Geography: Definitions,

Characteristics & Contribution

of the Philosophers & Early
Geographers : Greek, Roman,
Arab , Chinese
MA/MSc Semester 1, 502
Department of Geography
University of Mumbai
2023
Points for lecture
How Geography has been defined
Definition By

“The study of earth as a home of man” – geo – earth & graphein- to Eratosthenese (276-194 B.C.)
wrtite
“ Accurate orderly and rational description and interpretation of the Richard Hartshorne (1959) in “Perspectives
variable character of the earth’s surface at one location and another” on the Nature of Geography”
“Its goal is nothing less than an understanding of the vast, interacting E.A. Ackerman (1963) in Annals of the
system comprising all humanity and its natural environment on the Association of the American Geographers
surface of the earth”
“ Geography seeks to explain how the subsystems of the physical Ad Hoc Committee on Geography ( 1965),
environment are organized on the earth’s surface and how man Academy of Sciences, Washington.
distributes himself over the earth in relation to physical features and
the other men”
“A science concerned with the rational development and testing of M. Yeats (1968) in “Introduction to
theories that explain and predict the spatial distribution and location of Quantitative Analysis in Economic
various characteristics on the surface of the earth Geography”
“Geography is concerned with giving man an orderly description of his E.J. Taaffe (1970)
world……(however) the contemporary stress is on geography as the
study of spatial organization expressed as patterns and processes”
“Study of the earth’s surface as the space within which the human Haggett (1990)
population lives”
“The study of the earth as the home of people” Tuan (1991)
Essential Characteristics
of Geography
• Emphasis on Location – locational or spatial variation in
both physical and human phenomena on the earth’s
surface – locational theory

• Ecological emphasis on society-land relations –

interrelations between the natural environment of a
particular area and the human population occupying and
modifying it – human-nature relationship – impact of
people on land and that of land on people

• Regional Analysis – the spatial and the ecological

approaches are clubbed – spatial segments on the earth’s
surface termed Regions are identified
 Pre-Greek era – West Asia, East Asia
- Mathematics, astronomy, art of
writing –

Greek scholars – Homer, Hecataeus,

Ancient Period Herodotus, Eratosthenes, Aristotle,
Anximander, Hipparchus
(1200 B.C. -500 Roman Philosophers – Strabo,
A.D.) Ptolemy

Chinese Philosophers
Greek and Roman scholarship laid
the base of scientific geography.
Greek
philosophers
drew their Mesopotemians

ideas from
and Sumerians

various corners
Babylonians and Phoenicians
Assyrians
Greeks (settlers of
modern
Lebanon)

Egypt
Greek Geographers
• Greek philosophers of during 500B.C. – 200 B.C. have provided the
theoretical and scholarly base – models, concepts and paradigms
which guided western academia for a long time.
• Geography as a field of knowledge has its roots in the Greek
scholarship
…..continued
• Greek scholarship drew inspiration from Egypt – observations,
measurements, generalizations

• Greeks also borrowed from Mesopotamians and Sumerians – basic

principles of Algebra; divided year into 12 months each with 30 days,
the idea of 360 degrees in a circle was drawn from them

• From the Phoenicians who are the settlers of modern Lebanon –

explorers and merchants – phonetic alphabets

• From the Babylonians – ideas about the celestials bodies

The traditions of geographical scholarship
followed by Greek philosophers
• Mathematical Tradition : Thales ,Anaximander, Hipparchus

• Literary Tradition : Hecataeus

Major Greek Philosophers
• Philosopher: Anximander
Anximander’s Gnomon
• Contribution: Introduction of Babylonian
instrument Gnomon – to study the relative
position of stars and planets- seasonal
changes
• World Map to scale

