BOWEN UNIVERSITY, IWO

COLLEGE OF COMPUTING AND COMMUNICATION STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
CSC 403- SURVEY OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
LECTURE NOTE 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Ever since the invention of Charles Babbage‘s difference engine in 1822, computers have required a
means of instructing them to perform a specific task. This means is known as a programming
language. Computer languages were first composed of a series of steps to wire a particular program;
these morphed into a series of steps keyed into the computer and then executed; later these languages
acquired advanced features such as logical branching and object orientation. The computer languages
of the last fifty years have come in two stages, the first major languages and the second major
languages, which are in use today.

Most computer programming languages were inspired by or built upon concepts from previous
computer programming languages. Today, while older languages still serve as a strong foundation
for new ones, newer computer programming languages make programmers‘ work simpler.
Businesses rely heavily on programs to meet all of their data, transaction, and customer service needs.
Science and medicine need accurate and complex programs for their research. Mobile applications
must be updated to meet consumer demands. And all of these new and growing needs ensure that
computer programming languages, both old and new, will remain an important part of modern life.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Define programming languages
• Distinguished between different generation of programming languages
• Describe the characteristics of different generation of programming languages
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 What is Programming Language

Before getting into computer programming, what is computer programs and what they do.
A computer program is a sequence of instructions written using a Computer Programming
Language to perform a specified task by the computer. The two important terms used in the
above definition are:

• Sequence of instructions
• Computer Programming Language

To understand these terms, consider a situation when someone asks you about how to go to
a nearby KFC. What exactly do you do to tell him the way to go to KFC? You will use
Human Language to tell the way to go to KFC, something as follows:

First go straight, after half kilometer, take left from the red light and then drive around one
kilometer and you will find KFC at the right. Here, you have used English Language to give several
steps to be taken to reach KFC. If they are followed in the following sequence, then you will reach
KFC:
1. Go straight
2. Drive half kilometer
3. Take left
4. Drive around one kilometer
5. Search for KFC at your right side

Now, try to map the situation with a computer program. The above sequence of instructions
is actually a Human Program written in English Language, which instructs on how to reach
KFC from a given starting point. This same sequence could have been given in Spanish,
Hindi, Arabic, or any other human language, provided the person seeking direction knows
any of these languages. Now, let's go back and try to understand a computer program, which
is a sequence of instructions written in a Computer Language to perform a specified task by
the computer. Following is a simple program written in Python Programming Language −
print "Hello, World!"

The above computer program instructs the computer to print "Hello, World!" on the
computer screen. A computer program is also called a computer software, which can range
from two lines to millions of lines of instructions.

• Computer program instructions are also called program source code and computer
programming is also called program coding.
• A computer without a computer program is just a dump box; it is programs that make
computers active.
Computer programming is the process that professionals use to write code that instructs how
a computer, application or software program performs. At its most basic, computer
programming is a set of instructions to facilitate specific actions. A programming
language is a computer language that is used by programmers (developers) to communicate
with computers. It is a set of instructions written in any specific language to perform a
specific task. It is made up of a series of symbols that serves as a bridge that allow humans
to translate our thoughts into instructions computers can understand. Human and machines
process information differently, and programming languages are the key to bridging the gap
between people and computers therefore the first computer programming language was
created.

3.2 Classification of Programming Language Generation

Generations of computers have seen changes based on evolving technologies. With each new
generation, computer circuitry, size, and parts have been miniaturized, the processing and
speed doubled, memory got larger, and usability and reliability improved. Note that the
timeline specified for each generation is tentative and not definite. The generations are
actually based on evolving chip technology rather than any particular time frame.

The five generations of computers are characterized by the electrical current flowing through
the processing mechanisms listed below:

• The first is within vacuum tubes

• Transistors
• Integrated circuits
• Microprocessors
• Artificial intelligence

3.2.1 First Generation (1GL)

Machine-level programming language used to program first-generation computers.

