THE ENDOCRINE

SYSTEM

©ENRChua 09/2023
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
• The main function of the endocrine system is to coordinate and
direct the activity of the body’s cells.
• While the nervous system has a similar function, it acts more
generally and swiftly via the use of neurotransmitters.
• Compared to the nervous system, the endocrine system takes a
more long-term, targeted approach. This is done through the use of
hormones.
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
• Control of hormones is done through two general approaches:
• Negative Feedback:
• Most common approach.
• Self-limiting
• The actions / effects of a hormone stops the release of said
hormone. (e.g. high blood glucose > triggers insulin release to
increase glucose cell uptake > blood glucose goes down > insulin
is no longer needed and hence is inhibited from being released
further.
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
• Control of hormones is done through two general approaches:
• Positive Feedback:
• Rare
• Self-reinforcing
• The actions / effects of a hormone increases the release of said
hormone. (e.g. upon latching on by infant > increase prolactin to
produce milk > as infant continues suckling > prolactin keeps
being produced)
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
• Major organs of the endocrine system:
• Pituitary Gland
• Thyroid Gland
• Parathyroid Gland
• Adrenal Gland
• Endocrine Pancreas
THE PITUITARY GLAND
• Hangs from the inferior surface of the hypothalamus and saddled
by the sphenoid bone
• Has two functional lobes: the anterior (glandular) pituitary and the
posterior (nervous) pituitary.
• The functions of the pituitary gland are closely controlled by the
Hypothalamus. The two organs work together to form the
Hypothalamic-Pituitary axis.
THE PITUITARY GLAND
• The hypothalamic control of the pituitary gland is exerted through
the following hormones:
THE PITUITARY GLAND
• The anterior pituitary releases the following hormones:
1. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) / Luteinizing Hormone (LH) /
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
• Come from the same glycoprotein family.
• These hormones are released as the intermediary of their
respective hormonal axes:
• TSH: Triggers the release of T3 and T4.
• LH: Triggers the release of progesterone, functioning to
promote egg ovulation. In males, triggers the release of
testosterone.
• FSH: Triggers the release of estrogen, functioning to
promote ovarian follicular development.
THE PITUITARY GLAND
• The anterior pituitary releases the following hormones:
2. Growth Hormone (GH)
• Most important hormone for normal growth to adult size
• Has direct and indirect effects.
• Its direct effects include: decrease glucose cell uptake (glucose
increases in the blood), increase fat metabolism, increase body
mass, and increase the hormone Insulin-like Growth Factor
(IGF).
• Its indirect effects occur as a result of IGF: increase linear
growth, increase lean body mass, and increase organ size.
THE PITUITARY GLAND
• The anterior pituitary releases the following hormones:
3. Prolactin
• Major hormone responsible for lactogenesis or milk creation.
• In conjunction with estrogen, contributes to breast
development.
• Inhibits ovulation by decreasing the release of gonadotropin-
releasing hormone (GnRH)
THE PITUITARY GLAND
• The posterior pituitary releases the following hormones:
1. Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH)
• Regulates serum osmolarity by increasing the water
permeability of the late distal tubules and collecting ducts of
the kidneys.
2. Oxytocin
• Primary hormone for milk ejection (in contrast to prolactin, which
promotes milk creation).
• Release of this hormone is primarily stimulated through suckling.
• Can also be increased during dilatation of the cervix.
• Promotes uterine contraction.
THE THYROID GLAND
• Located at the base of the throat, just below the laryngeal
prominence or Adam’s Apple. This prominence is created through
the angle of the thyroid cartilage.
• Responsible for the synthesis and release of two hormones:
calcitonin and the thyroid hormones.
THE THYROID GLAND
1. Thyroid Hormones:
• Composed of two hormones: Triiodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine
(T4).
• The follicular cells of the thyroid glands produce a precursor
substance called thyroglobulin, which is repeatedly oxidized and
combined with Iodine to form T3 and T4.
• T3 is the more potent of the two.
THE THYROID GLAND
1. Thyroid Hormones:
• Has a variety of effects related to body growth and functional control:
• Responsible for bone maturation and bone formation
• Promotes CNS development during fetal development
• Upregulates β-adrenergic receptors of the heart, increasing heart
rate
• Increases the basal metabolic rate through increased breakdown
of glycogen stores, glucose synthesis from proteins, and glucose
oxidation
THE THYROID GLAND
2. Calcitonin:
• Produced by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid.
• Secretion is stimulated by an increase in serum calcium.
• Acts to inhibit bone resorption.
THE PARATHYROID GLAND
• Masses of glandular tissue found on the posterior surface of the
thyroid gland.
• There are typically four parathyroid glands in an average human.
• Parathyroid Hormone – main hormone of the parathyroid gland.
• Secreted by the chief cells.
• Main regulator of serum calcium.
• Functions: increases bone resorption, inhibits renal phosphate
absorption, increases renal calcium and intestinal calcium
reabsorption.
THE ADRENAL GLAND
• The adrenal glands are located on the superior surface of the
kidneys.
• Has a glandular tissue called the cortex and a neural tissue called
the medulla.
THE ADRENAL GLAND
• The Adrenal Cortex releases the following hormones:
1. Glucocorticoids (Cortisol)
• Produced in the cortex’s zona fasciculata.
• Cortisol’s main actions are all related as a response to stress.
• Increased blood sugar through gluconeogenesis
• Inhibits the release of histamine and serotonin, creating an
anti-inflammatory environment
• Inhibits the production of IL-2, lowering immune response
• Upregulates the heart’s α-receptors, making them more
sensitive to the effects of epinephrine, increasing blood
pressure
THE ADRENAL GLAND
• The Adrenal Cortex releases the following hormones:
2. Aldosterone
• Produced in the cortex’s zona glomerulosa.
• Aldosterone’s main actions are all related as a control of salt in
the body.
• Increased renal sodium reabsorption
• Increased renal potassium secretion
• Increased renal H+ secretion
THE ADRENAL GLAND
• The Adrenal Cortex releases the following hormones:
3. Sex hormones
• Produced in the cortex’s zona reticularis.
• The main hormones produced by the cortex are the androgens
(dehydroepiandrosterone and androstenedione)
• In the testes, these hormones are converted to testosterone
• In the ovaries, these hormones are converted to estrogen
THE ENDOCRINE PANCREAS
• The Pancreas is located posteriorly to the stomach and stretches
up to the spleen in the left upper abdomen.
• It has exocrine functions that are responsible in gastrointestinal
processes, but it also has endocrine functions which focus
primarily in the control of blood sugar.
• The hormones of the endocrine pancreas are primarily produced in
its structure called the Islets of Langerhans.
• The islets have two major cells: the alpha cells and the beta cells.
THE ENDOCRINE PANCREAS
• Insulin:
• Mainly regulated by increased blood glucose concentration.
• Glucose, once it reaches the GLUT-2 receptors of the Beta cells of the
pancreas, trigger the release of insulin.
• Insulin decreases blood glucose levels by increasing the uptake of
glucose into cells and promoting the conversion of excess glucose
inside cells into storage molecules called glycogen.
THE ENDOCRINE PANCREAS
• Glucagon:
• Mainly regulated by decreased blood glucose concentration.
• Glucose, once it reaches the GLUT-2 receptors of the Alpha cells of
the pancreas, trigger the release of glucagon.
• Glucagon increases blood glucose levels by increasing the
breakdown of glycogen stores in cells and releasing them into the
blood as glucose (glycogenolysis) as well as increases the production
of glucose from non-glucose sources such as proteins
(gluconeogenesis) and fats (lipolysis)