The Cellular Level

of Organization
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Name and describe the three main parts of a

cell (3.1)
2. Describe the plasma membrane and explain
the concept of selective permeability (3.2)
3. Name and explain the different processes by which substances cross the membrane (3.3)
4. List and describe the function of the main parts of the cell (3.4 – 3.5)
5. Explain the process of protein synthesis (3.6)
6. Name and describe the stages of somatic cell division (3.7)
7. Name and describe the stages of reproductive cell division (3.7)
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Name and describe the three main parts of a

cell (3.1)
2. Describe the plasma membrane and explain
the concept of selective permeability (3.2)
3. Name and explain the different processes by which substances cross the membrane (3.3)
4. List and describe the function of the main parts of the cell (3.4 – 3.5)
5. Explain the process of protein synthesis (3.6)
6. Name and describe the stages of somatic cell division (3.7)
7. Name and describe the stages of reproductive cell division (3.7)
PARTS OF CELL: OVERVIEW
PARTS OF CELL
Cytoplasm Nucleus
The cell can be divided into 3 main parts:
1. Plasma membrane
▪ Separates the cell’s internal environment from
the outside environment
▪ Selective barrier
2. Cytoplasm
▪ Includes the cytosol (fluid and solutes) and
organelles (subcellular structures)
3. Nucleus
▪ Contains the nucleolus and DNA
Plasma Membrane
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Name and describe the three main parts of a

cell (3.1)
2. Describe the plasma membrane and explain
the concept of selective permeability (3.2)
3. Name and explain the different processes by which substances cross the membrane (3.3)
4. List and describe the function of the main parts of the cell (3.4 – 3.5)
5. Explain the process of protein synthesis (3.6)
6. Name and describe the stages of somatic cell division (3.7)
7. Name and describe the stages of reproductive cell division (3.7)
PLASMA (CELL) MEMBRANE
The plasma membrane is a flexible yet sturdy barrier that surrounds and contains the
cytoplasm of the cell

Responsible for bidirectional

transport of molecules (e.g.
oxygen, nutrients, and
waste)

Many cell reactions take place

at the membrane
 PLASMA (CELL) MEMBRANE
The cell membrane is a fluid mosaic
of lipids and proteins.
▪ Phospholipid molecules form a
flexible bilayer.
▪ Protein molecules are embedded
in the plasma membrane.
▪ Carbohydrates act as cell
identification tags on the surface
of the plasma membrane.
 LIPIDS OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
The plasma membrane is formed by a phospholipid bilayer
Recall: Phospholipids form a stable bilayer in aqueous solutions
Why?

What types of molecules would you expect to easily pass through?

 LIPIDS OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE: CHOLESTEROL
Cholesterol is embedded in both layers of the membrane
▪ Attached to phospholipid tails

Cholesterol regulates membrane fluidity

▪ Acts as a “fluidity buffer”
▪ At warm temperatures (e.g. body temp),
restrains movement of phospholipids and
restrains fluidity
▪ At cool temperatures, prevents phospholipid
packing and promotes fluidity
▪ Membrane fluidity is critical for function!
cholesterol
 PROTEINS OF THE CELL MEMBRANE

Integral
membrane
proteins are
embedded in
membranes
(amphipathic).
Peripheral May extend all
proteins are on the the way through
surface of cell (transmembrane)
membranes.
PROTEINS OF THE CELL MEMBRANE
Proteins determine most of the membrane’s specific functions.
SIX major functions performed by membrane proteins:
1. Enzymes (catalyzes intracellular or extracellular reaction)
2. Transport (ion channel or transporter)
3. Receptors for signaling molecules
4. Cell-cell recognition
5. Intercellular junctions
CARBOHYDRATES OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
Carbohydrates are found on the glycocalyx (calyx = “husk” or “pod”), an
extensive “sugary” coat on the outer surface of the cell membrane
The glycocalyx functions in cell
recognition, cell signaling, cell-cell
adhesion, cell protection, and increases
moisture around the cell (glycocalyx
attracts water)
Carbohydrates attach to some proteins
(forming glycoproteins) and lipids (forming
glycolipids)
MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY

Plasma membranes are selectively permeable

▪ Membranes are permeable to small, nonpolar, uncharged molecules
O2 CO2 Cholesterol
MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY

Plasma membranes are selectively permeable

▪ Membranes are impermeable to ions, charged, or polar molecules
Na+ K+
Glucose Proteins
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Name and describe the three main parts of a

cell (3.1)
2. Describe the plasma membrane and explain
the concept of selective permeability (3.2)
3. Name and explain the different processes by which substances cross the membrane (3.3)
4. List and describe the function of the main parts of the cell (3.4 – 3.5)
5. Explain the process of protein synthesis (3.6)
6. Name and describe the stages of somatic cell division (3.7)
7. Name and describe the stages of reproductive cell division (3.7)
DIFFUSION
Diffusion is a passive process → random mixing of particles in solution happens because
of the kinetic energy of the particles

Which is spontaneous? Which requires energy?

