CHAPTER 7: LISTENING

1)
According to David Nunan, a renowned linguist and expert in language teaching, the top-
down approach and bottom-up processing are two important concepts in listening
activities.
Top-down approach: The top-down approach emphasizes the use of prior knowledge,
context, and expectations to understand and interpret spoken language. In this approach,
learners draw on their existing knowledge of the world, their linguistic knowledge, and
their understanding of the context in which the listening activity takes place. They use this
information to make predictions, guess meanings, and interpret the overall message. The
focus is on comprehension and meaning rather than on individual sounds or words.
For example, when listening to a conversation about going to a restaurant, learners may
use their knowledge of restaurant settings, social norms, and language patterns to
anticipate the topics, vocabulary, and possible responses in the conversation. This
approach relies heavily on top-down processing, where higher-level cognitive processes
guide the interpretation of the incoming information.
Bottom-up processing: In contrast to the top-down approach, bottom-up processing
focuses on the analysis of individual sounds, words, and grammatical structures to
understand the meaning of spoken language. It involves decoding the sounds of the
language, recognizing words, understanding grammatical structures, and assembling these
elements to form a coherent message. Bottom-up processing starts with the smallest units
of language and gradually builds up to higher-level meaning.
For example, when listening to a sentence, learners may decode the sounds, recognize the
individual words, analyze their meanings, and then combine them to comprehend the
overall meaning of the sentence. This approach relies on the accurate perception and
understanding of the linguistic features in the input.
Both the top-down approach and bottom-up processing are essential in listening activities.
The top-down approach helps learners make sense of the overall message and context,
while bottom-up processing allows them to understand the detailed linguistic features. A
balanced approach that combines both strategies can enhance learners' overall listening
comprehension skills.
2)
According to David Nunan's perspective, as human beings, we listen to a wide range of
stimuli and information in our daily lives. Here are some key aspects of what we listen to:
Spoken Language: One of the primary things we listen to is spoken language. This includes
conversations, lectures, presentations, interviews, podcasts, and various forms of oral
communication. Understanding and interpreting spoken language is crucial for effective
communication and interaction with others.
Environmental Sounds: We also listen to the sounds in our environment. These can be
natural sounds such as birds chirping, waves crashing, or wind blowing, as well as artificial
sounds like traffic, machinery, music, and sirens. Environmental sounds provide us with
information about our surroundings and help us navigate and make sense of the world.
Nonverbal Cues: Listening also involves paying attention to nonverbal cues, such as body
language, facial expressions, and tone of voice. These cues convey additional meaning
beyond the words spoken and can influence our understanding and interpretation of the
message.
Media and Broadcasts: In today's digital age, we listen to various forms of media and
broadcasts, including radio programs, television shows, movies, and online content. These
mediums provide us with information, entertainment, and opportunities for learning
through auditory channels.
Inner Voice and Thoughts: Listening is not solely an external process. We also listen to our
own inner voice and thoughts. This internal listening involves our self-talk, reflections, and
mental processing. It plays a role in self-awareness, problem-solving, decision-making, and
critical thinking.
It is important to note that listening goes beyond simply perceiving sounds. It involves
actively engaging with the information, making meaning from it, and responding
appropriately. Developing effective listening skills is essential for effective communication
and understanding in various aspects of our lives.
3)
According to David Nunan's perspective, schema refers to our existing knowledge, beliefs,
and experiences that we bring to the process of understanding and interpreting new
information. Our schema works as a mental framework or structure that helps us make
sense of the world and organize incoming information. Here's how our schema works:
Activation: Our schema is activated when we encounter new information or experiences. It
acts as a filter through which we interpret and understand the incoming information. For
example, when we listen to a conversation about going to a restaurant, our schema related
to restaurants, food, social interactions, and cultural norms is activated.
Organization: Our schema helps us organize and categorize new information based on our
existing knowledge. It allows us to make connections, identify patterns, and relate the new
information to what we already know. For instance, when listening to a conversation about
a restaurant, we may categorize the information into topics such as ordering food, making
reservations, or discussing menu options.
Interpretation: Our schema influences the interpretation of new information. We use our
existing knowledge, beliefs, and experiences to make inferences, predictions, and
judgments about the meaning of the information. Our schema fills in gaps in the
information and helps us construct a coherent understanding. For example, if we hear
someone mention "waiter," our schema tells us that a waiter is a person who takes orders
and serves food in a restaurant.
Reconstruction: Our schema allows us to reconstruct and recall information based on our
past experiences and knowledge. It helps us retrieve relevant information from our
memory and apply it to the current situation. Our schema also enables us to make
educated guesses and fill in missing information based on our expectations and prior
knowledge.
It is important to note that our schema is not fixed or static. It evolves and expands as we
acquire new experiences, learn new information, and adjust our beliefs. Our schema plays
a crucial role in the listening process by providing a cognitive framework for understanding
and interpreting the incoming information.
4)
According to David Nunan's perspective, comprehensible input is crucial when preparing a
listening task because it allows learners to understand and make meaning from the
language they are exposed to. Here's why comprehensible input is important in the
context of listening tasks:
Language Acquisition: Comprehensible input is considered a fundamental element in
language acquisition. It refers to language input that is slightly above the learner's current
level of proficiency but still understandable with the help of context, visual aids, gestures,
or simplified language. When learners receive comprehensible input during listening tasks,
it provides them with opportunities to encounter new vocabulary, sentence structures,
and language features in a meaningful context.
Meaningful Context: Comprehensible input helps learners connect new language input
with their existing knowledge and experiences. By providing a meaningful context, such as
a conversation, a story, or a real-life situation, learners can relate the language to their
own lives and make connections. This aids in understanding the purpose, relevance, and
significance of the language they are listening to.
