Chapter 3 31 Geometric Design of Highways INTRODUCTION With the understanding of vehicle performance provided in Chapter 2, attention can now be directed toward highway design. The design of highways necessitates the determination of specific design elements, which include the number of lanes, lane width, median type (if any) and width, length of acceleration and deceleration lanes for on- and off-ramps, need for truck climbing lanes for steep grades, curve radii required for vehicle turning, and the alignment required to provide adequate stopping and passing sight distances. Many of these design elements are influenced by the performance characteristics of vehicles. For example, vehicle acceleration and deceleration characteristics have a direct impact on the design of acceleration and deceleration lanes (the length needed to provide a safe and orderly flow of traffic) and the highway alignment needed to provide adequate passing and stopping sight distances. Furthermore, vehicle performance characteristics determine the need for truck climbing lanes on steep grades (where the poor performance of large trucks necessitates @ separate lane) as well as the number of lanes required because the observed spacing between vehicles in traffic is directly related to vehicle performance characteristies (this will be discussed further in Chapter 5). In addition, the physical dimensions of vehicles affect a mumber of design elements, such as the radii required for low-speed turning, height of highway overpasses, and lane widths. When one considers the diversity of vehicles’ performance and physical dimensions, and the interaction of these characteristics with the many elements constituting highway design, itis clear that proper design is a complex procedure that requires numerous compromises. Moreover, it is important that design guidelines evolve over time in response to changes in vehicle performance and dimensions, and in response to evidence collected on the effectiveness of existing highway design practices, such as the relationship between crash rates and various roadway design characteristics. Current guidelines of highway design are presented in detail in A Policy on Geometric Design of Highway's and Streets, 6th éition, published by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials [AASHTO 2011 Because of the sheer number of geometric elements involved in highway design, a detailed discussion of each design clement is beyond the scope of this book, and the reader is referred to [AASHTO 2011] for @ complete discussion of current design practices. Instead, this book focuses exclusively on the key elements of highway alignment, which are arguably the most important components of geometric design. As will be shown, the alignment topic is particularly well suited for demonstratingthe effect of vehicle performance (specifically braking performance) and vehicle dimensions (such as driver’s eye height, headlight height, and taillight height) on the design of highways. By concentrating on the specifics of the highway alignment problem, the reader will develop an understanding of the procedures and ‘compromises inherent in the design of all highway-related geometric elements. 3.2. PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT The alignment of a highway is a three-dimensional problem measured in x, y, and z coordinates. This is illustrated, from a driver's perspective, in Fig. 3.1, However, in highway design practice, three-dimensional design computations are cumbersome, and, what is perhaps more important, the actual implementation and construction of a design based on three-dimensional coordinates has historically been prohibitively difficult. As a consequence, the three-dimensional highway alignment problem is reduced to two two-dimensional alignment problems, as illustrated in Fig, 3.2. One of the alignment problems in this figure corresponds roughly to x and z coordinates and is referred to as horizontal alignment. The other corresponds to highway length {measured along some constant elevation) and y coordinates (clevation) and is referred to as vertical alignment. Referring to Fig. 3.2, note that the horizontal alignment of a highway is referred to as the plan view, which is roughly equivalent to the perspective of an aerial photo of the highway. The vertical alignment is represented in a profile view, which gives the elevation of all points measured along, the length of the highway (again, with length measured along a constant elevation reference), Aside from considering the alignment problem as two two-dimensional problems, one further simplification is made: instead of using x and 2 coordinates, highway positioning and length are defined as the distance along the highway (usually measured along the centerline of the highway, on a horizontal, constant- elevation plane) from a specified point. This distance is measured in terms of stations, with each station consisting of 100 ft of highway alignment distance. The notation for stationing distance is such that a point on a highway 4250 ft from a specified point of origin is said to be at station 42 + 50 ff, that is, 42 stations and 50 ft, with the point of origin being at station 0 + 00. This stationing concept, v vy —= = Figure 3.1 Highway alignment in three dimensions,Plan view Chorizontal alignment) A Profle view (vera alignment) s - y Figure 3.2 Highway alignment in two-dimensional views combined with the highway’s alignment direction given in the plan view (horizontal alignment) and the elevation corresponding to stations given in the profile view (vertical alignment), gives a unique identification of all highway points in a manner that is virtually equivalent to using true x, y, and z coordinates. 