Chapter 21:

Fundamentals of Chip-Type
Machining Processes
DeGarmo’s Materials and Processes in
Manufacturing
20.1 Introduction
Machining: The process of removing unwanted
material in the form of chips.
The process is unique and difficult to analyze because:
◼ Different materials behave differently
◼ Unconstrained process
◼ The level of strain is very high
◼ The strain rate is very high
◼ The process is sensitive to variations in tool geometry,
material, temperature, cutting fluid.
FIGURE 20-1 The
fundamental inputs and
outputs to machining
processes.
20.2 Fundamentals
◼ Basic chip formation processes: shaping, turning,
milling, drilling, sawing, broaching, and grinding

FIGURE 20-2 The seven basic machining processes used in chip formation.
20.2 Fundamentals

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8EsAxOnzEms https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ef59DogwLrI&t=24s

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FIGURE 20-3 Turning a
cylindrical workpiece on a
lathe requires you to
select the cutting speed,
feed, and depth of cut.
20.2 Fundamentals
◼ Important terms: Speed (V), feed (f), Depth of cut
(DOF) or (d), metal removal rate (MRR), cutting time
(CT).
◼ Each material to be cut has its input parameters (V,
f, and d) as shown in Table 20.4
FIGURE 20-4 Examples of a table for selection of speed and feed for turning. (Source: Metcut’s
Machinability Data Handbook.)
FIGURE 20-4 Examples of a table for selection of speed and feed for turning. (Source: Metcut’s
Machinability Data Handbook.)
FIGURE 20-5 Relationship of
speed, feed, and depth of cut in
turning, boring, facing, and
cutoff operations typically done
on a lathe.
FIGURE 20-6 Basics
of milling processes
(slab, face, and end
milling) including
equations for cutting
time and metal
removal rate (MRR).
FIGURE 20-7 Basics of the drilling (hole-making)
processes, including equations for cutting time and
metal removal rate (MRR).
FIGURE 20-8 Process basics of
broaching. Equations for cutting
time and metal removal rate
(MRR) are developed in
Chapter 26
FIGURE 20-9 (a) Basics of the
shaping process, including
equations for cutting time (Tm ) and
metal removal rate
(MRR). (b) The relationship of the
crank rpm Ns to the cutting velocity
V.
FIGURE 20-10 Operations and machines used for machining cylindrical surfaces.
FIGURE 20-10 Operations and machines used for machining cylindrical surfaces.
FIGURE 20-11 Operations
and machines used to
generate flat surfaces.
 Understanding Chip Formation
◼ Oblique machining: - Three dimensional
representation
◼ - Difficult to analyze

◼ Orthogonal machining: two-dimensional

◼ used to explain the mechanics of metal

cutting
◼ Chip formation is a shearing process along
the shear plane. The mechanics of shearing
is: compression, plastic deformation, work
hardening, and failure (shearing).
20.3 Energy and Power in Machining
◼ The three components of forces in Oblique
cutting:
◼ Fc: primary cutting force in the direction of the
cutting velocity and it accounts for 99% of the
power
◼ Ff: feed force in the direction of feed vf and is
usually 50% of Fc. It is a small percentage of the
power (feed speed is low compared to cutting
speed)
◼ Fr: radial or thrust force and is about 50% of Ff. It
contributes very little to power (velocity in its
direction is negligible)
FIGURE 20-12 Oblique
machining has three measurable
components of forces acting on
the tool. The forces vary with
speed, depth of cut, and feed.
◼ Power for cutting: P = Fc V
◼ Spindle horsepower: HP = Fc V/33,000
◼ Specific horsepower: HPs = HP/ MRR
(hp/in3/min)
◼ It is the approximate power needed to
remove 1 in3 per minute.
◼ In turning: MRR ≈ 12 V fr d
◼ Thus HPs = Fc V/(33000x 12 V fr d) =
Fc/(396000 fr d)
◼ HPs for various metals are shown in Table
HPs is used to estimate motor horsepower HPm
◼ Motor horsepower HPm = (HPs x MRR x CF) /E
◼ CF: correction factor (accounts for variation in
speed feed, and rake angle)
◼ E : machine efficiency (account for power
needed for friction, inertia, and moving parts)
and is about 80%
◼ The primary cutting force Fc can be calculated
as:
Fc ≈ (HPs x MRR x 33000)/ V
◼ Fc is useful in the analysis of deflection and
vibration problems related to machinery in the
design of work holding devices.
◼ In general:
Increase in speed, feed, and depth of cut
increase the power.
◼ Doubling speed doubles HP
◼ Doubling feed or depth of cut doubles Fc

◼ Increasing speed does not increase Fc ???

