calculate the magnitude of change
of momentum occurred in the motion of the hockey ball by
the force applied by the hockey stick.
13. A bullet of mass 10 g travelling horizontally with a velocity
of 150 ms strikes a stationary wooden block and comes to
rest in 0.03 s. Calculate the distance of penetration of the
bullet into the block. Also calculate the magnitude of the
force exerted by the wooden block on the bullet.
14. An object of mass 1 kg travelling in a straight line with a
velocity of 10 m s' collides with, and sticks to, a stationary
wooden block of mass 5 kg. Then they both move off together
in the same straight line. Calculate the total momentum
just before the impact and just after the impact. Also,
calculate the velocity of the combined object.
15. An object of mass 100 kg is accelerated uniformly from a
velocity of 5 ms to 8 m s in 6 s. Calculate the initial and
final momentum of the object. Also, find the magnitude of
the force exerted on the object.
16. Akhtar, Kiran and Rahul were riding in a motorcar that
was moving with a high velocity on an expressway when an
insect hit the windshield and got stuck on the windscreen.
Akhtar and Kiran started pondering over the situation. Kiran
suggested that the insect suffered a greater change in
momentum as compared to the change in momentum of the
motorcar (because the change in the velocity of the insect
was much more than that of the motorcar). Akhtar said
that since the motorcar was moving ith a larger velocit
it exerted a larger force on the insect. And as a result the
insect died. Rahul while putting an entirely new explanation

98 SCIENCE
 said that both the motorcar and the insect experienced the
same force and a change in their momentum. Comment on
these suggestions.
17. How much momentum will a dumb-bell of mass 10 kg
transfer to the floor if it falls from a height of 80 cm? Take
its downward acceleration to be 10 m s2.

Additional
Exercises
Al. The following is the distance-time table of an object in
motion:
Time in seconds Distance in metres

ed
2
3
8
27
she
4 64
5 125
216
7 343
(a) What conclusion can you draw about the acceleration?
Is it constant, increasing. decreasing, or zero?
(b) What do you infer about the forces acting on the object?
A2. Two persons manage to push a motorcar of mass 1200 kg at
a uniform velocity along a level road. The same motorcar
can be pushed by three persons to produce an acceleration
of 0.2 m s2 With what force does each person push the
motorcar? (Assume that all persons push the motorcar with
the same muscular effort.)
A3. A hammer of mass 500 g. moving at 50 m s', strikes a nail.
The nail stops the hammer in a very short time of 0.01 s.
What is the force of the nail on the hammer?
A4. A motorcar of mass 1200 kg is moving along a straight line
with a uniform velocity of 90 km/h. Its velocity is slowed
down to 18 km/h in 4 s by an unbalanced external force.
Calculate the acceleration and change in momentum. Also
calculate the magnitude of the force required.

FORCE AND LAws OF MoTnoN 99

Chapter 99
GRAVITATION
Let us try to understand the motion of the
We have learnt about the motion of objects and moon by recalling activity 7.11.
force as the cause of motion. We have learnt
that a force is needed to change the speed or Activity 9.1
the direction of motion of an object. We always
observe that an object dropped from a height Take a piece of thread.
Tie a small stone at one end. Hold the
falls towards the earth. We know that all the
other end of the thread and whirl it
planets go around the Sun. The moon goes round, as shown in Fig. 9.1.
around the earth. In all these cases, there must Note the motion of the stone.
be some force acting on the objects, the planets Release the thread.
and on the moon. Isaac Newton could grasp Again, note the direction of motion of
that the same force is responsible for all these. the stone.
This force is called the gravitational force.
In this chapter we shall learn about
gravitation and the universal law of
gravitation. We shall discuss the motion of
objects under the influence of gravitational
force on the earth. We shall study how the
weight of a body varies from place to place.
We shall also discuss the conditions for
objects to fnoat in liquids.

9.1 Gravitation
We the the
know that moon goes around
An object when thrown upwards, reaches a
earth.
certain height and then falls downwards. It is
said that when Newton was sitting under a tree, FIg. 9. 1: A stone describing a circular path with a
an apple fell on him. The fall of the apple made velocty ofconstant magnitude
Newton start thinking. He thought that: if the
earth can attract an apple, can it not attract Before the thread is released, the stone
the moon'? Is the force the same in both cases? moves in a circular path with a certain speed
He conjectured that the same type of force is and changes direction at every point.
responsible in both the cases. He argued that The change in direction involves changein
at each point of its orbit, the moon falls velocity or acceleration. The force that causes
towards the earth, instead of going off in a this acceleration and keeps the body moving
straight line. So, it must be attracted by the along the circular path is acting towards
earth. But we do not really see the moon falling the centre. This force is called the
towards the earth. centripetal (meaning 'centre-seeking) force.
In the absence of this force. the stone ies off 9.1.1 UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATInON
along a straight line. This straight line will be
a tangent to the circular path. Every object in the universe attracts every
other object with a force which is proportional
Tangent to a circle
to theproduct of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance
between them. The force is along the line
joining the centres of two objects.