• Philosopher: Thales
• Contribution: Basic theorems of Geometry; World Map by Anximander
• Measurement of earth and location of things
on the earth surface
• Laid foundations of empirical studies i.e. an
explanaition can be verified through ground
observations and measure
• Was a critique of major unscientific traditions
Major Greek Philosophers
• Philosopher: Hecataeus • Father of Regional Geography –
• Contributions: authored “Ges- wrote well-integrated regional
periodos” or Description of the description
Earth. • He prepared a world map based on
• It was the description of the then Anximander
known world around the • The world is divided into two parts
Mediterrranean Sea by a line passing through
• This book is a blend of the literary Hellespont, Caspian Sea and
tradition and the topographical- Caucasus mountains.
ecological tradition. • The northern part he called Europa
• He gave two approaches : a) and the Southern part of Lybia
Nomothetic or law seeking including Africa and Asia
• b) Idiographic or descriptive
 Major Greek Philosophers
• Philosopher : Herodotus, known as Father of • Philosopher :Plato
History also Father of ethnography
• Contribution: Master of deductive reasoning –
• Contribution: his works were based on his general to particular
observations during his travel • Shape of earth - Idea of round earth located in the
• His concept : Egypt is the gift of Nile center of the universe
• Attempted to measure the age of earth on the
basis of the rate of sedimentation
• Philosopher : Aristotle
• Introduced the idea of Longitude • Contribution: principles of scientific explanations
• Pioneer to apply mathematics in geography • Concept of variations in human habitability on the
• Pioneer in using ethnography – study on tribes earth based on the latitudinal position
• Historical geography - “all history must be treated • He identified two uninhabitable zones – the Torrid
geographically and all geography must be treated historically” Zone near the Equator and Frigid Zone; people
lived in the Temperate Zone which existed between
the Torrid and the Frigid Zones.
• Philosopher : Hippocrates • Political Geography – proposed a model of ‘ideal
• Important Work : “On Airs, Waters, Places” state’- views on the proportion of land and people; evolution
explained the man-nature relationship of human life with technological development, location of
capitals & ideal shapes of the borders or border areas etc.
• Introduced Medical Geography – “Prognostics” –
he proposed that by observing enough cases , a
physician can predict the course of a disease
Greek Philosophers
• Philosopher: Eratosthenes known
as Father of Geography & Father of
Calculation of
Geodesy earth’s
• Contributions: Coined the term circumferance
Geography
• Defined geography as the “study of
earth as home of man”
• His significant contribution is
measurement of the earth’s
circumference World Map of
Eratosthenese
• World map with respect to correct
distance
• He delineated the world into five
climatic zones- Torrid, temperates,
frigid zones
• Important work – Geographica
Greek Philosophers
• Philosopher: Hipparchus • Philosopher: Posidonius
• Contribution: concept of exact • Contribution : recalculated the
positioning of each place on the circumference of the earth and
surface of the earth. came to a smaller figure (18000
• Inspired by Assyrian arithmetic miles) (though later it was proved
divided the circle into 360 degrees. wrong)
• Created two projections – • Climate Region – opposed
stereographic and the Aristotle’s view that equatorial
orthographic projections regions are the hottest and devoid
of any habitation;
• Invention of Astrolab – instrument • Tropics are the hottest
for measuring latitude at sea by
observing polestar’s angle.
Roman Philosophers
• Philosopher: Strabo • “Historical Sketches” – on historical
• Contribution: geography in 43 volumes – evolution of
geography from Homer’s time up to his
• Pioneer of Regional Geography – first to own age.
propose regional divisions based on
natural boundaries e.g. hills, rivers etc.
• laid foundation of chorological paradigms • Political Geography – elements of
in geography and regional approach geopolitics – necessity of powerful central
government - opined that natural
protections around Italy have helped it to
emerge as the powerful centre of the
• Important Work: Geographika – in 17 Roman Empire.
volumes, a compilation of writings on
Europe, Asia and Africa – description of
cultural habits, customs, manners, types • Environmental Determinism – nature’s
of governance, topographical details influence on humans
Roman Geographers
• Ptolemy
• Contribution : revived the
mathematical tradition of Thales
• For him Geography was a science of
the art of map-making.
• Laid the foundation of a
comprehensive view of the world
• Important Work : “The Almagast” –
the standard reference for the study
of the movement of celestial bodies
for a long time.
• “The Geography” – discussion on map Prepared world map with longitudes and
projections and cartographic latitudes
calculations
• Climatic Regions – identified different
climatic regions on the earth
 Medieval Period (1000-1300 A.D.)
Contributions of the Arab Scholars
Scientific thoughts of the Roman and Greek Scholars flourished through
their work
Arab Scholars during Medieval period
• They were known for their contributions with respect to concepts,
paradigms and theories
• In the field of geography the Muslim scholars have contributed in the
fields of mathematical, physical and regional geography.
• Their contributions are in the fields of climatology, geomorphology,
cartography.
• Methodology used : through the observations and analytical
reasoning they interpreted the different phenomenon occurring over
the surface of the earth.
• The three main sources of information they used are : relevant
available literature, personal observations made during their travel,
and the information collected from other persons
…continued
• Al-Masudi – was a geographer, a historian,

• Contributions: Wrote on diverse themes – a. weather conditions,

landform studies like erosion, river morphology, evolution of
landforms
• b. relationship between human beings and environment.
• c. divided the world into seven regions on the basis of language

