INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS COMMUNICATION SKILLS

GST 04102/04104

COURSE: BTCA, BTCPLM, BTCBA, BTCMPR, BTCHRM &BTCPSAF

LECTURER: MR. MWAMBULA, H.

THEORY OF COMMUNICATION IN BUSINESS UNDERTAKINGS

Meaning of Communication

The word “communication” comes from the Latin word “communis” meaning to share.

Communication has been defined in many ways. Some of the given definitions include the
following:-

Communication is the sharing of thoughts, feelings and ideas among people.

Communication is the process of passing information and understanding from one person to
another.

Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions, or emotions by two or more persons.

Communication is the process of transferring information from a sender to a receiver with the
use of a medium in which the communicated information is understood by both sender and
receiver.

Communication is the process in which message is conceived, organized, transmitted, received

and responded to.

Communications Skills involve speaking and listening, writing and analyzing the written word,
as well as gesturing and interpreting the body language of others (Ludden, 2007).

OR

Communication Skills refers to the knowledge and ability of transferring information, skills,
knowledge and feelings from one person to another through a given communication medium.

Business communication is the sharing of information between people within and outside the
organization that is performed for the commercial benefit of the organization. It can also be
defined as relaying of information within a business by its people.

Objectives of business communication

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 1. To create consciousness: Employees of an organization must be conscious regarding
their duties and responsibilities. Communication supplies necessary information and makes
them conscious about their duties and responsibilities.
2. To increase efficiency: In order to increase employee efficiency, they should be
provided with necessary information and guidelines. Communication supplies such
information and guidelines for them.
3. To bring dynamism: Organizations should be dynamic to cope with the internal and
external changes. Bringing dynamism requires finding new and better ways of doing things.
For this purpose, communication helps to seek new ideas and suggestions from the internal
and external parties.
4. To improve labor-management relationships: Harmonious relationship between
workers and management is a prerequisite for organizational success. In this regard,
the objective of communication is to ensure the free and fair flow of information and to
create good understanding between them.
5. To orient employee: Communication orients the new employees with the company’s
policies, rules, regulations, procedures etc.

Basic Elements of Communication

• Sender/Source/Encoder; is a person who sends the message. A sender makes use of

symbols (words or graphic or visual aids) to convey the message and produce the
required response. Sender may be an individual or a group or an organization.
• Message; this is the subject matter of communication. It may contain facts, ideas, feelings
or thoughts.
• Channels/Media; are the ways which one uses to convey message to the target receiver.
Examples of common channels include; written channel, oral channel, visual channel and
audio-visual channel.
• Receiver/Recipient; this is a person for whom the message is intended or aimed. The
degree to which the decoder understands the message is dependent upon various factors
such as knowledge of recipient, their responsiveness to the message, and the reliance of
encoder on decoder.
• Feedback; this is the response of the receiver to the sender’s message. It helps the sender
in confirming the correct interpretation of message by the decoder. Feedback may be
verbal (through words) or non-verbal (in form of smiles, sighs, etc.).

IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION

1. It helps to inform; communication helps one in providing information about our

surroundings and what is happening in our society.

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 2. It helps in expressing feelings; as people communicate, they release their feelings.
Through expression of their feelings, they add depth and breadth to their relationships.
Normally people tend to come closer as they share their disappointments and triumphs,
joys and sorrows etc.

3. Entertainment; communication helps in providing endless entertainment to people

through television, film, music, literature, comedy, games etc.

4. Communication helps in education and in giving instruction; as it serves the purpose of

imparting knowledge, expertise and skills for smooth functioning in the society. Both
teachers and learners engage in communication in order to understand each other.

5. It helps in discussions; communication enables people to share different viewpoints in

issues of common interest to them in debates and discussions.

6. Communication helps to integrate people from different parts of the world/country/region

to come to know and understand each other’s traditions and appreciate each other’s ways
of life.

7. Communication helps in warning; this helps people to stop doing something which is
dangerous or has risks ahead eg. Smoking, excessive drinking etc.

COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Communication process consists of some interrelated steps or parts through which messages are

sent from sender to receiver. These include the following:- (1) Sender: The process of

communication begins with sender. This is a person who intends to convey the message with the

intention of passing information and ideas to others.

(2) Idea/message: This is the subject matter of the communication. This may be an opinion,
attitude, feelings, views, orders, or suggestions.

(3) Encoding: Since the subject matter of communication is theoretical and intangible, its further
passing requires use of certain symbols such as words, actions or pictures etc. Conversion of
subject matter into these symbols is the process of encoding.

(4) Communication Channel: The person who is interested in communicating has to choose the
channel for sending the required information, ideas etc. This information is transmitted to the
receiver through certain channels which may be either formal or informal.

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(5) Receiver: Receiver is the person who receives the message or for whom the message is
meant for. It is the receiver who tries to understand the message in the best possible manner in
achieving the desired objectives.

(6) Decoding: The person who receives the message or symbol from the communicator tries to
convert the same in such a way so that he may extract its meaning to his complete understanding.

(7) Feedback: Feedback is the process of ensuring that the receiver has received the message
and understood in the same sense as sender meant it.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

There are two main types of communication; verbal and non-verbal communication.

1. VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Verbal is the kind of communication where message is coded and transmitted using words
whether written or spoken (Kariuki and Munga, 2011).

a) Oral (spoken) Communication; is the kind of communication where people put their
message by speaking. Oral communication can take place through different ways such as;
face to face conversations, telephone conversations, discussions that take place at
business meetings, presentations at business meetings, classroom lectures,
commencement speech given at graduation ceremony and video conferencing.

Advantages of Oral Communication

 It brings quick feedback.
 It saves time and resources.
 It is a powerful means of persuasion.
 It offers a chance for clarification.
 There is also more flexibility in oral communication; you can discuss different
aspects of an issue and make decisions more quickly than you can in writing.
 Talking things over is often the best way to settle disagreements or
misunderstandings.
 Oral communication is a great way to promote employee morale and maintain energy
and enthusiasm within a team.

Disadvantages of Oral Communication

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  It does not have legal validity.
 It has no future reference unless recorded.
 It is not easy across long distances unless participants employ technological
devices.
 Speakers can easily deviate from the main points.
 Facial expressions might be misinterpreted.

b) Written Communication
Written communication involves that type of communication that makes use of the written word.
Examples of written communications generally used include: Email, Internet websites, Letters,
Proposals, Telegrams, Faxes, Postcards, Contracts, Advertisements, Brochures and News
releases.
Advantages of Written Communication
 Messages can be edited and revised many times before sent to the receiver.
 Written proof - provides written proof in case of a dispute.
 It provides permanent record of the communication, hence useful for future
reference.
 It gives enough time to the receiver to think, understand and act.
 It is suitable for formal communication.
 It can save time when many people must be contacted.
Disadvantages of Written Communication
 It can be permanently lost if not kept well.
 It has a great chance of leakage of the content.
 It can be difficult to be understood by the receiver if he/she does understand the
language used.
 It is expensive especially in terms of stationery, energy, time etc.
 It requires great skills and competencies in language and vocabulary use.
 Quick clarification is not available because the receiver relies on written word and
not the writer.
 A written document can be used as evidence against the writer.
2. Non-Verbal Communication
Nonverbal communication includes all unwritten and unspoken messages, both intentional and
unintentional. According to Kariuki and Munga (2011), Non verbal communication includes the
following:-
• Facial expression such as smiling, blinking, tears e.t.c
• Mouth behaviour like yawning, biting the lower lip, trembling lips e.t.c
• Body movement and gestures
• Tone of the voice

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 • Dress and appearance e.g the way we dress may determine our profession
• Colour of our dress may also have meanings
• Touch and contact pressure in things like firm handshake, fondling, slapping e.t.c

Types of Non-verbal Communication

There are four categories of non-verbal communication these include-body movement,
paralanguage, personal presentation and proxemics (Fujishin, 2009:57).

a) Body movements; this involves all the ways people use their bodies to communicate or
enhance their body movement. Body movement includes postures, gestures, facial
expressions and eye contact.
b) Paralanguage; this is how we speak, aside from the actual words or content of our
messages, paralanguage includes pitch (highness or lowness of our voice), volume
(softness or loudness of our voice), rate (how fast or slow we speak), and quality (overall
sound of our voice)
c) Personal Presentation; this is your personal presentation. It includes clothing, grooming,
and touching behaviour.