CONCENTRATION GRADIENTS
A difference in concentration between two areas is called a concentration
gradient
60 60

50 50

40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
left right left right

Under diffusion, will solutes move down/with (from high to low concentration) or
up/against (from low to high concentration) their concentration gradient?
 PRINCIPLE OF DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the movement of solutes from an area of high solute concentration
to an area of low solute concentration;
Each substance moves down its own concentration gradient independently of
other solutes
 FACTORS AFFECTING DIFFUSION RATE
The rate (speed) of diffusion will be affected by:
1. Steepness of the concentration gradient (faster when gradient is steeper)
2. Temperature (faster when warmer)
3. Mass of diffusing particle (faster when smaller)
4. Surface area of membrane doing the diffusion (faster when larger)
5. Distance over which diffusion must occur (faster when small/when the
two areas are closer to one another)
These factors will be important when we discuss respiration later on!
FACILITATED DIFFUSION USES TRANSPORT
PROTEINS
These proteins span the membrane and allow
diffusion across the membrane of solutes that are
too polar or highly charged
Each transport protein is specific to one or a few
closely related solutes.
Some are channels (for diffusion of ions) and
others are carriers (for diffusion of glucose,
fructose, galactose and some vitamins)
The number of channels or carriers present affect
rates of facilitated diffusion
 ACTIVE TRANSPORT
End point of diffusion: 50/50 split of particles on either side of the membrane

How does the body bring solutes

60

50
across a membrane against their
40
concentration gradients?
30

20
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
10

0
left right Requires energy
Active transport can be powered directly via ATP → primary transport
Active transport can be powered via harnessing the flow of another solute down
its concentration gradient → secondary transport
PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
ATP is hydrolysed to ADP + P, causing a carrier protein to change shape
EXAMPLE: THE NA+/K+ PUMP
Maintains a low concentration of Na+ inside the cell (pumps Na+ out) and a
high concentration of K+ inside the cell (pumps K+ in) → ‘salty banana’
Uses 40% of cellular ATP (65% in neurons)
Operates continually
 SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT (CO-TRANSPORT)
A form of active transport that involves energy, but does not DIRECTLY
involve ATP → ATP is used INDIRECTLY
One solute flowing down its
concentration gradient (usually Na+) is
used to drag in or push out a second
solute against its concentration gradient
Symporters are molecules that
move two solutes in the same direction
Antiporters are molecules that
move two solutes in opposite directions
PASSIVE VS. ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Passive transport
Includes diffusion AND facilitated diffusion
▪ Does NOT require energy
▪ Solutes move down their concentration gradient
▪ May or may not require a membrane protein

Active transport
▪ Requires energy
▪ Solutes are pumped against their concentration
gradient
▪ Requires a membrane protein
TRANSPORT OF MOLECULES IN VESICLES

Exocytosis: The movement

of large molecules or particles
out of the cell.
▪ A membrane-bound vesicle
fuses with the membrane and
expels its contents.
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis

TRANSPORT OF MOLECULES IN VESICLES

Endocytosis: The movement of large molecules or
particles to inside of the cell.
▪ The membrane folds inward, trapping material from
the outside.
It can be:
1. Receptor-mediated (selective, takes up
specific molecules)
ACTIVE TRANSPORT OF BIG MOLECULES
Phagocytosis
2. Phagocytosis (engulfment
of large solid particles by
specialized cells called
phagocytes)
3. Bulk-phase endocytosis
(pinocytosis): not
selective; most common at
intestinal and kidney cells,
brings in fluids and
absorbed solutes
Pinocytosis
 OSMOSIS

Osmosis is the movement of water

across a selectively permeable
membrane.
Important when solutes cannot move
across membranes
Water diffuses across a membrane from the
region of lower solute concentration to the
region of higher solute concentration.
Or can think of it as… from high water
concentration to low water concentration
 CELLS AND OSMOLARITY