Originally, no translator was used to compile or assemble the first-generation language.
Computers usually operate on a binary level which are sequences of 0's and 1 'so, in the
early days of computer programming binary machine code was used to program computers.
Binary programming means that the program directly reflects the hardware structure of the
computer. Sequences of 0's and 1 's cause certain actions in processing, control, or memory
units, i.e. programming was done on the flip-flop level. It was recognized very rapidly that
programming computers on binary machine code level is very troublesome. Thus, it is
obvious that binary programming could not successfully be applied to solve complex
problems.

3.2.2 Second Generation Languages (2GL)

Assembly languages: the obvious drawbacks of binary programming became smaller by the
introduction of second generation languages (2GL). These languages allowed mnemonic
abbreviations as symbolic names and the concept of commands and operands was
introduced. A programmer's work became much easier, since the symbolic notation and
addressing of instructions and data was now possible. Compilation systems, called
assemblers, were developed to translate the assembly language/symbolic programs into
machine code. Assembly languages still reflect the hardware structure of the target machine
- not on the flip-flop level, but on the register level, i.e. the abstraction has changed from the
flip-flop to the register level. The instruction set of the target computer directly determines
the scope of an assembly language. With the introduction of linking mechanisms,
assembling of code separately became possible and the first steps towards program
structuring were recognizable, although the term structured programming cannot be used for
programming assembly code. The major disadvantage of assembly languages is that
programs are still machine dependent and, in general, only readable by the authors.

3.2.3 Third Generation Languages (3GL)

Third generation languages /high level languages/Problem oriented languages: these

languages allow control structures which are based on logical data objects: variables of a
specific type. They provide a level of abstraction allowing machine-independent
specification of data, functions or processes, and their control. A programmer can now focus
on the problem to be solved without being concerned with the internal hardware structure of
the target computer. When considering high level programming languages, there are four
groups of programming languages: imperative, declarative, object oriented and functional
languages.

3.2.4 Fourth Generation Languages (4GL)

Fourth generation languages/Non procedural languages deal with the following two fields
which become more and more important: database and query languages, and program or
application generators. The steadily increasing usage of software packages like database
systems, spread sheets, statistical packages, and other (special purpose) packages makes it
necessary to have a medium of control available which can easily be used by non-specialists.
In fourth generation languages the user describes what he wants to be solved, instead of how
he wants to solve a problem - as it is done using procedural languages. In general, fourth
generation languages are not only languages, but interactive programming environments.
E.g. SOL (Structured Query Language): a query language for relational databases based on
Codd's requirements for non- procedural query languages. Another example is NATURAL
emphasizing on a structured programming style. Program or application generators are often
based on a certain specification method and produce an output (e.g. a high level program)
to an appropriate specification. There exist already a great number of fourth generation
languages:

3.2.5 Fifth Generation Language (5GL)

5GL is a programming language based around solving problems using constraints given to
program rather using an algorithm written by a programmer. 5GL allows computers to have
their own ability to think and their own inferences can be worked out by using the
programmed information in large databases. 5GL gave birth to the dream of robot with AI
and Fuzzy Logic. The fifth-generation languages are also called 5GL. It is based on the
concept of artificial intelligence. It uses the concept that that rather than solving a problem
algorithmically, an application can be built to solve it based on some constraints, i.e., we
make computers learn to solve any problem. Parallel Processing & superconductors are used
for this type of language to make real artificial intelligence. Advantages of this generation
is that machines can make decisions, it reduces programmer effort to solve a problem and
very easier than 3GL or 4GL to learn and use. Examples are: PROLOG, LISP, etc.

EXERCISE

1. What is programming language?

2. List the major component of computer generation
3. Explain different generation of computer you know.

3.2 Characteristics of each generation

A) Computer Characteristics and Capabilities for 1GL

• Size – Relatively big size. Size was equivalent to a room.

• Speed – slow speed, hundred instructions per second.
• Cost – cost was very high.
• Language– Machine and Assembly Language.
• Reliability – high failure rate, Failure of circuits per second.
• Power– high power Consumption and it generated much heat.