3.3. VERTICAL ALIGNMENT Vertical alignment specifies the elevation of points along a roadway. The elevation of these roadway points is usually determined by the need to provide an acceptable level, of driver safety, driver comfort, and proper drainage (from rainfall runoff). A primary concer in vertical alignment is establishing the transition of roadway elevations between two grades. This transition is achieved by means of a vertical curve. Vertical curves can be broadly classified into crest vertical curves and sag vertical curves, as illustrated in Fig. 3.3. Note that in Fig. 3.3, the distance from the PVC to the PV1is L/2. This is used in this figure because in practice the vast majority of vertical curves are arranged such that half of the curve length is positioned before the PVI and half after. Curves that satisfy this criterion are called equal-tangent vertical curves. For referencing points on a vertical curve, it is important to note that the profile views presented in Fig. 3.3 correspond to all highway points even if a horizontal curve occurs concurrently with a vertical curve (as in Figs. 3.1 and 3.2), Thus, each roadway point is uniquely defined by stationing (which is measured along a horizontal plane) and elevation. This will be made clearer through forthcoming, examples.PG, evr wy be ‘ey (Croat Vertical Curves Se “a 4G > ‘Sag Vertical Curves Figure 3.3 Types of vertical curves, Used by permission from American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Policy on Geomenrie Design of Highways and Streets, 6° Edition, Washington, DC, 2011. Gy = initial roadway grade in percent or ft point ofthe vertical curve (the initial point of (this grade is also referred to asthe initial, the cur), tangent grade, viewing Fig 3.3 from left pyy = point of vertical intersection (intersection of| tornghd), intial and final grades) and Gy = final roadway (angent) grade in percent PVT = point of vertical tangent, which i the final point or, ‘of the vertical curve (the point where the curve A = absolute value of the difference in grades returns to the final grade or, equivalently, the Giitial minus final, usually expressed in final tangent) percent), 1 = length ofthe curve in stations orf ‘measured in a constant-elevation horizontal plane 3.3.1 Vertical Curve Fundamentals In connecting roadway grades (tangents) with an appropriate vertical curve, a ‘mathematical relationship defining elevations at all points (or equivalently, stations) along the vertical curve is needed. A parabolic function has been found suitable in this regard because, among other things, it provides a constant rate of change of slope and implies equal curve tangents. The general form of the parabolic equation, as applied to vertical curves, is Sar thrte Ga) where y= roadway clevation at distance x from the beginning of the vertical curve (the PVC) in stations or R, distance from the beginning of the vertical curve in stations or ft, coetficients defined below, and ¢ = elevation of the PYC (because x = 0 corresponds to the PVC) in f.EXAMPLE 3.1 SOLUTION In defining a and b, note that the first derivative of Eq, 3.1 gives the slope and is, aw 2ax+b 3.2) Spat 3.2) At the PVC, x = 0, so, using Eq, 3.2, &_¢ b= 226, 3.3) de 3.3) where G, is the initial slope in fuft, as defined in Fig. 3.3. Also note that the second derivative of Eq. 3.1 is the rate of change of slope and is #Y 5g 34) = 4 However, the average rate of change of slope, by observation of Fig. 3.3, can also be written as G3) Equating Egs. 3.4 and 3.5 gives: G6) with all terms as defined previously (see Fig. 3.3). Please note that the units for coefficients a and 6 in Eqs. 3.3 and 3.6 must be such that they provide ft when ‘multiplied by x7 and x, respectively. The preceding equations define all the terms in the parabolic vertical curve equation (Eq. 3.1). The following example gives a typical application of this equation. VERTICAL CURVE STATIONS AND ELEVATIONS, ‘A 600-f equal-tangent sag vertical curve has the PVC at station 170 + 00 and elevation 1000 ft. The inital grade is ~3.5% and the final grade is +0.5%. Determine the stationing and elevation of the PVI, the PVT, and the lowest point onthe curv. Since the curve is equal tangent, the PVT will be 300 for three stations (measured in a horizontal plane) from the PVC, and the PYT will be 600 ft or six stations from the PVC. Therefore, the stationing of the PVT and PVT is 173 + 00 and 176 + 00, respectively. For the clevations of the PVI and PVT, itis known that a -3.5% grade can be equivalently written as —3.5 fstation (a 3.5 ft drop per 100 ft of horizontal distance), Since the PVT is three stations from the PC, which is known to be at elevation 1000 ft, the elevation of the PV1 is 1000 ~3.5 f/station x (3 stations) = 989.5 ft ‘Similarly, with the PVJ at elevation 989.5 ft, the elevation of the PVT is989.5 + 0.5 station x (3 stations) = 991.0 f It is clear from the values of the initial and final grades that the lowest point on the vertical curve will occur when the first derivative of the parabolic function (Eq, 3.1) is zero because the initial and final grades are opposite in sign, When initial and final grades are not ‘opposite in sign, the low (or high) point on the curve will not be where the first derivative is zero because the slope along the curve will never be zero. For example, a sag curve with an initial grade of -2.0% and a final grade of -2.0% will have its lowest elevation at the PVT, and the first derivative of Eq, 3.1 will not be zero at any point along the curve, However, in cour example problem the derivative will be equal to zero at some point, so the low point will oceur when BS From Eq. 3.3 we have ‘with G; in percent. From Eq. 3.6 (with £ in stations and G, and Gz in percent), = 0.33333, Substituting for a and b gives a B ~2(0,33333).+(3.5)=0 al ye +(3.5) x=5.25 stations ‘This gives the stationing of the low point at 175 + 25 (5 + 25 stations from the PVC). For the elevation of the lowest point on the vertical curve, the values of a,b, c (elevation of the PVC), and x are substituted into Eg. 3.1, giving ‘y= 0.33333(5.25)* + (-3.5)(5.25)+1000 = 990.81 8 Note that the preceding equations can also be solved with grades expressed as the decimal equivalent of percent (for example, 0.02 fft for 2%) if x is expressed in fect instead of stations. Care must be taken not to mix units. A dimensional analysis of Eg. 3.1 must ensure that cach right-side clement of the equation has resulting units of fect. Another interesting vertical curve problem that is sometimes encountered is one in Which the curve must be designed so that the elevation of a specific location is met. An example might be to have the roadway connect with another (at the same elevation) or to have the roadway at some specified elevation so as to pass under another roadway. This type of problem is referred to as a curve-through-a-point problem and is demonstrated by the following example.