Isotonic solution: Equal solute concentration to the inside of the cell

Hypotonic solution: Lower solute concentration than the inside of the cell
Hypertonic solution: Higher solute concentration than the inside of the cell
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Name and describe the three main parts of a

cell (3.1)
2. Describe the plasma membrane and explain
the concept of selective permeability (3.2)
3. Name and explain the different processes by which substances cross the membrane (3.3)
4. List and describe the function of the main parts of the cell (3.4 – 3.5)
5. Explain the process of protein synthesis (3.6)
6. Name and describe the stages of somatic cell division (3.7)
7. Name and describe the stages of reproductive cell division (3.7)
CYTOPLASM

The cytoplasm includes the

cytosol (fluid and solutes) and
the organelles (subcellular
structures)
 THE CYTOSKELETON
The cytoskeleton (literally “cell skeleton”) is a network of fibres that runs throughout the
cell

Functions:
1. Establishes and maintains cell shape
2. Provides mechanical strength
3. Locomotion
4. Chromosome separation during cell
division
5. Intracellular transport of organelles
 CYTOSKELETON
The cytoskeleton is
comprised of 3 types
of fibers:
1. Microfilaments,
2. Intermediate
filaments,
3. Microtubules
 MICROFILAMENTS
Composed of double-twisted filaments of actin and
myosin
▪ Help generate movement

▪ Muscle contraction

▪ Cell division

▪ Cell locomotion

▪ Provide mechanical support

▪ Found in microvilli

▪ Anchor cytoskeleton to integral plasma

membrane proteins
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
Composed of several different fibrous proteins
depending on the cell type
Exceptionally strong and resist pulling
▪ Reinforce the parts of the cell that experience
mechanical stress
▪ Stabilize position of certain organelles

▪ Help in cell-cell attachment

MICROTUBULES
Straight hollow tubes composed of globular proteins
called tubulins.
Resist compression
▪ Assembled in centrosome
▪ Give the cell shape.
▪ Function in movement inside the cell (such as vesicles
and chromosomes)
▪ Function in movement of cilia and flagella
 CILIA AND FLAGELLA
Cilia and flagella are locomotor appendages
that protrude from some cells
▪ Made of microtubules covered by the
plasma membrane

Compare
and contrast
cilia and
flagella
CENTROSOME/CENTRIOLES
The centrosome is a microtubule
organizing centre
▪ Consists of a pair of centrioles
and pericentriolar matrix

▪ Centrioles are composed of microtubules arranged

in a circular pattern (9 triplets)
▪ Pericentriolar matrix contains tubulins
▪ Overall function: Organize spindles for chromosome
migration during cell division
 RIBOSOMES
Ribosomes are particles made
of ribosomal RNA and protein.
▪ Composed of a large and a
small subunit, which are made
in the nucleolus, and
assembled in the cytoplasm
Ribosomes carry out protein
synthesis
Can be free in cytosol (make proteins for the cytosol) or
bound to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (make proteins for
export, for specific organelles, or for cell membrane)
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
Endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes
that extends from the membrane around the nucleus
Note: The interior space of the ER is distinct from the
cytosol
There are two types of ER, most easily distinguished
by the presence or absence of ribosomes:
▪ Rough ER.
▪ Smooth ER.
 ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM (ER)
The Rough ER is continuous
with the nuclear envelope
(flattened sacs)
Ribosomes on the rough ER
manufacture secretory
proteins, membrane proteins, and
organellar proteins.
Rough ER also makes
phospholipids and attaches
carbohydrates to proteins
 SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
The Smooth ER extends from the rough ER
(network of membrane tubules)
Contains enzymes and is functionally diverse
Synthesizes lipids, fatty acids and steroids.
Some cells store glycogen or calcium in smooth
ER
Liver cells use smooth ER to regulate
carbohydrate metabolism and break down toxins
and drugs.
 THE GOLGI COMPLEX

The Golgi Complex (or apparatus) consists of stacks

of membranous sacs.
These receive and modify products from the ER,
then send these products on to other organelles or to the
cell membrane.

→ Modify, sort, package,

prepare proteins for their
final destination
LYSOSOMES
Lysosomes are sacs of digestive enzymes budded off
the Golgi apparatus.
▪ Fuse with vesicles formed via endocytosis or vesicles
that contain parts of the cell itself (autophagy)
Digest the cell’s food and wastes
▪ Hydrolyze proteins, fats, polysaccharides and
nucleic acids.
▪ Products are released to the cytosol
Proteins in its membrane pump H+ into the lumen
from the cytosol to maintain a pH of 5.
PEROXISOMES AND PROTEASOMES
Peroxisomes contains enzymes involved in
metabolism of organic substances, as well as some
toxins such as alcohol
They also contain enzymes that decompose
dangerous by-products of this metabolism
Without peroxisomes, by-products of metabolism
would build up and cause cell death.