• Clothing; our clothing is one of the most obvious and public displays of who we
are and what we want to communicate to others.
• Grooming; our grooming can also reflect and communicate messages to the
world. The length and style of our hair, bathing routines, makeup, perfume, finger
and toenail painting and many other grooming habits communicate a great deal
about who we are and how we want to be perceived.
• Touching behaviour has been discovered to be essential to our development as
human beings. Without it, relationship can wither.

d) Proxemics; is deals with how we use space. It was first introduced by anthropologist
Edward Hall. By observing conversation between people, Hall discovered that our
personal space could be broken down into four zones or distances:

• Intimate distance (0-18 inches) is reserved for intimate activities include making
love, confidential conversations, hugging, kissing and snuggling.
• Personal distance (18inches -4feet) is used for most conversations with family,
friends and most acquaintances.
• Social distance (4-12 feet) is the distance we feel most comfortable with
transacting business, sitting during committee meetings and interacting with the
hotel clerk, the supermarket cashier etc.
• Public distance (12-25 feet) is used for public ceremonies, speeches, large group
meetings and class lectures.
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The distance of your personal space changes depending on the setting, the people
involved and how you are feeling at the moment. Cultural factors also play an important
role in determining proxemic distancing and personal comfort.

By your creative use of proxemics, you can communicate powerful messages without
speaking a single word.

Advantages of non-verbal communication

 Complementary: Non-verbal cues complement a verbal message by adding to its

meaning. You can pat someone you offended at the back as you say sorry to him or
her.
 Easy presentation: Information can be easily presented in non-verbal
communication through using visual, audio-visual and silent means of non-verbal
communication.
 Substituting: Non-verbal message may substitute for the verbal message especially
if it is blocked by noise, interruption, long distance etc. for example: gestures-finger
to lips to indicate need for quite, facial expressions- a nod instead of a yes.
 Help to illiterate people: This type of communication use gestures, facial
expressions, eye contact, proximity, touching etc. and without using any spoken or
written word. So, it is very much helpful for illiterate people.
 Help to handicapped people: Non-verbal cues of communication greatly help in
handicapped people especially to deaf people. Deaf people are exchange message
through the movements of hands, fingers, eye ball etc.
 Attractive presentation: Non-verbal communication is based on visual, picture,
graph, sign etc. that can be seen very much attractive.
 Quick expression of message: Non-verbal cues of communication like sign and
symbol can also communicate some messages very quickly than written or oral
messages.

Disadvantages or limitations of non-verbal communication

Despite of advantages of non-verbal communication, it is not free from its limitations or
disadvantages which are:

 Vague (unclear): Non-verbal communication is quite vague and imprecise. Since in

this communication there is no use of words or language which expresses clear
meaning to the receiver. No dictionary can accurately classify them. Their meaning
varies not only by culture and context but by degree of intension.
 Culture-bound: Non-verbal communication is learnt in childhood, passed on to you
by your parents and others with whom you associate. A few other gestures seem to
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 be universal. Evidence suggests that humans of all cultures smile when happy and
frown when unhappy. However, most nonverbal symbols seem to be even further
disconnected from any “essential meaning” than verbal symbols. Gestures seen as
positive in one culture (Like the thumbs-up gesture in the USA) may be seen as
obscene in another culture.
 Long conversations are not possible: In non-verbal communication, long
conversation and necessary explanations are not possible. No party can discuss the
particular issues of the messages.
 Not everybody prefers: Everybody not prefers to communicate through non-verbal
communication with others. Sometimes it cannot create an impression upon people
or listeners. It is less influential and cannot be used everywhere. It is cannot be used
as a public tool for communication.
 Lack of formality: Non-verbal communication does not follow any rules, formality
or structure like other communication. Most of the cases people unconsciously and
habitually engaged in non-verbal communication by moving the various parts of the
body.
 Distortion of information: Since it uses gestures, facial expressions, eye contact,
touch, sign, sound, paralanguage etc. for communicating with others, there is a great
possibility in distortion of information in non-verbal communication.

Barriers of Communication

Communication barriers are factors that reduce the intended smooth flow of information or
completely cut off the communication process. These are:

1. Distance; the distance between the transmitter and the receiver may become a barrier of
communication when the receiver does not get well the speaker’s message.

2. Language; language may be a communication barrier when people who have no

language in common attempt to communicate with each other. Also it may be a barrier
when a sender or receiver uses difficult words in communication.

3. Sex (gender); often gender stereotypes cause barrier in communication. Some people
assume that a person would not be able to do a certain job because of their gender. For
example, in the past period, women were stereotyped as being better office workers and
more suited to being on the front desk to greet the clients.

4. Noise; this is quite often a barrier to communication. In factories, oral communication is

rendered difficult by the loud noise of machines. Electronic noise like blaring often
interferes in communication by telephone or loudspeaker system.

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 5. Appearance; this can also be a barrier of effective communication in terms of physical
disabilities such as hearing problems or speech disabilities, not being able to see non
verbal cues, ones ways of dressing e.t.c.

6. Emotion; this may also become a barrier in the act of communication. If the sender is
worried, excited, afraid or nervous, his thinking will be blurred and he will not be able to
organize his message properly.

7. Poor listening; this is perceived to be a barrier of effective communication as it may

cause the listener to fail to critically evaluate what is being said by the speaker.

Principles of Communication

 Completeness; message in effective communication should be complete since it has to

convey sufficient information as required for appropriate interpretation by the audience.

 Conciseness; effective communication should always be characterized by simple, short

and clear message.

 Clarity; effective communication should ensure there is no confusion, misreading, or

difficult in receiving the information.

 Concreteness; effective communication has to use vivid images to enhance interpretation

of ideas by the audience.

 Courtesy; effective communication has to employ courteous language. It should show

respect to receivers, and therefore confirming respectability of the sender.

 Correctness; effective communication should be made up of correct information.

 Coherent; effective communication should be consistent. It should be logical and also, the
ideas in it have to flow from one point to the next through smooth transitions.

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SENTENCES

A sentence is a group of words which makes complete sense.

EX:

• Dodoma is the capital of Tanzania

• Man is a social animal by nature

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES

Sentences are divided into five kinds, namely declarative sentence, interrogative sentence,
imperative sentence, exclamatory sentence and optative sentence (Murthy, 1998).

Declarative Sentence; this is a sentence that states or declares something

Ex:

• Dodoma is the capital of Tanzania.

• The earth move s round the Sun.

Interrogative Sentence; this is a sentence that asks a question

Ex:

• What do you want?

• Do you know English?

• Have you ever been to America?

Imperative Sentence; this is a sentence that expresses a command, a request and suggestion.

a) Request; Ex: Please post the letter, May I use your phone? E.t.c

b) Command; Ex: Don’t smoke in the room, Come here, Close the door e.t.c

c) Suggestion; Ex: You should help the poor, What about a cup of tea?, You could talk to
your parents and ask them, I thought you might want to read this book, How about going
home now?, what about opening your present now?, Couldn’t you get up early in the
morning to finish the work?, You could wear your red dress and your black shoes e.t.c

Exclamatory Sentence; this is a sentence that expresses some strong or sudden feeling

Ex:
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 • What a shame!

• What a great success!

• How beautiful Amina is!

• How difficult the question paper is!

• I hate you!

• Wow, I really appreciate you!

Optative Sentence; this is a sentence that expresses a wish, probability or supposition

Ex:

• I wish you were my friend.

• If I had wings, I would fly.

• May God help you in your attempt.

• We wish she would be with us.

FUNCTIONS OF SENTENCES

• To declare something e.g. John is a Teacher.

• To ask questions e.g. Where are you coming from?, What do you want?

• To express command. E.g. Open the door

• To express request. E.g. May I use your pen?

• To express a wish. E.g. I wish you could be here now.

EXERCISES

Change the following commands into requests:

i. Post this letter.

ii. Give this letter to my brother.

iii. Wait for me at the gate.

iv. Don’t play with fire.

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Change the following sentences into assertive sentences

i. What a shame!

ii. How gracefully Mary walks!

iii. How dark the sky appears!

iv. What a beautiful building!

Change the following statements into questions:

i. You enjoy watching films.

ii. I saw the film last year.

iii. You have never been to Japan.

iv. Prevention is better than cure.

ARTICLES (a, an, the)

Articles are of two types: the definite that is ‘the’ and the indefinite, namely ‘an’ and ‘a’.

Countable nouns in the singular number take a/an with them: a ball, an egg, a dog, an elephant.

USE OF ‘A’

 It is used before words beginning with a consonant. Eg. A book, a teacher, a table etc.

 It is used before words beginning with a vowel but pronounced as a consonant. Eg.

/y/: a university, a European, and a useful hint.

/w/: a one year course, a one hour lecture, a one shilling coin.

THE USE OF ‘AN’

 It is used before words beginning with a vowel sound. Eg: an apple, an elbow, an Indian
etc.

 It is used before a silent ‘h’. eg: an hour, an honorable peace, an honest man etc.

 It is used before words that are spelled with consonant but pronounced with vowel
sounds. Eg: an MBA, an SMS etc.

