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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Zebra (disambiguation).

Zebra

Temporal

range: Pleistocene to recent 2–0 Ma

PreꞒ

Pg

N
↓
A herd of plains zebras (Equus quagga)

in the Ngorongoro Crater in Tanzania

Scientific classification

Domain: Eukaryota

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia

Order: Perissodactyla

Family: Equidae

Genus: Equus

Subgenus: Hippotigris
C. H. Smith, 1841

Species
 †E. capensis
E. grevyi
†E. koobiforensis
†E. mauritanicus
†E. oldowayensis
E. quagga
E. zebra

Modern range of the three living zebra

species

Zebras (US: /ˈziːbrəz/, UK: /ˈzɛbrəz, ˈziː-/)[1] (subgenus Hippotigris) are

African equines with distinctive black-and-white striped coats. There are
three living species: Grévy's zebra (Equus grevyi), the plains zebra (E. quagga), and
the mountain zebra (E. zebra). Zebras share the
genus Equus with horses and asses, the three groups being the only living members
of the family Equidae. Zebra stripes come in different patterns, unique to each
individual. Several theories have been proposed for the function of these stripes,
with most evidence supporting them as a deterrent for biting flies. Zebras
inhabit eastern and southern Africa and can be found in a variety of habitats such
as savannahs, grasslands, woodlands, shrublands, and mountainous areas.

Zebras are primarily grazers and can subsist on lower-quality vegetation. They are
preyed on mainly by lions, and typically flee when threatened but also bite and kick.
Zebra species differ in social behaviour, with plains and mountain zebra living in
stable harems consisting of an adult male or stallion, several adult females or mares,
and their young or foals; while Grévy's zebra live alone or in loosely associated
herds. In harem-holding species, adult females mate only with their harem stallion,
while male Grévy's zebras establish territories which attract females and the species
is promiscuous. Zebras communicate with various vocalisations, body postures and
facial expressions. Social grooming strengthens social bonds in plains and mountain
zebras.
Zebras' dazzling stripes make them among the most recognisable mammals. They
have been featured in art and stories in Africa and beyond. Historically, they have
been highly sought after by exotic animal collectors, but unlike horses and donkeys,
zebras have never been truly domesticated. The International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) lists Grévy's zebra as endangered, the mountain
zebra as vulnerable and the plains zebra as near-threatened. The quagga (E.
quagga quagga), a type of plains zebra, was driven to extinction in the 19th century.
Nevertheless, zebras can be found in numerous protected areas.

Etymology
The English name "zebra" derives from Italian, Spanish or Portuguese.[2][3] Its origins
may lie in the Latin equiferus, meaning "wild horse". Equiferus appears to have
entered into Portuguese as ezebro or zebro, which was originally used for a
legendary equine in the wilds of the Iberian Peninsula during the Middle Ages. In
1591, Italian explorer Filippo Pigafetta recorded "zebra" being used to refer to the
African animals by Portuguese visitors to the continent.[4] In ancient times, the African
zebra was called hippotigris ("horse tiger") by the Greeks and Romans.[4][5]

The word zebra was traditionally pronounced with a long initial vowel, but over the
course of the 20th century the pronunciation with the short initial vowel became the
norm in British English.[6] The pronunciation with a long initial vowel remains standard
in American English.[7]

Taxonomy
Further information: Evolution of the horse
Zebras are classified in the genus Equus (known as equines) along
with horses and asses. These three groups are the only living members of the
family Equidae.[8] The plains zebra and mountain zebra were traditionally placed in
the subgenus Hippotigris (C. H. Smith, 1841) in contrast to the Grévy's zebra which
was considered the sole species of subgenus Dolichohippus (Heller, 1912).[9][10]
[11]
Groves and Bell (2004) placed all three species in the subgenus Hippotigris.[12] A
2013 phylogenetic study found that the plains zebra is more closely related to
Grévy's zebras than mountain zebras.[13] The extinct quagga was originally classified
as a distinct species.[14] Later genetic studies have placed it as the same species as
the plains zebra, either a subspecies or just the southernmost population.[15]
[16]
Molecular evidence supports zebras as a monophyletic lineage.[13][17][18]

Equus originated in North America and direct paleogenomic sequencing of a

700,000-year-old middle Pleistocene horse metapodial bone from Canada implies a
date of 4.07 million years ago (mya) for the most recent common ancestor of the
equines within the range of 4.0 to 4.5 mya.[19] Horses split from asses and zebras
around this time and equines colonised Eurasia and Africa around 2.1–3.4 mya.
Zebras and asses diverged from each other close to 2 mya. The mountain zebra
diverged from the other species around 1.6 mya and the plains and Grévy's zebra
split 1.4 mya.[20]