B) Trends and Developments in Computer Hardware

• Main Component – based on vacuum tubes

• Main memory –Magnetic drum
• secondary Memory – Magnetic drum & magnetic tape.
• Input Media – Punched cards & paper tape
• Output Media – Punched card & printed reports.
• Example – ENIAC, UNIVAC, Mark –I,mark-III , IBM 700 series , IBM 700 series
,IBM 701 series IBM 709 series etc.

A) Computer Characteristics and Capabilities 2GL

• Size – Smaller than first generation Computers.

• Speed – Relatively fast as compared to first generation, thousand instructions per
second.
• Cost – cost Slightly lower than first generation.
• Language – Assembly Language and High level languages like FORTRAN,
COBOL, BASIC.
• Reliability – Failure of circuits per days.
• Power– Low power Consumption.

B) Trends and Developments in Computer Hardware

• Main Component – Based on Transistor.

• Main Memory – Magnetic core.
• Secondary Memory – Magnetic tape & magnetic Disk.
• Input Media – Punched cards
• Output Media – Punched card & printed reports.
• Example – IBM-7000, CDC 3000 series, PDP1,PDP3,PDP 5 ,PDP8 ,ATLAS,IBM-
7094 etc.

A) Computer Characteristics and Capabilities for 3GL

• Size – Smaller than Second Generation Computers. Disk size mini computers.
• Speed – Relatively fast as compared to second generation, Million instructions per
second (MIPS).
• Cost – cost lower than Second generation.
• Language– High level languages like PASCAL, COBOL, BASIC, C etc.
• Reliability – Failure of circuits in Weeks.
• Power– Low power Consumption.

B) Trends and Developments in Computer Hardware

• Main Component – Based on Integrated Circuits (IC)

• Primary Memory – Magnetic core.
• Secondary Memory– Magnetic Tape & magnetic disk.
• Input Media – Key to tape & key to disk
• Output Media – Printed reports & Video displays.
• Example – IBM-307 Series, CDC 7600 series, PDP (Personal Data processer) II
etc.

A) Computer Characteristics and Capabilities 4GL

• Size – Typewriter size micro Computer.

• Speed – Relatively fast as compared to Third generation, Tens of Millions
instructions per second.
• Cost – Cost lower than third generation.
• Language– High level languages like C++, KL1, RPG, SQL.
• Reliability – Failure of circuits in months.
• Power– Low power Consumption.

B) Trends and Developments in Computer Hardware

• Main Component – Large scale integrated (LSI) Semiconductor circuits called

MICRO PROCESSOR or chip and VLSI (Very Large scale integrated).
• Main Memory – Semiconductor memory like RAM, ROM and cache memory is
used as a primary memory.
• Secondary Memory – Magnetic disk, Floppy disk, and Optical disk (CD, DVD).
• Input Media – keyboard.
• Output Media – Video displays, Audio responses and printed reports.
• Example – CRAY 2, IBM 3090/600 Series, IBM AS/400/B60 etc.

A) Computer Characteristics and Capabilities 5GL

• Size –Credit card size microcomputers.

• Speed – Billions instructions per second.
• Cost – Cost Slightly lower than first generation.
• Language– Artificial Intelligence (AI) Languages like LISP, PROLOG etc
• Reliability – Failure of circuits in year.
• Power– Low power Consumption.

B) Trends and Developments in Computer Hardware

• Main Component – based on ULSI (Ultra Large scale integrated) Circuit .that is
also called Parallel Processing method.
• Memory – Optical disk and magnetic disk.
• Input Media – Speech input, Tactile input.
• Output Media – Graphics displays, Voice responses.
• Example – Lap-Tops, palm –Tops, Note books, PDA (personal Digital Assistant)
etc.
4.0 CONCLUSION

The study of programming languages is valuable for some important reasons: It gives insight
to generation of programming languages, enables to know background of computer as a
whole, and the components attached to each of the generation.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit has explained what programming language is, classification and explanation of
different programming language generation, basic components of each computer
programming generation. You also saw different characteristics of each programming
language generation in terms of computer characteristic, their capabilities, trend and
development in computer hardware for different generation.