THE USE OF ‘THE’

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 It is used when talking about a specific thing. Eg; The bus was late (the particular bus
was late)

 It is used when a name has already been mentioned for the first time and is clear to
everyone. Eg: She gave him a gift. The gift was very nice.

 It is used with superlatives. Eg: The best worker in the factory, The most educated
person.

 It is used with words in the superlative sense. Eg: The Chief Justice, The Prime Minister
etc.

 It is used with things of which there is only one in our world. Eg: The sun, the sky, the
moon, the equator.

 It is used with common nouns, when one noun is used to represent the whole species or
class. Eg: The horse is a faithful animal; The lion is the king of animals.

 It is used with an adjective with plural notion to indicate a class of persons. Eg: the rich
should help the poor.

 It is used with names of rivers, seas, oceans, mountain ranges, scriptures, news papers.
Eg: The Indian ocean, The Nile River, The red sea, The mount Meru, The Bible, The
Daily News etc.

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READING STRATEGIES

Reading involves the process of extracting meaning from a written or printed text.

REASONS FOR READING

i. Reading for pleasure; means reading for enjoyment. The main intention here is not to get
serious information but to pass the time. For example, reading newspapers, magazines, novels,
journals etc.

ii. Reading to find answers

iii. Reading to evaluate or judge materials; this aims at weighing materials to see which one is
better than the other.

iv. Reading to solve problems; this aims at acquiring knowledge for resolving short or long term
problems. For example when there is a certain disease, people can read to find the solution.

v. Reading to improve the quality of life; for example reading books for improving relationships
between society members, books that give knowledge on improving lifestyle, food, hygiene, etc.

TYPES OF READING STRATEGIES

In order one to be an effective reader, he/she should first have a clear mind of what and why
he/she reads. This means he/she should have the purpose in mind. It is this purpose that will give
you the following choices of reading; extensive reading, skimming, scanning and intensive
reading.

EXTENSIVE READING

This includes reading for obtaining general information of the subject matter. It includes reading
story books, news papers, magazines and longer texts for pleasure.

Benefits of Extensive reading

i. It can enhance learners’ general language competence.

ii. It can increase knowledge of previous learned vocabulary.

iii. It can motivate learners to read.

iv. It can teach learners about the culture of the target language users, which will allow learners
to more easily join the second language speech community.

v. It can help to build confidence with extended texts

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vi. It can lead to improvement in writing.

INTENSIVE READING

This is a kind of reading which is used on shorter texts in order to get detailed information.
Examples of intensive reading include; reading a speech, school report, and contract

SKIMMING

This is used to gather the gist and important information. In this type of reading, one quickly
reads over the text while noting main points. Examples of skimming include:-

• Reading News paper quickly to get general news of the day.

• Reading a book quickly to discover which topics you would like to read in more detail.

SCANNING

This is used to find a specific piece of information. For example dates or names you are not sure
of. In scanning we do not read every word on the page instead, we read the text with specific
words in mind.

It is not possible to scan read when you have no idea of what you are looking for. You must have
specific information or key words in mind.

THE SQ3R READING STRATEGY

This abbreviation stands for Survey, question, read, recall and review.

1. Survey; this is an entire assignment to get an overview of the material that we need to read.

2. Question; this involves the questions that can be answered during the reading of the materials
and gives a purpose to reading.

3. Read; this involves careful reading through each paragraph while trying to find answers to
questions formulated earlier.

4. Recite; when you recite, you stop reading once in a while to recall what you have read. Once
you have read a section, look away and try to recite the answer to your questions, using your own
words and examples. Try to connect things you have just read to things you already know.

5. Review; to review means to look at something again. Learning is not possible without
reviewing and repetition of texts. A review is an audit stage that involves surveying, questioning,
re-reading and reciting the text again with the aim of reinforcing the knowledge or information
acquired.

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PROPER READING HABITS

• Reader has an objective/purpose for reading

• Reading is mainly silent by looking at the text

• Reader has free eye-text movement reading

• Reading is in whole sentence or sections

• Reader makes short notes after reading complete sections of text.

• Reader develops a consistent reading culture

POOR READING HABITS

• Reader lacks clear purpose or objective for reading

• Vocalizing, this involves reading words loudly or whispering each word as you read. If
you vocalize as you read, you reduce your reading speed to your speaking rate and this
also reduces your ability to understand the text.

• Head wagging; this involves moving your head from right and left continuously as you
read. This behavior not only slows down your reading speed but also makes you get tired
faster than you would if you were not doing so.

• Pointing words with a finger or a pointer such as a pen or a piece of stick while reading
also reduces the reading rate.

• Reading words in isolation instead of reading the whole sentence or section.

• Reader writing everything he reads without consideration of context

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 TENSE

Tense is a term used in grammar to indicate the time of the action or event.

OR

Tense is an aspect of verb which tells the time of an action.

There are mainly three kinds of tenses; present tense, past tense and future tense.

1. PRESENT TENSE

This is used to show that an action takes place at present. It is divided into four classes as
follows:-

a). Simple Present Tense

i. He speaks English well.

ii. She writes very well.

iii. It rains today

b). Present Continuous Tense

i. I am writing notes.

ii. You are writing notes.

iii. They are writing notes.

c). Present Perfect Tense

i. I have eaten mangoes

ii. She has written notes

iii. You have opened the door

d). Present Perfect Continuous Tense

i. I have been eating mangoes

ii. He has been writing notes

iii. You have been opening the door

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2. PAST TENSE

This is used to show that an action was completed. It can be divided into four classes as follows:-

a) Simple Past Tense

i. I ate mangoes

ii. She wrote notes

iii. You opened the door

b) Past Continuous Tense

i. I was eating mangoes

ii. She was writing notes

iii. You were opening the door

c) Past Perfect Tense

i. I had eaten mangoes

ii. She had written notes

iii. You had opened the door

d) Past Perfect Continuous Tense

i. I had been eating mangoes

ii. It had been drinking milk.

iii. You had been opening the door

3. FUTURE TENSE

This shows that an action will take place in future. It is divided into four classes as follows:-

a) Simple Future Tense

i. I shall eat mangoes

ii. It will drink milk

iii. You will open the door

b) Future Continuous Tense

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i. I shall be eating mangoes

ii. It will be drinking milk

iii. You will be opening the door

c) Future Perfect Tense

i. I shall have eaten mangoes

ii. It will have drunk milk

iii. You will have opened the door

d) Future Perfect Continuous Tense

i. I shall have been eating mangoes

ii. It will have been drinking milk

iii. You will have been opening the door

EXERCISE
Rewrite the following sentences according to the instructions given in brackets at the end of each
sentence: -
i) I gave her a pound for the work. (Simple present tense)
ii) She travelled a hundred kilometers before midday. (Simple future tense)
iii) Her uncle is a lawyer. (Present perfect tense)
iv) Edwin is studying to become a doctor. (Past perfect tense)
v) They will join our team. (Present continuous tense)
vi) Wild animals suffer when kept in captivity. (Simple past tense)
vii) He bought a new house. (Simple present tense)
viii) My sister studies the history of Tanzania. (Past tense)

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 GST 04102/04104-INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS COMMUNICTION

LISTENING SKILLS
Listening is the process of paying attention to, receiving, perceiving, interpreting and responding
to spoken or non verbal signals. It begins with deliberate hearing, although many times we
mistake hearing for listening.

Hearing is the ability to perceive sound by detecting vibrations through the ear.

Why listening? (Reasons for listening)

• To obtain information

• For fun and entertainment

• To learn/share experience

• To solve a problem e.g a medical doctor

• To persuade someone

• To improve a relationship

• To appreciate someone for something

Qualities of good/effective listening

• Posture; the sitting position and style are an important indicator of a good or bad
listening. Listeners should sit upright facing the speaker. A forward or a backward
bending posture is inappropriate because they suggest either intimidation or lack of
concern.

• Eye contact; this is important in the listening process because it establishes a necessary
link between the communicating parties.

• Gestures attention; gestures, facial expressions and voiced interjections are important in
indicating that the listener is paying attention to what the speaker is saying and probably
how the speaker is feeling.

• Takes notes; Within academic listening we need to take some notes. This facilitates our
own engagement in listening and indicates to the speaker that we value what he is
presenting.
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 • Participatory responses; this improves the quality of communication by actively
participating in the presentation. We can seek clarifications, ask questions, answer
questions, or even raise important additions to the points the speaker is giving.

TYPES OF LISTENING

There are two types of listening; these include active listening and passive listening.