A 2017 mitochondrial DNA study placed the Eurasian Equus ovodovi and the
subgenus Sussemionus lineage as closer to zebras than to asses.[21] However, other
studies disputed this placement, finding the Sussemionus lineage basal to the
zebra+asses group, but suggested that the Sussemionus lineage may have received
gene flow from zebras.[22]

Quagga mare at London Zoo, 1870, the only

specimen photographed alive. This animal was historically considered a separate
species but is now considered a subspecies or population of plains zebra.
The cladogram of Equus below is based on Vilstrup and colleagues (2013) and
Jónsson and colleagues (2014):[13][20]
Equus Zebras

Mountain zebra (E. zebra)

Plains zebra (E. quagga)

Grévy's zebra (E. grevyi)

Wild asses

Kiang (E. kiang)

Onager (E. hemionus)

African wild ass (E. africanus)

Horses

Horse (E. ferus caballus)

Przewalski's horse (E. ferus przewalski)

Extant species
Subspeci Chromoso
Name Description Distribution Image
es mes
 Body length of
250–300 cm
(98–118 in)
with 38–75 cm
(15–30 in) tail,
125–160 cm
(4.10–5.25 ft)
shoulder height
and weighs
352–450 kg
Grévy's (776–992 lb);[23] Eastern Africa including the
zebra (Eq Thin, elongated Horn;[24] arid and Monotypi
46[26]
uus skull, robust semiarid grasslands and shr c[24]
grevyi) neck and ublands[26]
conical ears;
narrow striping
pattern
with concentric
rump stripes,
white belly and
tail base and
white line
around the ashy
muzzle[8][24][25]

Plains Body length of Eastern and southern 6[12] or 44[32]

zebra (Eq 217–246 cm Africa; savannahs, monotypi
uus (85–97 in) with grasslands and open c[16]
quagga) 47–56 cm (19– woodlands[31]
22 in) tail, 110–
145 cm (43–
57 in) shoulder
height and
weighs 175–
385 kg (386–
849 lb);[23] Thick
bodied with
relatively short
legs and an
obtusely-shaped
skull profile
with a
protruding
forehead and a
more recessed
nose area;[8]
[27]
broad stripes,
horizontal on
the rump, with
northern
populations
having more
extensive
striping while
 populations
further south
have whiter
legs and bellies
and more
brown
"shadow"
stripes. The
snout is black.[8]
[28][29][30]

Body length of
210–260 cm
(83–102 in)
with 40–55 cm
(16–22 in) tail,
116–146 cm
(46–57 in)
shoulder height
and weighs
204–430 kg
(450–948 lb);[23]
eye
sockets more
circular and
positioned
farther back, a
Mountain
squarer nuchal Southwestern Africa;
zebra (Eq
crest, dewlap pr mountains, rocky uplands 2[33] 32[26]
uus
esent under and Karoo shrubland[31][33][30]
zebra)
neck and
compact
hooves; stripes
intermediate in
width between
the other
species, with
gridiron and
horizontal
stripes on the
rump, while the
belly is white
and the black
muzzle is lined
with chestnut or
orange[33][8][34][26]

Fossil record

Fossil skull of Equus mauritanicus

In addition to the three living species, some fossil zebras and relatives have also
been identified. Equus koobiforensis is an early equine basal to zebras found in
the Shungura Formation, Ethiopia and the Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, and dated to
around 2.3 mya.[35] E. oldowayensis is identified from remains in Olduvai Gorge dating
to 1.8 mya.[36] Fossil skulls of E. mauritanicus from Algeria which date to around 1
mya appears to show affinities with the plains zebra.[37][38] E. capensis, known as the
Cape zebra, appeared around 2 mya and lived throughout southern and eastern
Africa.[39][36] Non-African equines that may have been basal to zebras include E.
sansaniensis of Eurasia (circa 2.5 mya) and E. namadicus (circa 2.5 mya) and E.
sivalensis (circa 2.0 mya) of the Indian subcontinent.[35]

Hybridisation
Main article: Zebroid
Fertile hybrids have been reported in the wild between plains and Grévy's zebra.
[40]
Hybridisation has also been recorded between the plains and mountain zebra,
though it is possible that these are infertile due to the difference in chromosome
numbers between the two species.[41] Captive zebras have been bred with horses
and donkeys; these are known as zebroids. A zorse is a cross between a zebra and
a horse; a zonkey, between a zebra and a donkey; and a zoni, between a zebra and
a pony. Zebroids are often born sterile with dwarfism.[42]