6.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

1. A History of Computer Programming Languages (brown.edu)

2. A Brief History of Programming
Languages.‖ http://www.byte.com/art/9509/se7/artl9.htm. Cited, March 25, 2000.
3. A Short History of the Computer.‖ http://www.softlord.com/comp/. Jeremy Myers.
Cited, March 25, 2000.
4. Bergin, Thomas J. and Richard G. Gibson, eds. History of Programming Languages-
II. New York: ACM Press, 1996.
5. Christiansen, Tom and Nathan Torkington. Perlfaq1 Unix Manpage. Perl 5 Porters,
1997- 1999.
6. Java History.‖ http://ils.unc.edu/blaze/java/javahist.html. Cited, March 29, 2000.
8. Programming Languages.‖ McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997.
9. Wexelblat, Richard L., ed. History of Programming Languages. New York:
Academic Press, 1981.
10. A History of Computer Programming Languages (onlinecollegeplan.com)
11. IT Lecture 1 History of Computers.pdf (webs.com) Prepared by Miss N. Nembhard,
Source: Robers, Eric S. The Art and Science of C. Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company. Reading: 1995.
Unit 2 REASONS FOR STUDYING CONCEPTS OF
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What are major reasons for studying concepts of programming languages
3.1.1 Increase ability to express ideas and algorithms
3.1.2 Improved background for choosing appropriate languages
3.1.3 Increase ability to learn new languages
3.1.4 Better understanding of significance of implementation
3.1.5 Better use of languages that are already known
3.1.6 The overall advancement of computing
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary

1.0 INTRODUCTION

It is natural for students to wonder how they will benefit from the study of programming
language concepts. After all, many other topics in computer science are worthy of serious
study. The following is what we believe to be a compelling list of potential benefits of
studying concepts of programming languages.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• To increase the student‘s capacity to use different constructs and develop effective
algorithms
• To improve use of existing programming and enable students to choose language
more intelligently
• To make learning new languages easier and design your own language
• To encounter fascinating ways of programming you might never have imagined
before.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Application Domains

3.1.1 Increased ability to express ideas/algorithms

In Natural language, the depth at which people think is influenced by the expressive power
of the language they use. In programming language, the complexity of the algorithms that
people Implement is influenced by the set of constructs available in the programming
language. The language in which they develop software places limits on the kinds of control
structures, data structures, and abstractions they can use; thus, limiting the forms of
algorithms they can construct. Awareness of a wider variety of programming language
features can reduce such limitations in software development. Programmers can increase the
range of their software development thought processes by learning new language constructs.
In other words, the study of programming language concepts builds an appreciation for
valuable language features and constructs and encourages programmers to use them, even
when the language they are using does not directly support such features and constructs.

3.1.2 Improved background for choosing appropriate Languages

Many programmers use the language with which they are most familiar, even though poorly
suited for their new project. It is ideal to use the most appropriate language. If these
programmers were familiar with a wider range of languages and language constructs, they
would be better able to choose the language with the features that best address the problem.
However, it is preferable to use a feature whose design has been integrated into a language
than to use a simulation of that feature, which is often less elegant, more cumbersome, and
less safe.

3.1.3 Increased ability to learn new languages

For instance, knowing the concept s of object oriented programming OOP makes learning
Java significantly easier and also, knowing the grammar of one‘s native language makes it
easier to learn another language. If thorough understanding of the fundamental concepts of
languages is acquired, it becomes far easier to see how these concepts are incorporated into
the design of the language being learned therefore it is essential that practicing programmers
know the vocabulary and fundamental concepts of programming languages so they can read
and understand programming language descriptions and evaluations, as well as promotional
literature for languages and compilers.
3.1.4. Better Understanding of Significance of implementation

This leads to understanding of why languages are designed the way they are. This is an
ability to use a language more intellectually, as it was designed to be used. We can become
better programmers by understanding the choices among programming language constructs
and the consequences of those choices. Certain kinds of program bugs can be found and
fixed only by a programmer who knows some related implementation details. It allows
visualization of how a computer executes various language constructs. It provides hints
about the relative efficiency of alternative constructs that may be chosen for a program. For
example, programmers who know little about the complexity of the implementation of
subprogram calls often do not realize that a small subprogram that is frequently called can
be a highly inefficient design choice.