ACTIVE LISTENING

This is the type of listening where the listener has a defined purpose of listening. There are
various kinds of active listening:

Informational Listening; this entails listening with the goal of comprehending and retaining
information. This type of listening is not evaluative and is common in teaching and learning
contexts ranging from a student listening to an informative speech to an out-of-towner listening
to directions to the nearest gas station. We also use informational listening when we listen to
news reports, voice mail, and briefings at work.
Critical Listening; this is listening in order to evaluate and judge, forming opinion about what is
being said. Judgment includes assessing strengths and weaknesses, agreement and approval. This
form of listening requires significant real-time cognitive effort as the listener analyzes what is
being said, relating it to existing knowledge and rules, whilst simultaneously listening to the
ongoing words from the speaker.
Appreciative listening; In appreciative listening, we seek certain information which we will
appreciate, for example that which helps meet our needs and goals. We use appreciative
listening when we are listening to good music, poetry or even the inspiring words of a great
leader.
Dialogic listening; Dialogic listening is sometimes known as 'relational listening'. Dialogic
listening means learning through conversation and an engaged interchange of ideas and
information. In this kind of listening we actively seek to learn more about the person and how
they think.
Relationship listening; sometimes the most important factor in listening is in order to develop
or sustain a relationship. This is why lovers talk for hours and attend closely to what each other
has to say when the same words from someone else would seem to be rather boring.
Relationship listening is also important in areas such as negotiation and sales, where it is
helpful if the other person likes you and trusts you.
PASSIVE LISTENING
Passive listening is a type of listening where the listener lacks the deliberate purpose for
listening. There is no clear motivation and therefore the listener is not involved in any
significant interpretation and thus the resultant response – if any- is almost involuntary.
21
PRINCIPLES OF LISTENING
A good listener will listen not only to what is being said, but also to what is left unsaid or only
partially said. Effective listening involves observing body language and noticing inconsistencies
between verbal and non-verbal messages. For example, if someone tells you that they are happy
with their life but through gritted teeth or with tears filling their eyes, you should consider that
the verbal and non-verbal messages are in conflict, they maybe don't mean what they say.

The following are the principles of effective listening:-

 Stop Talking; when somebody else is talking listen to what they are saying, do not interrupt,
talk over them or finish their sentences for them. Stop, just listen. When the other person
has finished talking you may need to clarify to ensure you have received their message
accurately.
 Focus on the speaker; put other things out of mind. The human mind is easily distracted by
other thoughts – what’s for lunch, what time do I need to leave to catch my train, is it going
to rain – try to put other thoughts out of mind and concentrate on the messages that are being
communicated.
 Put the Speaker at Ease; help the speaker to feel free to speak. Remember their needs and
concerns. Nod or use other gestures or words to encourage them to continue. Maintain eye
contact but don’t stare – show you are listening and understanding what is being said.
 Remove Distractions; Focus on what is being said. Don’t shuffle papers, look out the
window, or similar. Avoid unnecessary interruptions. These behaviours disrupt the listening
process and send messages to the speaker that you are bored or distracted.
 Be Patient; a pause, even a long pause, does not necessarily mean that the speaker has
finished. Be patient and let the speaker continue in their own time, sometimes it takes time to
formulate what to say and how to say it. Never interrupt or finish a sentence for someone.
 Avoid Personal Prejudice; try to be unbiased. Don't become irritated and don't let the
person’s habits or mannerisms distract you from what the speaker is really saying. Everybody
has a different way of speaking - some people are for example more nervous or shy than
others, some have regional accents or make excessive arm movements, some people like to
pace whilst talking - others like to sit still. Focus on what is being said and try to ignore
styles of delivery.
 Listen to the Tone; volume and tone both add to what someone is saying. A good speaker
will use both volume and tone to their advantage to keep an audience attentive; everybody
will use pitch, tone and volume of voice in certain situations – let these help you to
understand the emphasis of what is being said.
 Listen for Ideas and Not Just Words; you need to get the whole picture, not just isolated
bits and pieces.
 Wait and Watch for Non-Verbal Communication; gestures, facial expressions, and eye-
movements can all be important. We don’t just listen with our ears but also with our eyes –
22
 watch and pick up the additional information being transmitted via non-verbal
communication.

IMPORTANT PROCESS/STAGES TO FOLLOW IN LISTENING

According to Leena Seen (2007), the stages of the listening process include receiving stage,
interpreting, evaluating, responding and memorizing.

1. Receiving stage; this is the process which involves hearing and sometimes seeing.
Hearing involves receiving the sounds from the source through our auditory
system into the brain for processing. Seeing enables us to observe non-verbal
forms of communication which accompany speech such as gestures, facial
expression, body movements, etc.
2. Interpreting/understanding stage. The listener is engaged in the act of decoding
the message from the receiver.
3. Evaluating stage. The listener assigns meaning to message, draws inferences,
takes an overview of the message and seeks accuracy of information and
evidence. (judging the message)
4. Responding stage. This is the feedback stage that important to a speaker. The
listeners nonverbal signals tell the speaker whether she/ he has been understood or
not. ( reacting to a message)
5. Memory stage. This is an important indicator for listeners to test how matter has
been stored into the memory bank.

BARRIERS TO LISTENING

 Uninteresting Topics; if we present issues that our listeners are not interested in we are
likely to hinder listening. People pay attention to what is relevant to them. It is advised
that, for us to arouse and retain attention of our listeners; we must select those topics that
the listeners have a clear interest in.

 Speaker’s Style of Delivery; how we present, the methodology we use and the techniques
we employ in our presentations are factors responsible for the success or failure of our
presentations. The style of delivery by the speaker can hinder listening.

 External Distractions; while people are listening there are things that can disturb the
prevailing listening peace and hinder the listening process. Noise from outside, phones
ringing, heavy rain drops on the roof etc contribute to making the listeners divide their
attention.

23
  Mentally Preparing Response; if the listener concentrates too much on preparation of the
response to a particular issue raised by the speaker, concentration and attention to other
things being said will be negatively affected.

 Personal Concerns; if the listener pays more attention to his/her state, situation etc
listening will be hindered. Focus will move from what is being said to what the listener is
and its implications.

 Personal Bias; selective listening in this case is a barrier to listening because when the
listener is biased he/she is not open to change of opinion, and this hinders effective and
efficient listening.

 Language/Culture Differences; if the listener has belief in the significance of the

difference existing between him and the speaker, the kind of listening he will engage in
may be hindered by such differences. Some Africans believe that speakers from former
colonial powers have no moral authority to present topics on human rights.

What are bad listening habits?

• Not taking notes or writing every thing

• Letting emotional words block message; the message may be presented in the words we
fail to pay attention to as we allow the impact of a few words to take control of our
emotions and attention. If the speaker says that the death of a former president was a very
sad thing, it is not good to start crying because the message intended is yet to be
presented.

• Criticizing the subject or the speaker instead of paying attention to the content and
messages.

• Getting over-stimulated; some listeners are easily won and overwhelmed through minor
points. If we intensify the efforts to make such people understand better, we end up
overexciting them. If listeners get overexcited by the presentation or the presenter they
are likely to lose focus.

• Listening only for facts; if our listening is already pre-oriented then we are likely to judge
a presentation unfairly. It is bad habit to have a finalized expectation ahead of listening to
a presentation.

24
PUNCTUATION

Punctuation refers to the marks used in writing to separate sentences and their elements and to
clarify meaning. They include the following:-

Capital Letters
These are used:
a) At the beginning of a sentence. If we use direct speech after a reporting section,
we must begin the spoken sentence with another capital letter:
He opened the door and called out, “Is there anybody here?
b) For all proper nouns and proper adjectives: France, French, John, Mwanza, etc
and for abbreviations of proper nouns and adjectives: B.B.C.
c) For all titles applied to one particular person:
Our President met the Kenyan President.
I hear Professor Smith is leaving.
d) For all words in titles of books, plays, poems, etc., except
unimportant words like prepositions, articles, conjunctions, unless one of these
words is the first word:
A History of the Sudan in the Nineteenth Century
The Full Stop/Period
• The full stop indicates the longest pause and is used at the end of all sentences except
interrogative and exclamatory sentences. Eg. The resolution was not properly recorded.

• It is also used after initials or abbreviations.

Eg. J.K. Nyerere

M.P. - Member of Parliament

Dr. - Doctor

• The full stop is usually omitted from abbreviations consisting of initial letters that make
pronounceable words.

Eg. UNESCO, CCM, TIA

• It is used to show numbers that are smaller than one.

Eg. She bought a motorcycle for Tsh 1.5 million. This means that she paid one million
five hundred thousand shillings for a plot.