Proteasomes are very small and contain proteases

Recently discovered → used to digest unneeded
cellular proteins
 PROTEIN
TRAFFICKING
IN THE CELL
Describe the
path of a protein
from its initial
synthesis to
a) the
intercellular fluid
b) the lysosome
etc
 MITOCHONDRIA
Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration
and play an important role in triggering apoptosis
(scheduled cell death)
C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + ATP
Mitochondria harvest chemical energy from food
and store this energy as ATP

Mitochondria are endosymbionts (were originally

free-living bacteria) Double membrane; inner membrane
arranged in folds called cristae
All our mitochondria come from our mother only
THE NUCLEUS
The largest and most prominent organelle.
The nucleus is the cell’s genetic control center.
▪ Controls cells activity by directing protein
synthesis.
The nucleus is separated from the
cytoplasm by the nuclear envelope.
▪ Nuclear pores regulate entry and
exit of material.
▪ Nucleolus is the region in the
nucleus where ribosomal RNA is
synthesized
THE NUCLEUS
Contains chromatin
▪ Composed of DNA and associated histone proteins
▪ Chromatin condenses into chromosomes during cell
division

DNA is organized into

hereditary units called
genes, each of which
contains the information to
build a specific protein
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Name and describe the three main parts of a

cell (3.1)
2. Describe the plasma membrane and explain
the concept of selective permeability (3.2)
3. Name and explain the different processes by which substances cross the membrane (3.3)
4. List and describe the function of the main parts of the cell (3.4 – 3.5)
5. Explain the process of protein synthesis (3.6)
6. Name and describe the stages of somatic cell division (3.7)
7. Name and describe the stages of reproductive cell division (3.7)
GENE EXPRESSION
Each gene is a piece of DNA that codes for the synthesis of a specific protein
▪ DNA is an informational molecule

All the cells in your body contain the same 46 chromosomes and therefore, the same
genes
However, different cell types have unique structures and functions
How can this be if they all have the same genes?
Different sets of genes are turned on or off in different cells
▪ If a gene is turned on → transcribed into mRNA → translated into protein
▪ If a gene is turned off → no mRNA transcribed → no protein produced
CENTRAL DOGMA = PROTEINS ARE PRODUCED FROM DNA
Protein synthesis is a 2 step event:
DNA Protein

1 2

Transcription Translation
in Nucleus in Cytoplasm
 TRANSCRIPTION OF DNA TO RNA
Genetic information encoded in DNA is copied
onto a strand of RNA
1. RNA polymerase binds to the promoter
▪ RNA polymerase is an enzyme that makes an
RNA polymer
2. RNA nucleotides are added complementary to
one strand of DNA
▪ DNA molecule is ‘unzipped’
▪ RNA nucleotides that fit with the DNA are
added one at a time
3. RNA polymerase detaches at the
terminator sequence
 RNA EDITING/ SPLICING
There are segments of the RNA transcript that will be
cut out (introns) and segments that are destined to be
turned into amino acid sequence (exons)
4. Introns in pre-mRNA are cut out (RNA splicing)
5. Exons are pasted together and form the mRNA -
code for the protein
RNA transcript can be spliced many different ways
(introns sometimes left in) which results in different
proteins (how we can have 10000 genes but millions of
different proteins)
TRANSLATION
The mRNA strand is read by a ribosome,
which then assembles the appropriate amino
acids into a protein
THE GENETIC CODE
The sequence of nucleotides determines
the sequence of amino acids along a
polypeptide chain.

The sequence of 3 nucleotides that codes

for one amino acid is called a codon
 TRANSLATION
1. A ribosome moves along the mRNA
2. It stops every 3 nucleotides, which is called
a codon
3. A tRNA (= ‘transfer’ RNA) arrives
carrying an amino acid.
▪ Each tRNA has 3 nucleotides (‘anticodon’)
and one amino acid
▪ Which mRNA codon matches to which
amino acid is seen on table previously
4. The new amino acid is added to the
growing protein and ribosome shifts to
next codon, stops translating at ‘stop’
codon
SUMMARY OF MOVEMENT OF RIBOSOME ALONG MRNA

What does each circle in the chain represent?

 LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Name and describe the three main parts of a

cell (3.1)
2. Describe the plasma membrane and explain
the concept of selective permeability (3.2)
3. Name and explain the different processes by which substances cross the membrane (3.3)
4. List and describe the function of the main parts of the cell (3.4 – 3.5)
5. Explain the process of protein synthesis (3.6)
6. Name and describe the stages of somatic cell division (3.7)
7. Name and describe the stages of reproductive cell division (3.7)
 TWO TYPES OF CELL DIVISION

MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Somatic cell division → When body ▪ Reproductive cell division →
cells divide and 1 cell splits into 2 cells Production of gametes (eggs and
▪ Results in an increase in the number of sperm)
body cells ▪ Parents cells have 2 sets of 23
▪ Produces 2 daughter cells that are chromosomes (diploid); each
identical to the parent cell daughter cell has one set of 23
▪ Nuclear division = mitosis chromosomes (haploid)
▪ Cytoplasmic division = cytokinesis ▪ Nuclear division = meiosis (2
successive nuclear divisions)
▪ Cytoplasmic division = cytokinesis
SOMATIC CELL CYCLE
The somatic cell cycle
consists of interphase and
the mitotic phase (cell
division)
 SOMATIC CELL CYCLE:
INTERPHASE
Interphase (G1, S, G2)
▪ Vast majority of a cell’s life
▪ All processes occur except cell division

A cell in interphase shows

1. A distinct nucleus.
2. Chromosomes are not visible (because DNA is not condensed).
During S phase, DNA is replicated to produce 2 copies of each
chromosome
 Same number of chromosomes but now replicated (sister chromatids)
 From 46 unduplicated chromosomes (46 chromatids) to 46 duplicated
chromosomes (92 chromatids)
 SOMATIC CELL CYCLE:
MITOTIC PHASE
Mitosis occurs when the nucleus of a cell
divides
Mitosis results in the distribution of 2 sets
of chromosomes into 2 separate nuclei
▪ Duplicated → unduplicated
Mitosis is divided into 4 steps:
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
 MITOSIS: PROPHASE

Chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes

▪ Pair of identical chromatids held together by a centromere
▪ Nucleolus disappears and nuclear envelope breaks down
MITOSIS: METAPHASE

Centromeres line up at
the exact center of the
mitotic spindle
(metaphase plate or
equatorial plane)

46 chromosomes
lined up (92
chromatids in
total)
MITOSIS: ANAPHASE
Separation of sister
chromatids at their
centromeres
Movement of the two
sister chromatids
toward opposite
poles of the cell
MITOSIS: TELOPHASE
Presence of a cleavage furrow
Chromosomes uncoil and revert to
chromatin
Nuclear envelope reforms
 CYTOPLASMIC DIVISION

Cytokinesis: Division of
cytoplasm and organelles.
The process begins in late
anaphase or early telophase
with the formation of a
cleavage furrow.
MITOSIS

Your challenge: a
memorable memory
aid to remember these
stages
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Name and describe the three main parts of a

cell (3.1)
2. Describe the plasma membrane and explain
the concept of selective permeability (3.2)
3. Name and explain the different processes by which substances cross the membrane (3.3)
4. List and describe the function of the main parts of the cell (3.4 – 3.5)
5. Explain the process of protein synthesis (3.6)
6. Name and describe the stages of somatic cell division (3.7)
7. Name and describe the stages of reproductive cell division (3.7)
REPRODUCTIVE
CELL DIVISION: MEIOSIS
Meiosis results in the production of
haploid cells that contain only 23
chromosomes.
Meiosis occurs in two successive stages:
meiosis I and meiosis II.
MEIOSIS I
MEIOSIS I – PROPHASE I
Chromosomes arranged in
homologous pairs to form tetrads

Tetrads exchange genetic material to

create genetic diversity (process is
called crossing over)
MEIOSIS I – METAPHASE I
Homologous pairs line up along the metaphase plate of the cell
▪ The homologous chromosomes are SIDE BY SIDE

23 PAIRS of
chromosomes
lined up
MEIOSIS I – ANAPHASE I AND TELOPHASE I
Anaphase I: the members of each homologous pair separate, with one
member of each pair moving to an opposite pole of the cell.
Telophase I and cytokinesis: similar to telophase and cytokinesis of mitosis.

Each resulting cell is haploid; contains only 23 chromosomes – one of each starting pair.
MEIOSIS II
Meiosis II consists of prophase II,
metaphase II, anaphase II, and
telophase II

These phases are similar to those in

mitosis.
REVIEW SUMMARY