3.1.5. Better use of languages that are already known

Many contemporary programming languages are large and complex. It is uncommon for a
programmer to be familiar with and use all of the features of a language uses. By studying
the concepts of programming languages, programmers can learn about previously unknown
and unused parts of the languages they already use and begin to use those features.
3.16. The overall advancement of computing

The study of programming language concepts should be justified and the choose languages
should be well informed so that better languages would eventually squeeze out poorer ones.

EXERCISE

1. Itemize the reasons responsible for program languages concept

2. Discuss four (4) out the reasons mentioned

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit has explained different reasons for studying concepts of programming languages,
enables students to know language more intelligently, make programming easy to learn,
enhanced problem solving skills, help to choose language appropriate for a particular
project, internally diverse networking, it has also created opportunities for invention and
innovation which enable to learning new languages.

5.0 SUMMARY

Like any language (spoken or written), it is easier to learn earlier in life. Computer languages
teach us logical skills in thinking, processing and communicating. Combined with creative
visions, some of the most influential products were designed around a programming
language. The best inventions are born where skills and creativity meet. After all, who is
better than the young generations of the world to imagine the future if our technology? One
of the benefit of learning how to code at a young age is enhanced academic performance.
Lear ning how this technology works will prepare children for a quick advancing world in
which computers and smartphones are utilized for almost every function of our daily lives.

6.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

1. Michael L. Scoot. Programming Language Pragmatics. Morgan Kaufmann, 2006.

2. Rowe NC. (1988) Artificial Intelligence through Prolog. Prentice-Hall
3. Olusegun Folorunso, Organization of Programming Languages, The Department of
Computer Science, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta.
4. Why Study Programming Languages? (lmu.edu), Hipster Hacker
https://cs.Imu.edu/ray/notes/whystudyprogramminglanguages/
5. Reasons Why You Should Learn BASIC Programming |
UoPeople
https://www.uoppeople.edu/blog/6-reasons-why-you-should-learn-basic-
programming/
UNIT 3 APPLICATION DOMAIN

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Application Domain
3.1.1 Scientific application
3.1.2 Data process application
3.1.3 Text processing application
3.1.4 Artificial intelligence applications
3.1.5 Systems programming application
3.1.6 Web software
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Computers have been applied to a myriad of different areas, from controlling nuclear power
plants to providing video games in mobile phones. Because of this great diversity in
computer use, programming languages with very different goals have been developed. This
discuss areas of computer applications and their associated languages.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Discuss different area of application domain

• Highlight associated languages that is applicable to each domain
• Describe fundamental properties of programming languages.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Application Domains

One of the prerequisites for the development of a programming language is that we have a
definition and a clear understanding of the contents of the application domain concerned.
This is the part of an organization for which application software is developed. This means
that the application domain is our starting point and the context for programming language
to software development. Many development methodologies take this understanding of the
application domain for granted. They assume that the developers somehow know what
domain they have to deal with. In respect of this, application domain is divided into
categories:
3.1.1 Scientific Applications

Scientific application can be characterized as those which predominantly manipulate

numbers and arrays of numbers, using mathematical and statistical principles as a basis for
the algorithms. These algorithms encompass such problem as statistical significance test,
linear programming, regression analysis and numerical approximations for the solution of
differential and integral equations. Example of such programming languages are
FORTRAN, Pascal, Meth lab.