The Comma (,)

This is used:
25
 a) When giving lists. The lists can be of nouns, adjectives, clauses, etc: John plays football,
tennis, volley-ball and basket-ball.
A tall, thin, ugly man entered the room.
He came into the library, walked to the history section, searched for a book, saw it wasn’t
there and left.
(A comma may also be placed before and in the above sentences but this is optional.)
b) After participial phrases (either past or present)
Eg. Chained to a post, the dog was unable to attach the thieves.
Looking through his collection of stamps, he discovered that some had been stolen.
c) Between two main clauses connected by and, but, or, nor if the clauses are fairly long:
He lived in Kenya for several years, but he learnt only a few words of the language.
d) After an adverbial clause if a main clause follows:
Although he had worked for the company for several years, he did not get promotion.
If the adverbial clause comes after the main clause, a comma is not necessary.
He did not get promotion although he had worked for the company for several years.
e) Before and after words in apposition to a noun (i.e. words which come after the noun and
explain or describe it):
My new computer, Dell, works very well.
Ernest Hemingway, a leading American novelist, died in 1961.
f) With words which are added to a sentence by a way of comment and are not essential to
the structure:
A few of us, by the way, will be unable to come.
All of them, I believe, would agree with us.
Commonly used in this way are words like moreover, however, indeed, incidentally.
g) After ‘yes’ and ‘no’:
Yes, he does smoke a lot.
No, they never go to that cinema.
h) With words used to address a person:
Paul, can you hear me?
i) To separate items of a date:
Saturday, 18th May, 2019
j) In addresses:
P.O. Box 1357,
Mwanza,
Tanzania.
k) With direct speech:
“We shall leave,” he said.

Question Mark
The question mark is used after direct questions.
26
Eg. Where are you going?

Have you been to America?

Exclamation Mark (!)

It is used at the end of words or sentences which express strong feeling/surprise:

Eg. What an attractive game!

What a clever person you are!

You did a good job!

Colon (:)
• It is used to introduce a list:

Eg. You are requested to arrange these items: a typewriter, ribbons, pads, pencils and
erasers.

• It is used to introduce a quotation. Eg. John Mabula said: “those who can, do, and those
who can’t, teach.”

Semi-colon (;)
It is used to join two sentences which are closely related in meaning.

Eg. You type the letter; I shall type the bill.

She was late; consequently, she was marked absent.

Apostrophe (’)
• It is used in place of omitted letters in contractions.

Eg. Doesn’t for does not

He’ll for he will

• Possessive nouns contain an apostrophe.

Eg. Juma’s book

Lions’ share

• For the plural letters and figures.

R’s How many r’s are there?

1930’s It happened in the 1930’s.

27
Hyphen (-)
• The hyphen is used to join the parts of compound words (words made up of more than
one word).

Eg. Brother-in-law, living-room, twenty-one, house-boy etc

• It is used to combine a word and a prefix. Eg. Post-dated, co-opt, pre-colonialism etc

• It is also used when a word is begun on one line and finished on the next line.

Dash (-)
• It is used to interrupt the normal grammatical structure to add something. For example:
The doctor – and I agree with him – has ordered my father to take a month’s rest.

• It is used to show that a sentence was not completed because it was interrupted by
another speaker. For example; Someone in the audience, “I should like to ask if - ” “I am
sorry”, interrupted the chairman, “but our time is up and no further questions can be
allowed”.

Parentheses and brackets ( ) [ ]

i) Round Brackets
Round brackets (also called parentheses, especially in American English) are mainly used to
separate off information that isn’t essential to the meaning of the rest of the sentence. If you
remove the bracketed material the sentence will still make perfectly good sense.
For example:
Mount Everest (in the Himalayas) is the highest mountain in the world.
There are several books on the subject (see page 120).

ii) Square Brackets

Square brackets (also called brackets, especially in American English) are mainly used to
enclose words added by someone other than the original writer or speaker, typically in order to
clarify the situation:
He [the police officer] can’t prove they did it.
If parentheses or brackets are used at the end of a sentence, the period should be placed outside,
as the final punctuation:

They eventually decided to settle in the United States (Debbie's home).

Peter testified that it was the last time he saw them [the missing coins].

The braces { }.

28
Braces are also known as curly/twisted brackets { }. They are mostly used in music or poetry.
The only use for a brace in writing is when a writer presents or creates a list of equal choices for
a reader or in a number set.

Eg. Number set: {2,4,6,8,10,12}

Equal choices: choose a colour {red, white, blue, pink} to paint a war.

Quotation Marks or Inverted Commas (“….”)

They are used:

• To indicate that the words enclosed by the punctuation signs are a quotation. Eg. John
said, “I am tired”

If a quotation occurs within a quotation, both types of inverted commas are used. Eg. “I
head ‘look out’ being shouted”, he said.

“We heard ‘Get out’ being shouted”, they said.

• To indicate words which are not considered as normal. Eg. They like to eat ‘Makande’.

• To indicate titles of books, magazines and so on. Eg. “Tujifunze Maisha” is a very nice
book. “Kalulu the Hare” is my book.

Ellipsis (...)

Ellipsis refers to the omission of words from speech or writing.

Some uses of ellipsis:

• To show where words have been missed out when writing what a person said. Eg. … one
day all Tanzanians will live peacefully throughout the world.

29
GST 04102/04104-INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

SPEAKING SKILLS/ORAL PRESENTATION

Oral presentation refers to delivery of content or message mainly through the mouth.

METHODS OF ORAL PRESENTATION

1. Impromptu method; this is a method where the speaker gives a speech without any prior
preparation or practice.

Advantages of impromptu method

• It trains the speakers to think quickly. Since there is no preparation time, the speaker has
to do multi-tasks; thinking what to say next, how best to say it and keep talking at the
same time.

• The speaker can establish and maintain eye contact with the audience which is necessary
for facilitating both listening and speaking.

• The speaker has freedom to use gestures and facial expressions in presentation.

• It is easy for the speaker to adapt to changing situation and circumstances as the
presentation progresses. This is possible because there is no rigid plan to follow at the
start of the presentation, therefore, whatever seems logical at any step of the presentation
can be easily included as the speech goes on.

• It demonstrates the speaker’s knowledge in the topic. If the speaker successfully gives a
very good and memorable speech, he can easily be considered as a competent and
knowledgeable speaker.

• It demonstrates the speakers’ competence in language and oratory skills

Disadvantages

• There is risk of careless selection of ideas. This may lead to confusion and
disorganization of the flow of thought.

• There is lack of research to develop ideas. Presentations that lack important ideas may
have no credibility.

• The speaker lacks thoughtful choice of language e.g. choosing right word at the right
place

• There is no careful organization of the content of presentation. The content of a

presentation has impact if it flows well. If it does not flow well, it may lead to confusion
to listeners.

• The presenter may face false start of the presentation

30
2. Extemporaneous method; in this method the presenter carefully plans in advance by writing
down only the main points in a note card then uses them to elaborate an issue.

Advantages of Extemporaneous Method

• It gives freedom to develop and maintain contact with the audience throughout the
presentation. It minimizes on the reading component and emphasizes on the oral
presentation component. Reading is entirely for control and guidance purposes.

• Speaker can adjust and adapt to changes in the audience and the environment in case
there is a need to do so.

• Offers chances for clarification. By the use of extemporaneous method, both the speaker
and the audience have chance to ask questions and seek clarification from one another
without seeming to disrupt anything.

• Speaker can offer additional support materials or comments on an unexpected occurrence

because there was sufficient preparation.

• It attracts credibility because it appears spontaneously. The speaker is largely producing

the speech right out of his mind even though there is guidance from the cards.

Disadvantages of Extemporaneous Method

• The language of expressing the concept may not be immediately available.

• It may fail to respond to time limits if the speaker introduces other issues or topics which
are out of context.

• There is a possibility of drifting away from the main theme for too long because of its
conversational nature

• Presenter has the risk of forgetting the explanation to a point. If this happens, the flow of
the speech from that point is completely destroyed.
3. Memorized method; this is the method where the presenter memorizes the entire speech
word for word and then recite the speech without the use of the manuscript or even notes.

Advantages

• The presenter has freedom of movement. This is facilitated by the absence of material to
read or manipulate as the presentation progresses.

• The presenter is able to establish and maintain direct contact with the audience through
relevant movement that facilitates nearness with the audience

31
 • The speaker is able to present within given time limits because through editing and
rehearsals the appropriate timing of the speech can be achieved.

• If the presenter performs well, it is possible for the audience to regard him highly. They
may see him as a knowledgeable, intelligent and competent personality.

• The prior preparation enables the speaker to have precise and accurate language which
can be carefully chosen to make an impression.

Disadvantages

• The speech is not natural because it is rehearsed. It therefore lacks instant thinking which
is vital in enhancing oral presentations.

• The presentation can easily sound artificial as the presenter tries to balance recall of the
memorized words of the content with attempted spontaneity

• The presenter cannot easily change to adapt to emerging situations. Any attempt to do
that would stop the flow and lead to irreparable change of both content and tone of the
speech.

• The content of presentation may sound written rather than spoken as the presenter tries to
recall the memorized information.