Engagement and Motivation: When learners are exposed to comprehensible input, it
enhances their engagement and motivation during the listening task. When they can
understand and follow the message being conveyed, they feel a sense of achievement and
are more likely to remain interested and focused. Comprehensible input supports learners'
confidence in their listening abilities and encourages them to actively participate in the
task.
Language Processing and Noticing: Comprehensible input allows learners to process the
language they are exposed to in a meaningful way. They can focus on understanding the
overall message, identifying key information, and noticing important language features.
This helps them develop their listening skills, including recognizing vocabulary,
understanding grammar structures, and discerning pronunciation patterns.
Comprehension and Learning: Ultimately, the goal of a listening task is to enhance
learners' comprehension and facilitate their language learning. Comprehensible input
enables learners to comprehend and make meaning from the language input they receive.
It supports their ability to extract information, infer meaning, and interpret the message.
By providing comprehensible input, teachers create an environment that fosters effective
listening comprehension and language development.
In summary, comprehensible input is important in preparing a listening task because it
facilitates language acquisition, provides a meaningful context, promotes engagement and
motivation, supports language processing and noticing, and enhances comprehension and
learning.
5)
When preparing a listening task, there are several strategies that a teacher can plan to
enhance learners' listening comprehension and engagement. Taking into account David
Nunan's perspective, here are some strategies to consider:
Pre-task Activities: Begin by activating learners' prior knowledge and providing a context
for the listening task. This can involve brainstorming relevant vocabulary, discussing
related topics, or using visual aids to set the scene. Preparing learners mentally and
creating a purpose for listening can increase their motivation and help them focus on the
task.
Pre-teaching Vocabulary and Language: Identify key vocabulary and language structures
that may pose challenges for learners in the listening task. Pre-teach or review these items
before the listening activity, providing explanations, examples, and opportunities for
practice. This prepares learners to encounter and understand these language elements in
the listening input.
Prediction and Settling Questions: Encourage learners to make predictions about the
content of the listening task based on the title, visuals, or introductory information. Ask
settling questions to help them focus on specific information or aspects they should pay
attention to while listening. This primes learners' minds and prepares them to actively
engage with the listening input.
Multiple Listenings: Plan for multiple listenings of the audio or video material. The first
listening can be for overall understanding, where learners get the gist of the message.
Subsequent listenings can focus on specific details, comprehension checks, or answering
specific questions. Multiple listenings provide learners with opportunities to refine their
understanding, catch missed information, and reinforce comprehension.
Comprehension Questions and Activities: Design comprehension questions and activities
that assess learners' understanding of the listening input. These can include multiple-
choice questions, true/false statements, gap-filling exercises, or open-ended questions
that require detailed answers. Comprehension questions and activities prompt learners to
process the information, reinforce their understanding, and reflect on the content.
Post-listening Discussion and Reflection: Engage learners in post-listening discussion and
reflection to deepen their understanding and promote critical thinking. Encourage them to
share their thoughts, opinions, and interpretations of the listening material. This fosters
language production, comprehension consolidation, and the development of higher-order
thinking skills.
Follow-up Tasks: Plan follow-up tasks that extend the learning beyond the listening activity.
These tasks can include role-plays, writing assignments, or group discussions that require
learners to use the language from the listening task in a different context. Follow-up tasks
promote language production, integration of new knowledge, and transfer of skills to real-
life situations.
By implementing these strategies, teachers can create engaging and effective listening
tasks that support learners' comprehension, language development, and critical thinking
skills.
6)
Certainly! Taking into account David Nunan's perspective, here are some considerations for
selecting audio-material and planning activities for a 5th-grade listening class:
Audio-material selection:
Age-appropriate Content: Choose audio-material that is suitable for 5th-grade students in
terms of content and language complexity. Consider their interests, experiences, and
cognitive abilities when selecting the material.
Authentic Language: Use authentic audio-material that represents real-world language
use, such as dialogues, interviews, or short narratives. This exposes students to natural
and meaningful language input.
Clear Pronunciation: Ensure that the audio-material has clear and intelligible
pronunciation. The speakers should model accurate pronunciation, intonation, and rhythm
for the students.
Varied Topics: Select audio-material covering a range of topics to engage students'
curiosity and broaden their knowledge. This can include everyday situations, hobbies,
animals, famous people, or cultural aspects.
7)
Activity planning:
Pre-listening Activities: Begin with pre-listening activities to activate students' prior
knowledge and introduce the topic. These activities can include brainstorming related
vocabulary, discussing personal experiences, or looking at visuals related to the audio-
material.
Prediction and Settling Questions: Help students make predictions about the content of
the audio-material based on the title, visuals, or introductory information. Ask settling
questions that guide their listening and focus on specific information or aspects they
should pay attention to.
Comprehension Checks: Design comprehension activities such as multiple-choice
questions, true/false statements, or gap-filling exercises to assess students' understanding
of the audio-material. These activities should target both general comprehension and
specific details.
Information Gap Activities: Plan information gap activities that require students to listen
and exchange information with their peers. This can involve pair or group work, where
students listen to specific parts of the audio-material and then share the information with
their partners or create a collaborative response.
Follow-up Discussions: Engage students in post-listening discussions to reflect on the
content, share their thoughts, and express their opinions. Encourage them to provide
reasoning and evidence from the audio-material to support their ideas. This promotes
critical thinking, language production, and interpersonal skills.
Creative Response: Incorporate activities that allow students to creatively respond to the
audio-material. This can include role-plays, dramatizations, or creative writing tasks where
they extend or reimagine the content they listened to.
By selecting appropriate audio-material and planning engaging activities, a 5th-grade
listening class can provide students with opportunities to improve their listening
comprehension, develop vocabulary, and enhance their overall language skills.