3.1.2 Data processing Applications

This can be characterized as those programming problems whose predominant interest is in

the creation, maintenance, extraction and summarization of data in records and files.
COBOL is a programming language is the first high level language used for business
application and still commonly used language. Business languages are characterized by
facilities for producing elaborate reports, precise ways of describing and storing decimal
numbers and character data, and the ability to specify decimal arithmetic operations.
3.1.3 Text processing Applications

These are characterized as those whose principal activity involves the manipulation of
natural language text, rather than numbers as their data. SNOBOL and C language have
strong text processing capabilities

3.1.4 Artificial intelligence Applications

These are characterized as those programs which are designed principally to emulate
intelligent behavior. They include game playing algorithms such as chess, natural language
understanding programs, computer vision, robotics and expert systems. LISP has been the
predominant AI programming language, and also PROLOG using the principle of ‗‘Logic
programming‘‘ Lately AI applications are written in Java, C++ and python.

3.15 Systems Programming Applications

System programming applications involve developing those programs that interface the
computer system (the hardware) with the programmer and the operator. These programs
include compilers, assembles, interpreters, input-output routines, program management
facilities and schedules for utilizing and serving the various resources that comprise the
system. Ada, C and Modula – 2 are examples of programming languages used.

3.1.6 Web software

The World Wide Web is supported by an eclectic collection of languages, ranging from
markup languages, such as HTML, which is not a programming language, to general-
purpose programming languages, such as Java. Because of the pervasive need for dynamic
Web content, some computation capability is often included in the technology of content
presentation. This functionality can be provided by embedding programming code in an
HTML document. Such code is often in the form of a scripting language, such as JavaScript
or PHP. There are also some markup-like languages that have been extended to include
constructs that control document processing, collection of languages includes: Markup (e.g.
XHTML) - Scripting for dynamic content under which there are: Client side, using scripts
embedded in the XHTML documents e.g. JavaScript, PHP Server side, using the common
Gateway interface e.g. JSP, ASP, PHP General- purpose, executed on the web server
through e.g. Java, C++

EXERCISE

1. Discuss other application domain you know that is not mention here
2. What is the disadvantages of having too many features in a language?

4.0 CONCLUSION

An application domain is a mechanism (similar to a process in an operating

system) used within the Common Language Infrastructure (CLI) to isolate
executed software applications from one another so that they do not affect each
other. Categories of application domains are discussed extensively based on scientific
application, data processing application, test processing application, artificial intelligence
application, system programming application and web software with different choice of
programming languages that can be used for them.

5.0 SUMMARY

Computers are used in a wide variety of problem-solving domains. This unit has explained
how the design and evaluation of a particular programming language is highly dependent on
the domain in which it is to be used, it has enables students to know language more
intelligently and be able to choose language appropriate for a particular project and to make
learning new languages easier.

6.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

1. Michael L. Scoot. Programming Language Pragmatics. Morgan Kaufmann, 2006.

2. Rowe NC. (1988) Artificial Intelligence through Prolog. Prentice-Hall
3. ide.geeksforgeeks.org, 5th Floor, A-118, Sector-136, Noida, Uttar Pradesh - 201305
4. Bernd Teufel, Organization of Programming Languages, Springer-Verlag/Wien,
1991
5. Concepts of Programming Languages, Tenth Edition, Robert W, Sebesta, University
of Colorado, Colorado Springs Pearson.
6. Olusegun Folorunso, Organization of Programming Languages, The Department of
Computer Science, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta
UNIT 4 LANGUAGE EVALUATION CRITERIA

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Language evaluation criteria
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The design and evaluation of programming languages is a challenging area because; as

discussed earlier and seen there is no such thing as a "best" language. Instead, existing
languages are strong by some criteria and weak by the others, so that the choice o f a language
for a particular purpose is tied to a decision a s t o which criteria are most important. In order
to understand the various constructs of a programming language and its capabilities, it is
useful to know some evaluation criteria. Each of these criteria is determined and influenced
by a certain number of language qualities, determined and implemented during the
design of the language. Therefore, design determines language characteristics that
make it good for a specific task resolution.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• To consider criteria for evaluating programming languages

• Highlight associated criteria
• Show characteristics that affect those criteria
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Language evaluation criteria

1. Expressivity: means the ability of a language to clearly reflect the meaning intended by
the algorithm designer (the programmer). Thus an ―expressive‖ language permits an
utterance to be compactly stated, and encourages the use of statement forms associated
with structured programming (usually ―while ―loops and ―if – then – else‖
statements).