• Once the speaker loses the line of thought, it is very difficult to regain the content of the
speech. Even where he is able to retrace the presentation flow, the damage is already
done to his reputation, morale and the content of the presentation in general.
4. Manuscript/Reading method; here the speech is fully written out and then read by the
presenter word for word.
Advantages

• The language is precise because the presenter has chance to practice

• The speech is able to fit within the time limits provided because the words written are the
only words that are going to be uttered

• The presentation guarantees the content because there is no room for extra explanations
and thus no digressions

• The presenter can know how he/she is going to progress from start to finish

Disadvantages
• It is rigid and restricting. There is no freedom to manipulate the speaker’s potential in
speech making and presentation.
• It is difficult to adapt to changes in the audience and the general conditions.

32
 • Reading inhibits direct contact with the audience. This can easily lead to isolation and
reduced interest and attention of the audience as the results, the objectives of the
presentation will not be achieved.
• Complete and exclusive reading limits the use of very important communication tools;
body movement and facial expressions.
• It is not a good method for rating the capacity of speakers since many literate people can
read. The speaker may not present any special qualities which can do in types of speaking
that provide for creativity and innovativeness.

STAGES/PARTS OF ORAL PRESENTATION

1. INTRODUCTION
This is a must in presentation. The purpose of introduction is to establish rapport with your
audience and gain their attention. In this part of presentation, the following should be
considered:-

• Sufficient background information on the topic should be given.

• A clear statement of objectives and purpose of the presentation.

• The procedure and methodology to be employed.

• The expectations and the obligations of the audience can be highlighted so that all are
ready for both the content and participation in realizing it.

2. THE BODY
• This is the main part of the presentation.
• It must expound, explain, support and defend the revealed in the introduction.
• All main points must be covered
• Use examples for the statements that are difficult for the audience to understand
• Graphic illustrations and other visual aids not only help to clarify the message but also
add colour and credibility.

3. CONCLUSION
This is as important as introduction because even those who were not very keen during the
general presentation do pay attention as the presentation approaches its end. A good presenter
always makes clear that the presentation is entering its end.
There are several methods of concluding. Some of them are as highlighted here under:-

• Summary of key points

• Asking questions about key areas
• Make an impressive statement
• Appeal for action
• Quotation closing the main ideas of presentation

33
WRITING SKILLS
NOTE TAKING AND NOTE MAKING
Note Taking; is the process of writing down key points from oral communication such as a
presentation, lecture, meeting, etc.

Note taking techniques

A listener may use different techniques to take notes as follows:-
• Word by word; use specific words as used in speech.
• Use of symbols and signs to represent the spoken words.
• By paraphrasing what the speaker says using substitute words.
• By summarizing the information from the speaker.
• Using acronyms e.g. CCM, CD, UN, etc

Importance of note taking

• It helps one to remember the information.
• It helps one to concentrate during lecture, speech, meeting e.t.c.
• It helps in developing listening and writing skills.
• For students it helps in their preparation for tests and exams.
• Your notes may often contain information that cannot be found elsewhere in textbooks.

Note Making; this is the process of writing down notes from written sources such as books,
texts, newspapers, etc.

Importance of making notes

• It helps us to improve our study and academic work habits.

• It helps us in remembering important information written.

• It enables us to master and retain important facts and data.

• It helps one to develop skills in selecting important material and discarding irrelevant
information.

• It helps the learner to develop an accurate means of arranging necessary information.

Techniques of note-making

The following are some of the techniques which may be used in note-making:

• Word by word; copying sections as they appear in the written source.

• Use of abbreviations.
• By paraphrasing the ideas of the writer using own statements.
34
 • By summarizing the information from book, journal, etc.
• Expansion of notes taken by adding statements.

WRITING PARAGRAPHS
A paragraph is a group of sentences developing a main idea.
Or
A paragraph refers to a number of sentences that are grouped together and relating to one topic
or that develop a single point.

TYPES OF PARAGRAPHS
There are three main types of paragraphs in an academic essay:
i. Introductory Paragraph; this provides the reader with any necessary background
information before leading into a clear statement of the writer’s point of view.
ii. The body paragraphs; these follow all flow logically from the introductory paragraph.
The body paragraphs carefully build up the writer’s point of view in detail.
iii. The concluding paragraph (s), this summarizes the points made, repeats the overall point
of view, and explains why the writer took the position held.

PRINCIPLES OF PARAGRAPH WRITING

i. Unified; all sentences clearly relate to the main idea of the paragraph. That means all of
the sentences in a single paragraph should be related to a single controlling idea.
ii. Coherent; all sentences should be logically connected to each other. The ideas should be
connected with the leading idea and arranged according to their importance.
iii. Fully developed; a paragraph should have sufficient details to explain or expand the point
being made; with examples, reasons, statistics, quotations, definitions e.t.c
iv. Appropriately organized; paragraph should have clear logical pattern of organization e.g.
chronological, cause effect, comparison and contrast e.t.c.
v. Presence of the Topic Sentence; the very first sentence should be able to convey the
theme of the paragraph and the sentences following the first sentence should be able to
support that theme.

WRITING AN ESSAY
An essay is a short piece of writing which is often written from an author’s personal point of
view.

PARTS OF AN ESSAY
a) An introduction; the introductory paragraph should perform the following three
functions; attract the reader’s interest, should present the thesis statement, it gives in brief
the main points of an essay.

35
b) The body; the supporting points are given in the body of the essay. The points are
presented in separate supporting paragraphs each with a topic sentence serving the focus
of attention.

c) The conclusion; the concluding paragraph often summarizes the essay by briefly restating
the thesis statement and the main supporting points as essay. Also, the conclusion brings
the paper to an end.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD ESSAY

• Unity; a good essay must have unity. The writer must base the essay on a single
topic.
• The topic; the topic must be carefully selected by the writer. That means, it should
be of interest to the writer.
• Focus; the essay should focus on a specific aspect of the chosen topic.
• Thesis statement; a good essay must have a thesis statement. Thesis statement is
the main idea or the main point of the essay. In most cases, this point is
condensed into a single sentence and placed first.
• Supporting evidence; a good essay must provide support for the thesis. Adequate
reasons must be provided in support of the thesis.

BUSINESS LETTERS
A business letter is used to correspond with a person, company or an organization about your
business affairs. It can be handwritten or printed.

Historically, business letters were sent via postal mail or courier, although the Internet is rapidly
changing the way businesses communicate.
Parts of a Business Letter
A business letter consists of the following:-
Sender’s Address
This consists of the writer’s address. Each word in the sender’s address is capitalized.

Date
This is full Calendar Date of when the letter was written, for example:
 October 30, 2016
 30th October, 2016
 30/10/2016
 30-10-2016

Reference Numbers
Most business letters have reference numbers. A reference number serves to identify either the
department from which the letter was written or the particular file in which the correspondence is
to be found.
36
Usually the last number of the references could be the folio of that particular correspondence.

Example: Ref. CBA/EX/C.1/VOL.V/001

Ref. No. TIA/J/43/VOL.I/030

Ref. No. TIA/BTCA/2018-2019/001

Receiver’s Address
This is the address of the person or business being contacted. It starts with the reader’s name or
reader’s title then followed by the business address. The punctuation and capitalization should
follow the same style used in the sender’s address.
Salutation
This is the greeting that begins the letter. It normally begins with the word “Dear” and always
includes the person’s last name. If the name of the person you are writing to is not known, use
the words “Dear Sir/Madam. The greeting in business letter always ends in a coma.
Subject or Reference Line
This is the theme of the letter. It should be short and clear and is always written in capital letters.
Example1: RE: INVITATION FOR A MEETING, Example 2: RE: APPLICATION FOR
EMPLOYMENT AS DIRECTOR
Body of the letter
It contains the actual message of the letter. It includes:
 Introductory Paragraphs
 Discussion Paragraphs
 Concluding Paragraphs
Keep in mind that business correspondence tends to be short and direct to the point. Business
letters generally have more formal tone than personal letters, which tend to have a more
conversational tone.
Closing
This ends the letter. “Sincerely” is the most common closing in business letters. Sincerely is
usually used when you know the person. Other possible closings include “Faithfully” which is
used when you do not know the person, “Respectfully” and “With best regards”. The first word
of the closing is capitalized. A comma follows the last word.
Signature
It shows the signed name of the writer
Name of the writer
A name should appear only once beneath the letter body.
Enclosures
It shows items accompanying a letter.
Copies
It indicates that a copy of the letter has been sent to other individuals where due.
37
 P.O.BOX 300,
MWANZA.
th
30 November, 2015.

THE HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGER,

KUFAANA COMPANY,
P.O. BOX 200,
MWANZA.