(puzzle)
◼ Speed has strong effect on tool life (effect of
heat)
FIGURE 20-13 Three ways to perform
orthogonal machining. (a) Orthogonal plate
machining on a horizontal milling machine, good
for low-speed cutting. (b) Orthogonal tube turning
on a lathe; high-speed cutting (see Figure 20-16).
(c) Orthogonal disk machining on a lathe;
very high-speed machining with tool feeding (ipr)
in the facing direction
20.4 Orthogonal Machining (Two Forces)

Assumptions for orthogonal cutting :

◼ single narrow shear plane

◼ perfectly sharp edge

FIGURE 20-14 Schematics of
the orthogonal plate machining
setups. (a) End view of table,
quick-stop device (QSD), and
plate being machined for OPM.
(b) Front view of horizontal
milling machine. (c) Orthogonal
plate machining with fixed tool,
moving plate. The feed
mechanism of the mill is used to
produce low cutting speeds. The
feed of the tool is t and the DOC
is w, the width of the plate.
End of Final Exam material
FIGURE 20-15 Orthogonal
tube turning (OTT) produces a
two-force cutting operation at
speeds equivalent to those used
in most oblique machining
operations. The slight difference
in cutting speed between the
inside and outside edge of the
chip can be neglected.
FIGURE 20-16
Videograph
made from the
orthogonal plate
machining process.
FIGURE 20-17 Schematic
representation of the material
flow, that is, the chip-forming
shear process. f defines the
onset of shear or lower boundary.
c defines the direction of slip
due to dislocation movement.
◼ Effect of work material properties:
High strength material is characterized by:
- large forces
- greater tool deflection
- increased friction ( heat generation)
- greater work input
Ductile material is characterized by extensive
plastic deformation (increase work, heat, and
temperature), and longer and continuous chip.
Brittle material produces discontinuous or
segmented chip.
◼ Built-up edge (BUE) is characterized by:
- ductile material
- high temp. and pressure
- weld effect
- protection of tool from wear
- change in tool geometry
◼ and can be eliminated by:
- reduced depth of cut
- change in cutting speed
- positive rake angle
- use of coolant
- change of cutting tool material
FIGURE 20-18 Three characteristic types of chips.
(Left to right) Discontinuous, continuous, and
continuous with built-up edge. Chip samples produced
by quick-stop technique. (Courtesy of Eugene Merchant
(deceased) at Cincinnati Milacron, Inc., Ohio.)
20.5 Merchant’s Model
◼ The speed relations as represented by Figure 20.19
◼ V: cutting speed
◼ Vc: chip velocity
◼ Vs: shear process velocity
◼ t: uncut chip thickness
◼ tc: chip thickness
◼ α: back rake angle
◼ γ: clearance angle
◼ chip thickness ratio: rc = t/ tc
◼ Equations 6, 7, 8, and 9 will be used for solving
problems.
FIGURE 20-19 Velocity
diagram associated with
Merchant’s orthogonal
machining model.
20.6 Mechanics of Machining (Statics)
◼ F: friction force
◼ N: normal force acting on tool/chip interface
◼ Fs: sheer force
◼ Fn: normal force acting on shear plane
◼ The above forces cannot be measured.
◼ The Force dynamometer is used to measure:
◼ Fc: cutting force
◼ Ft: tangential (normal) force
◼ μ: friction coefficient on tool chip interface
FIGURE 20-20 Free-body diagram of orthogonal chip
formation process, showing equilibrium condition
between resultant forces R and R.
FIGURE 20-21 Merchant’s circular force diagram used
to derive equations for Fs , Fr , Ft , and N as functions
of Fc, Fr , f, a, and b.
FIGURE 20-22 Shear
stress ts variation with
the Brinell hardness
number for a group of
steels and aerospace
alloys. Data of some
selected fcc metals are
also included. (Adapted
with permission from S.
Ramalingham and K. J.
Trigger, Advances in
Machine Tool Design and
Research, 1971,
Pergamon Press.)
FIGURE 20-23 The Black–Huang “stack-of-cards”
model for calculating shear strain in metal
cutting is based on Merchant’s bubble model for chip
formation, shown on the left.
FIGURE 20-24 Machining
dynamics is a closed-loop
interactive process that creates
a force-displacement response.
FIGURE 20-25
There are three
types of vibration
in machining.
FIGURE 20-26 Some
examples of chatter that are
visible on the surfaces of the
workpiece.
FIGURE 20-27 When the
overlapping cuts get out of
phase with each other, a variable
chip thickness is produced,
resulting in a change in Fc on the
tool or workpiece.
FIGURE 20-28 Regenerative
chatter in turning and milling
produced by variable uncut chip
thickness.
FIGURE 20-29 Milling and boring operations can be made more stable by correct selection of insert geometry.
FIGURE 20-30 Dynamic
analysis of the cutting process
produces a stability lobe
diagram, which defines speeds
that produce stable and unstable
cutting conditions.
Heat and Temperature in Metal cutting
◼ Power is converted to heat: w.p, tool, chip
◼ Three sources of heat: (see Figure )

1-from shearing: plastic deformation results in the major

heat source (most of this heat stays in the chip)
2-chip-tool interface: additional plastic deformation and
friction produces more heat
3-rubbing the tool with the freshly produced workpiece
surface.
◼ Tool material must be:

- hard to resist wear

- tough to resist cratering and chipping
- resist impact loading
- sustain hardening at elevated temp.
FIGURE 20-31 Distribution of
heat generated in machining to
the chip, tool, and workpiece.
Heat going to the environment
is not shown. Figure based on
the work of A. O. Schmidt.
FIGURE 20-32 There are three main sources of heat in metal cutting. (1) Primary shear zone. (2)
Secondary shear zone tool–chip (T–C) interface. (3) Tool flank. The peak temperature occurs at the
center of the interface, in the shaded region.
FIGURE 20-33 The typical relationship of temperature at the tool–chip interface to cutting
speed shows a rapid increase. Correspondingly, the tool wears at the interface rapidly with
increased temperature, often created by increased speed.