2. Well-Definedness: By ―well-definiteness‖, we mean that the language‘s syntax and

semantics are free of ambiguity, are internally consistent and complete. Thus the
implementer of a well- defined language should have, within its definition a complete
specification of all the language‘s expressive forms and their meanings. The
programmer, by the same virtue should be able to predict exactly the behavior of each
expression before it is actually executed.
3. Data types and structures: By ―Data types and Structures‖, we mean the ability of a
language to support a variety of data values (integers, real, strings, pointers etc.) and
non-elementary collect ions of these.

4. Readability: One of the most important criteria for judging a programming language is
the ease with which programs can be read and understood. Maintenance was recognized
as a major part of the cycle, particularly in terms of cost and once the ease of maintenance
is determined in large part by the readability of programs, readability became an
important measure of the quality of programs and programming languages.
5. Overall Simplicity: The overall simplicity of a programming language strongly affects
its readability. A language with a large number of basic constructs is more difficult to
learn than one with a smaller number.

6. Modularity: Modularity has two aspects: the language‘s support for sub-programming
and the language‘s extensibility in the sense of allowing programmer – defined operators
and data types. By sub programming, we mean the ability to define independent
procedures and functions (subprograms), and communicate via parameters or global
variables with the invoking program.

7. Input-Output facilities: In evaluating a language‘s ―Input-Output facilities‖ we are

looking at its support for sequential, indexed, and random access files, as well as its
support for database and information retrieval functions.

8. Portability: A language which has ―portability‖ is one which is implemented on a

variety of computers. That is, its design is relatively ―machine – independent‖.
Languages which are well- defined tend to be more portable than others.

9. Efficiency: An ―efficient‖ language is one which permits fast compilation and

execution on the machines where it is implemented. Traditionally, FORTRAN and
COBOL have been relatively efficient languages in their respective application areas.

10. Orthogonality: in a programming language means that a relatively small set of primitive
constructs can be combined in a relatively small number of ways to build the control and
data structures of the language. Furthermore, every possible combination of primitives
is legal and meaningful.

11. Pedagogy: Some languages have better ―pedagogy‖ than others. That is, they are
intrinsically easier to teach and to learn, they have better textbooks; they are
implemented in a better program development environment, they are widely known and
used by the best programmers in an application area.

12. Generality: Generality: Means that a language is useful in a wide range of programming
applications. For instance, APL has been used in mathematical applications involving
matrix algebra and in business applications as well. The table below show language
evaluation criteria and the characteristics that affect them.
EXERCISE

1. Why is readability important to writability?

2. How is the cost of compilers for a given language related to the design of that
language?

4.0 CONCLUSION

Among the most important criteria for evaluating languages are readability, writability,
reliability, and overall cost. These will be the basis on which we examine and judge the
various language features that were discussed.

5.0 SUMMARY

Evaluation results are likely to suggest that your program has strengths as well as limitations,
which should not be a simple declaration of program success or failure. Evidence that your
EE program is not achieving all of its ambitious objectives can be hard to swallow, but it
can also help to learn where to best to put limited resources. A good evaluation is one that
is likely to be replicable, meaning that the same evaluation should be conducted and get the
same results. The higher the quality of the evaluation design, its data collection methods and
its data analysis, the more accurate its conclusions and the more confident others will be in
its findings.

6.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

1. Sebesta: Concept of programming Language, Pearson Edu

2. Louden: Programming Languages: Principles and Practices, Cengage
Learning 3. Tucker: Programming Languages: Principles and paradigms,
Tata McGraw –Hill.
4. E Horowitz: Programming Languages, 2nd Edition, Addison Wesley