Dear Sir/Madam,

RE: APPLICATION FOR EMPLOYMENT AS ADMINISTRATIVE ASSISTANT

In reference to the advertisement in the Daily News of 24th November, 2015, I am applying for
the above position in your reputable organization. I hold a Bachelor Degree in Business
Administration from Tanzania Institute of Accountancy which I completed in 2012 and served as
administrative Secretary in the Department of Immigration in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs for
two years.

I desire to expand my experience and exploit my potential by working in a more challenging

institution, and I am confident that my knowledge, experience and work ethics will make me
very useful asset for Kufaana Company.

I have enclosed my Curriculum Vitae for your attention in that regard and I am looking forward
to a favorable consideration.

Yours Faithfully,

……………………
BAHATI AMANI

WRITING C.V

Curriculum Vitae is a brief account of a person’s educational qualifications and previous

experience sent with a job application.

SAMPLE OF C.V

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 CURRICULUM VITAE

A: PERSONAL DETAILS

NAMES : KIBAKULI KIJIKO SAHANI

DATE OF BIRTH : 19/02/1996

PLACE OF BIRTH : NYAMAGANA-MWANZA

SEX : MALE

RELIGION : CHRISTIAN

NATIONALITY : TANZANIAN

LANGUAGES : KISWAHILI AND ENGLISH

ADDRESS : P.O. BOX 1510, MWANZA

MOBILE PHONE : 0754-339763

E-MAIL ADDRESS : [email protected]

B: OBJECTIVE: To devote knowledge, skills and energy for the benefit of an organization and
personal professional benefits.

C: EDUCATION BACKGROUND

YEAR INSTITUTION AWARD

2014 – 2016 Tanzania Institute of Accountancy Diploma in Accountancy

2012 – 2013 Tanzania Institute of Accountancy Basic Technician Certificate in

Accountancy

2008 – 2012 Mwanza Secondary School Certificate of Secondary Education

Examination

2001 – 2007 Kirumba Primary School Primary School Leaving Certificate

D: WORK EXPERIENCE

39
YEAR NAME OF POSITION DUTIES
ORGANIZATION

2013 - 2014 Coca cola Company Cashier • Receive

payment by
cash and
cheque

• Issue receipts
to payments
made

• Count money
in cash
drawers to
ensure the
amounts are
correct

E: TRAINING AND PROJECT WORK

YEAR NAME OF ORGANIZATION

01/07/2012 – 31/07/2012 Field Practice at Mwanza City Council

01/07/2015 – 01/08/2015 Field Practical Training at Tanesco – Mwanza

F: COMPUTER SKILLS

• Familiar with word processing packages such as Microsoft Word, Excel, and Power Point
knowledge.

G: HOBBIES
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 • Reading

• Playing football

H: DISTINCTIONS

• Was General Secretary at Tanzania Institute of Accountancy Students’ Organization

• I am hard working and able to work under pressure with minimum supervision.

I: REFEREES
1. MR. ALLY MIKIDADI,
ASSISTANT LECTURER,
TANZANIA INSTITUTE OF ACCOUNTANCY,
P.O.BOX 5247,
MWANZA, TANZANIA
MOBILE PHONE: 0753243730

2. MR. GEORGE STEPHEN MAKUNE,

ASSISTANT LECTURER,
TANZANIA INSTITUTE OF ACCOUNTANCY,
P.O. BOX 5247,
MWANZA.
EMAIL: [email protected]
MOBILE PHONE: 0752-699762.
DECLARATION: I declare that the information given above is true to the best of my
knowledge.
Signature………………
Kibakuli Kijiko Sahani
07th January, 2016

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PARTS OF SPEECH
Parts of speech refer to the words which are frequently used in speech or writing. They include;
noun, adjective, pronoun, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction and interjection.

NOUN
This is a word used to name a person, place, thing, an idea, or a quality of mind. For example
John, water, news, wisdom.

Different kinds of Nouns

1. Proper Noun; this includes a name of a particular person or place. It is normally written
beginning with capital letter. For example; Asha, Peter, Tanzania, Mwanza, India.
2. Common Noun; is a name given in common to every person or thing of the same class
or kind. For example boy, woman, teacher, doctor, girl, officer, poet, dramatist, merchant,
traveler, city, village, town, region, district, place.
3. Collective Noun; this is a name of collection of things or persons. For example crowd,
army, cattle, class, committee.
4. Concrete Noun; this is the name of a thing that can be touched or seen. For example
book, sun, girl, boy.
5. Abstract Nouns; an abstract noun is the name of a quality, action or state. For example,
liberty thought, joy, sorrow, love, death, goodness, kindness, childhood, justice, life,
truth, beauty.
6. Countable Noun; is a name of a thing that can be counted or divided into singular or
plural. For example student, book, table, pen, photographs, writer, man, woman, studio.
7. Uncountable Noun/Mass noun; this is the name of a thing/entity that cannot be counted
or divided into singular and plural. For example gold, silver, iron, wool, wood, hair, milk,
rice, ice, tea, ink, money, water, paper, glass.
8. Material Noun; a material noun is the name of a material or substance out of which
things are made. For example gold, silver, iron, wool, wood, air, clay, milk, tea, ink,
money, water, glass, copper, steel. Material nouns are not countable means we cannot
count them because they are in the forms of liquid, semi-liquid or solid.

EXERCISE
Underline nouns in the following sentences
i. Freedom is our birth-right
ii. Mwita is a good teacher
iii. He returned from china last week
iv. He loved Mary
v. Mathematics is a useful science
vi. Money gives us many comforts
vii. Mr. Peter was a social worker

ADJECTIVE
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This is a word used to describe or qualify nouns.
Or
It is a word used to express the quality, quantity, number and to point out the person or thing.

Uses of Adjectives
There are two uses of adjectives namely; attributive use and predicative use

Attributive use
An adjective used with a noun is known as attributive use. For example Beautiful girl, Nice book,
Clever student, Large building

Predicative use
An adjective used with a verb is known as predicative use. Ex; She is afraid, He is alive, They
are dead, He looked happy

TYPES OF ADJECTIVES
1. Adjective of Quality; this is used to talk about the quality of a person or thing. For
example She is a beautiful girl; John is a wealthy person.
2. Adjective of Quantity; this is used to talk about the quantity of things. E.g There is a
little water in the jug; He showed much courage in the war; There is no any person in the
class; She wrote six papers.
3. Demonstrative Adjective; this is used to point out which person or thing we speak
about. For example, This book is very interesting; That girl is very beautiful; These
flowers are lovely.
4. Distributive Adjective; this is used to refer to each and every person or thing separately.
Some of these include each, every, either, neither and both. For example Each boy was
awarded a diploma; Every citizen should love his Mother land, Neither country accepted
the treaty.
5. Interrogative Adjective; this is an adjective used to question. For example, What advice
shall I give you? Which places do you wish to visit? Whose hand writing is this?
6. Possessive Adjective; this is used to talk about ownership or possession. For example,
My mother is a teacher; Your father is a doctor; Her husband died yesterday, Our country
is Tanzania.
7. Exclamatory Adjective; the word ‘what’ is known as an Exclamatory Adjective. For
example, What a beauty!; What an insult!
8. Proper Adjective; an adjective derived from a proper name is known as a Proper
Adjective. For example English grammar, Tanzanian President.

PRONOUN
This is a word used in place of nouns. Ex; I, we, you, he, she, it and they
Types of Pronouns
1. Personal Pronouns; this is used for three persons
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 a) First person; this is used for the person speaking. Ex: I, we I enjoyed
music, We were singing

b) Second person; this is used for the person spoken to. Ex: you; You played
football

c) Third person; this is used for the person spoken of. Ex: he, she, it, they;
He is writing, They were teachers

Personal pronoun as used in objective and subjective case

Subjective Case Objective Case

I: Ex I am a teacher Me: He gave me a book

We: We are soldiers Us: They taught us music

You: You are a teacher You: I saw you yesterday

He: He is waiting for you Him: I spoke to him yesterday

She: She is my sister Her: I met her at the market

It: It is a book It: He showed it to me

They: They are working in a factory Them: I told them my name

2. Reflexive pronoun; this is used with self or selves to reflect the action of the subject
My + self= myself e.g. I see myself.
Your + self=yourself e.g. You must know yourself.
Your + selves=yourselves e.g. You might cut yourselves.
Him + self= himself e.g He dressed himself in spite of his injuries
Our + selves = Ourselves Eg. We hurt ourselves

3. Emphatic Pronoun; this is a pronoun used for the sake of emphasis. Ex: myself,
himself, yourself, herself, yourselves, itself, ourselves, themselves
I myself showed you the way
You yourself can explain it to me
We ourselves talked to the Prime Minister

4. Demonstrative pronoun; this is used to point out the person or thing we talk about. For
example; This is very nice; That is how you do it; These are the most comfortable;
Those belong to Sarah.
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 5. Indefinite pronoun; this is used to talk about a person or thing indefinitely.
Examples:
One- One has to be careful
Nobody- Nobody helped me
Nothing- Nothing is sweet as honey
No one- No one is ready to help me
Some- Some failed in the exam
Someone- Someone opened the door
Something- Something must be done about it.
Somebody- Somebody escaped from the class
Anybody- Anybody can speak English
Etc.