• Important works: Mehraj-al-Duhab, Kitabul Aswat, Kitab- Akhbar-

Zaman
…continued
• Al –Biruni – his interests include astronomy, mathematics,, physics,
medicine and history
• Contributions: regional study of India - the processes shaping the
Himalayan landforms under normal conditions ,
• distribution of rainfall in peninsular region, accurate account of
seasons of India highlighting the nature of monsoon
• information about the source of Indus and explained the phenomena
of floods in its basin.
• Detailed description of city of Kannauj
• Important Works : Kitab-al-Hind, Al-Qanuan-Almasudi and Tarikul
Hind.
…Al-Biruni
• Astronomical writings – the origin of universe, the earth’s theory of
rotation on its axis and correctly calculated the latitudes and
longitudes of many places.
• He explained the phenomena of solar and lunar eclipses and
attempted to measure the longest and the shortest distance of the
moon and the sun from the earth.
• studied the relationship of tides with the phases of moon.
• Geomorhological writings : compared the fossils discovered in the
plans of Arabia, Jurjan and Khwarizmi along the Caspian Sea

• Important Work: Al-Tahidi.

Arab Scholars
• Ibn–Sina – also known as ‘Avicenna’
• Contributions: ranging from medicine, psychology and
pharmacology to geology, physics, astronomy, chemistry and
philosophy, also a poet, Islamic scholar and a theologian
• Contribution to geomorphology - He gave the idea of landscape
erosion when he observed that the streams cut down their valleys
when flowing down the mountains.
• He further states that these streams worn down the mountains in a
slow but steady process. He even examined the presence of fossils in
the rocks in higher mountains.
•
…continued
• Al idrisi – leading scholar of the 12th century who travelled
extensively.
• Contribution: world map,
• described the courses of many rivers ,
• he divided the world into five climatic divisions and prepared a more
sophisticated classification based on climate.

• Important Work : Amusements for Him Who Desire to Travel Around

the World (1154)
….continued
• Ibn Batuta: traveller, primary interest was in people, also the physical conditions
in different regions that he visited
• Important Work : Rihlah provides an insight into the soils, agriculture, economy
and political history of the then Muslim world.

• Ibn Khaldun : basically a historian but also wrote based on his travels,
• one of the early environmental determinists as he tried to correlate man and his
environment in a scientific way
• Contributions: Distribution of population and the factors
• Man environment relationship
• Political geography where he discussed the rise and fall of dynasties and empires
• The first concept of the life cycle of the state

• Important Work: Muqaddimah

Contribution of Chinese Philosophers (200 -1500 AD)
• Mathematical Geography – Chang Heng, Phei Hsiu (called father of
Chinese cartography)
• Human Geography – Shan Hei Ching
• Astronomy – Zhang Heng, Han Thien School
• Physical Geography, Exploration & Regional Geography -
• Yu Kung, Zhang Heng
• Confucious, Loazi, I.Ching were famous philosophers
• Chang Cien, Hsuan Tsang, Chou Ta Kuan, Zhang Heng etc. were famous travellers
Early Indian Geographical Literature

• The term ‘Bhogola’ a term used to refer to Geography was coined by

Suryasidhanta, who used it for the first time in the Indian
Geographical Literature.
• According to Puranas – Bhogola –is Geography and
Khogola – is science of space
• there was mention of 34 grahs or heavenly bodies in the Rig Veda
• According to Puranas the seven Dwipas making up the world
The Earliest Known Indian Scholars and their field of work
Name Field
Name Field
Acharya Kapil (3000 BC) Cosmology
Bhaskara –I (600-680) Mathematics &
Acharya Bharadwaj (800 Aviation technology Astronomy
BC
Aryabhatta II (around Mathematics &
Baudhāyana, (800 BC) Mathematics 920) Astronomy
Acharya Charak (600 BC) Medicine
Sridharacharya (AD 991) Mathematics
Acharya Shusrut (600 Medicine (Surgery)
BC) Brahmadeva (1060- Mathematics &
1130A.D.) Astronomy
Aryabhatta I (476-550 Mathematics &
AD) Astronomy
Bhaskaracharya (1114- Algebra
Varahamihir (499-587 Astrology & Astronomy 1183 AD)
AD)
Brahmgupta (598-668) Mathematics &
Astronomy

Source: Rana, L. (2013 ).Evolution of Modern Geographical

Thinking and Disciplinary Trends in India, p.2.
References
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2020.
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