A straight ine that meets the circle at

one and only one point is called a F = G m

tangent to the circle. Straight line

ABC is a tangent to the circle at
point B.
FIg. 9.2: The gravitational force between two
uniform objects is directed along the line
The motion of the moon around the earth joining their centres.
is due to the centripetal force. The centripetal
force is provided by the force of attraction of Let two objects A and B of masses Mand
the earth. If there were no such force, the mlie at a distance dfrom each other as shown
moon would pursue a uniform straight line in Fig. 9.2. Let the force of attraction between
motion. two objects be F. According to the universal
It is seen that a falling apple is attracted law of gravitation, the force between two
towards the earth. Does the apple attract the objects is directly proportional to the product
earth? If so, we do not see the earth moving of their masses. That is,
towards an apple. Why? Foc M x m 9. )
According to the third law of motion, the And the force between two objects is inversely
apple does attract the earth. But according proportional to the square of the distance
to the second law of motion, for a given force,
between them, that is,
acceleration is inversely proportional to the
mass of an object [Eq. (8.4)]. The mass of an
apple is negligibly small compared to that of
the earth. So, we do not see the earth moving
F (9.2)

towardsthe apple. Extend the same argument Combining Eqs. (10.1) and (10.2), we get
for why the earth does not move towards the
moon.
Foc
Mxm (9.3)
In our solar system. all the planets go d
around the Sun. By arguing the same way,
we can say that there exists a force between *m
F G
the Sun and the planets. From the above facts Or, (9.4)
Newton concluded that not only does the
earth attract an apple and the moon, but all
objects in the universe attract each other. This
where Gis the constant of proportionality and
is called the universal gravitation constant.
force of attraction between objects is called By multiplying crosswise, Eq. (9.4) gives
the gravitational force. Fxd"=G Mxm

GRVTTATON 101
 G
From Eq. (9.4), the force exerted by the
earth on the moon is
or
MX1 m
(9.5)
F=G Mxm
The SI unit of G can be obtained by d
substituting the units of force, distance and
mass in Eq. (9.5) as N m* kg
The value of Gv s found out by
6.7x10 Nm kg x6x10" kgx7.4x10 kg
(3.84x10 m*
Henry Cavendish (1731 1810) by -

using a - 2.02 x 10o N.

sensitive balance. The accepted value of G is
6.673x 10-" N m kg". Thus, the force exerted by the earth on
We know that there exists a force of the moon is 2.02 x 100 N.
attraction between any two objects. Compute
the value of this force between you and your
friend sitting closeby. Conclude how you do uestions
not experience this force! 1. State the universal law of
gravitation.
2. Write the formula to lind the
The law is universal in the sense that
magnitude of the gravitational
is
it applicable to all bodies, whether
force between the earth and an
the bodies are big or small, whether object on the surface of the earth.
they are celestial or terrestrial.
9.1.2 IMPORTANCE OF THE UNIVERSAL
Inverse-square
LAW OF GRAVTTATION
Saying that F is inversely
proportional to the square of d The universal law of gravitation successfully
means, for example, that if d gets explained several phenomena which were
bigger by a factor of 6, F becomes believed to be unconnected:
(0) the force that binds us to the earth:
o times smaller. (11) the motion of the moon around the
36
earth:
() the motion of planets around the Sun;:
and
Example 9.1 The mass of the earth is (tv) the tides due to the moon and the Sun.
6x 10 kg and that of the moon is
7.4 10 kg. If the distance between the 9.2 Free Fall
earth and the moon is 3.84 10" km,
calculate the force exerted by the earth on
the moon. (Take G = 6.7 10' Nm' kg")
Let us try to understand the meaning of free
fall by performing this activity.

Solution: Activity 9.2

The mass of the earth, M = 6 1 0 kg Take a stone.
The mass of the moon, Throw it upwards.
m = 7.4 1 0 kg It reaches a certain height and then it
starts falling down.
The distance between the earth and the
moon, We have learnt that the earth attracts
d= 3.84 10 km objects towards it. This is due to the
= 3.84 10 1000 m gravitational force. Whenever objects fall
3.84 10" m towards the earth under this force alone, we
G 6.7 10 N m kg* say that the objects are in free lall. Is there any

102 ScIENCE