5. Interrogative Pronoun; this is used to make a question, for example who, whose, which,
whom and what.
Examples:
Who is the prime minister?
Whom do you want to see?
What can I give you?

6. Distributive pronoun is a pronoun which denotes persons or things of group separately that's
why they always become singular and followed by the singular verbs. Some of the
distributive pronouns are like: each, neither, everyone, any, none, no one, etc

Examples of Distributive Pronoun:

• Each of the students has participated in the drama act.

• Neither of them plays well.
• Each one of you will be awarded with bravery award.
• Everyone must finish the breakfast.
• Either of you can help me in this matter.
• Any of you can join the program as a leader of the team.
• None of our friends went to the Christmas party.

7. Reciprocal Pronoun; this is used to talk about mutual relationship, for example each other
and one another.
They loved each other
They cheated one another

8. Relative Pronoun; they relate sentences or clauses together. Ex: who, which, whom, what.
The girl who talked to you has arrived.
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The girl whom you wanted to marry is a teacher.
The boy whose father came yesterday is sick.
The speech which I heard at the meeting influenced me.

9. Relative Compound Pronoun; this is compounded with the word ever. Ex; whoever,
whenever, whichever, wherever, whatever, however.
Whoever comes, tell him or her to wait at the gate.
I shall give you whichever you like.
I don’t want to hear whatever explanation you give me.

10. Possessive Pronoun; expresses possession or ownership. Ex: mine, his, theirs, ours, yours,
hers, its.
This book is mine.
This garden is ours.

VERB
A verb is a word that expresses an action or a state of being.
There are three types of verbs: action verbs, linking verbs, and helping verbs (UVW Writing
Center, 2016).

ACTION VERBS
Action verbs are verbs that express action. Ex: run, walk, do, drive, etc.

I will do my home work in the evening.

She likes mangoes.
They run to school.
I drive a car.

Action verbs can be either transitive or intransitive

Transitive verb; this is a verb which has an object. Ex: She likes mangoes.

Sometimes a transitive verb contains two objects, namely direct and indirect objects. Ex: He
gave me a pen.

Intransitive verb; is a verb which has no object

Ex: I slept very well.
The ship sank suddenly.
He sat on the chair.

LINKING VERBS

Linking verbs are verbs that express a state of being.

46
They are called “linking” verbs because they link the subject of the sentence to a word or phrase
in the predicate that renames or describes the subject (tells us more about the subject’s state of
being).

Ex:

John is nice. (‘Is’ links John to an adjective describing him.)

Tanner feels sick. (‘Feels’ links Tanner to an adjective describing him’)
The cake smells good.
John looks tired

HELPING VERBS (AUXILIARY VERBS)

Helping verbs are those verbs which help the main verb (Action/linking verbs) in a sentence by
extending the meaning of the verb. They add detail to how time is conveyed in a sentence. They
include primary and modal aux. verbs:

Primary auxiliary verbs

Though they are helping, in other cases, they may serve as action or linking verbs.

i) Be (including be, am, is, are, was, were, being and been)
ii) Have, has, had
iii) Do, does, did

Modal auxiliary verbs; they include the following:

a) Can
b) Could
c) May
d) Might
e) Will
f) Would
g) Shall
h) Should
i) Must
j) Ought to

REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS

Main verbs on the other hand, can be divided into two forms; Regular Verbs and Irregular
Verbs.
Regular Verbs; in English language regular verbs have the following forms:
• The ‘Base’ form e.g. call
• The ‘-s’ form e.g. calls
• The ‘-ed’ form e.g. called
• The ‘-ing’ form e.g. calling
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Most of the English Verbs are REGULAR.

Irregular Verbs; these are like regular verbs in their base but they differ with regular verbs in
that, they do not have the normal –ed ending. They have variation.

INFINITIVE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE

ARISE AROSE ARISEN

BE WAS/WERE BEEN

BEAR BORE BORNE

CUT CUT CUT

ADVERB
This is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb.
Kinds of Adverbs
1. Adverb of Manner; this is used to show how an action is done. For example; They lived
happily, She speaks Beautifully, He writes well
2. Adverb of Place; this is used to show where an action is done. For example; I went
there, She stood near the gate, Please come here
3. Adverb of Time; this is used to show when an action is done. For example; My father is
at home now, She will come here soon, She came late yesterday
4. Adverb of Frequency; this is used to show how often an action is done. For example;
They talked to each other again, We visited Kenya twice, They never go to the market
5. Adverb of Certainty; this is used to show assuredness of the action. For example;
Surely, she loves me, I shall certainly help you, She is obviously very bright
6. Adverb of Degree; this is used to show how much or in what degree or to what extent an
action is done. For example; We have eaten enough, I am feeling much better, He is
very great
7. Interrogative Adverb; this is an adverb used to ask question. For example; When do
you come?, How long will you stay in Mwanza?, Where did you go yesterday?
8. Relative Adverb; this is an adverb used to relate two clauses or statements. For example;
I did not know where she had gone, Do you know when Juma came here, I don’t know
why they visited Mwanza

PREPOSITION
This is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to show its relation to some other words in the
sentence.
Kinds of Prepositions
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There are five kinds of prepositions in English:
1. Simple Prepositions; these are short or little words that express relationships including
those of space, time and degree. Some of them are such as at,by, for, from, in, of, off, out,
on, with, through, till, up, down, to, after, over, under, round, past, since, via, per, and
than.
2. Double Prepositions; these are prepositions which contain two words. They include the
following to mention a few; out of, according to, from behind. From among, from under,
from within, near to, next to, nearest to, opposite to, close to, inclusive of, exclusive of,
instead of, in spite of, due to , owing to, as regards. For example; The moon shone from
behind the clouds, She took the book from under the pillow.
3. Compound Preposition; this is formed by prefixing. Some include the following;
beside, inside, outside, within, without, besides, upon, throughout, alongside, etc.
4. Participial Prepositions; these are present participles which are used as prepositions.
Some of these are such as concerning, during, notwithstanding, pending, regarding,
respecting, following, barring, including. For example; We stayed in Mombasa during
summer.
5. Phrase Prepositions; these are groups of words used as prepositions. Some of them are
such as: by the reason of, in accordance with, on behalf of, in favour of, instead of etc.

CONJUNCTION
This is a word used to combine two words or sentences.
TYPES OF CONJUNCTION
1. Correlative Conjunctions; these are the ones used in pairs. They include; either …or,
neither…..nor, both…. and, whether…..or, not only…….but also, as……..as, so…..that,
no sooner…….than etc. For example; He is either a teacher or a doctor.
2. Compound Conjunction; this is a group of words which are used as conjunctions. Some
of them are such as in order that, even if, provided that, as well as, as soon as, as if etc.
3. Coordinating Conjunctions; these are used to join together clauses of equal rank, for
example but, for, nor, or, also etc. in the following sentences He studied hard and passed
the examination, I offered to help her but she refused my help, I must try hard for there is
heavy competition, He is not my friend nor my relative, You must begin the work today or
you will not finish it in time.
4. Subordinating Conjunctions; these are used to join clauses of unequal rank
(independent clause and a dependent clause). An independent clause can stand alone as a
sentence. In other words, it does not need any additional information to operate as a
sentence. The sentence "The student failed the test" is an example of an independent
clause. A dependent clause adds extra information to the main clause. These clauses
cannot stand by themselves and their meaning is dependent on the independent clause.
They are not complete sentences. For example, "because she didn't study" is not a
complete sentence. However, combine the two clauses, and we have "The student failed
49
 the test because she didn't study." A complete idea has been expressed and enough
information has been presented to fully explain the thought. What joined the two clauses?
The word "because" and there we have our first subordinating conjunction.

Other examples
After- He came after I had finished my work.
Because- She was sad because she lost her job
If- If she loves me, I will be happy
That- we believed that Pendo is a genius
Though- Though he is your brother, you should not trouble him like that
Till- I waited till Ally came
Before- The plane had been hijacked before it arrived at London airport.
Unless- Unless I marry Asha I will not be happy
As- Do as I tell you
When- She came when I was reading a novel
While- She is watching T.V. while I am reading
Than- She wrote the exam better than I expected

INTERJECTIONS

These are words which express one’s sudden feelings, for example Alas! Excellent! Well done!
Well said! Fantastic! Marvelous! That’s great! No thank you!

50