Characteristics
Further information: Equine anatomy

Skeleton of a Grévy's zebra at the State Museum of

Natural History Karlsruhe
As with all wild equines, zebra have barrel-chested bodies with tufted tails, elongated
faces and long necks with long, erect manes. Their thin legs are each supported by a
spade-shaped toe covered in a hard hoof. Their dentition is adapted for grazing; they
have large incisors that clip grass blades and rough molars and premolars well
suited for grinding. Males have spade-shaped canines, which can be used as
weapons in fighting. The eyes of zebras are at the sides and far up the head, which
allows them to look over the tall grass while feeding. Their moderately long, erect
ears are movable and can locate the source of a sound.[8][28][34]

Unlike horses, zebras and asses have chestnut callosities present only on their front
legs. In contrast to other living equines, zebra have longer front legs than back legs.
[34]
Diagnostic traits of the zebra skull include: its relatively small size with a straight
dorsal outline, protruding eye sockets, narrower rostrum, less
conspicuous postorbital bar, separation of the metaconid and metastylid of the tooth
by a V-shaped canal and rounded enamel wall.[43]

Stripes
For other uses, see Zebra stripe.
 Comparative illustration of living zebra species
Zebras are easily recognised by their bold black-and-white striping patterns.
The coat appears to be white with black stripes, as indicated by the belly and legs
when unstriped, but the skin is black.[44][45][46] Young or foals are born with brown and
white coats, and the brown darkens with age.[27][24] A dorsal line acts as the backbone
for vertical stripes along the sides, from the head to the rump. On the snout they
curve toward the nostrils, while the stripes above the front legs split into two
branches. On the rump, they develop into species-specific patterns. The stripes on
the legs, ears and tail are separate and horizontal.[44]

Striping patterns are unique to an individual and heritable.[47] During embryonic

development, the stripes appear at eight months, but the patterns may be
determined at three to five weeks. For each species there is a point in embryonic
development where the stripes are perpendicular to the dorsal line and spaced
0.4 mm (0.016 in) apart. However, this happens at three weeks of development for
the plains zebra, four weeks for the mountain zebra, and five for Grévy's zebra. The
difference in timing is thought to be responsible for the differences in the striping
patterns of the different species.[44]

Various abnormalities of the patterns have been documented in plains zebras. In

"melanistic" zebras, dark stripes are highly concentrated on the torso but the legs are
whiter. "Spotted" individuals have broken up black stripes around the dorsal area.
[48]
There have even been morphs with white spots on dark backgrounds.[49] Striping
abnormalities have been linked to inbreeding.[48] Albino zebras have been recorded in
the forests of Mount Kenya, with the dark stripes being blonde.[50] The quagga had
brown and white stripes on the head and neck, brown upper parts and a white belly,
tail and legs.[51]

Function
The function of stripes in zebras has been discussed among biologists since at least
the 19th century.[52] Popular hypotheses include the following:

 The crypsis hypothesis suggests that the stripes allow the animal to
blend in with its environment or break up its outline. This was the earliest
hypothesis and proponents argued that the stripes were particularly suited
for camouflage in tall grassland and woodland habitat. Alfred Wallace also
wrote in 1896 that stripes make zebras less noticeable at night. Zebras
graze in open habitat and do not behave cryptically, being noisy, fast, and
social and do not freeze when a predator is near. In addition, the
camouflaging stripes of woodland living ungulates
 like bongos and bushbucks are much less vivid with less contrast with the
background colour.[53] A 1987 Fourier analysis study concluded that
the spatial frequencies of zebra stripes do not line up with their
environment,[54] while a 2014 study of wild equine species and subspecies
could not find any correlations between striping patterns and woodland
habitats.[55] Melin and colleagues (2016) found that lions and hyenas do not
appear to perceive the stripes when they are a certain distance away at
daytime or nighttime, thus making the stripes useless in blending in expect
when the predators are close enough by which they could smell or hear
their target. It also found that the stripes do not make the zebra less
noticeable than solidly coloured herbivores on the open plains. They
suggested that stripes may give zebras an advantage in woodlands, as
the dark stripes could line up with the outlines of tree branches and other
vegetation.[56]

Closeup of mountain zebra stripes

 The confusion hypothesis states that the stripes confuse predators, be it

by: making it harder to distinguish individuals in a group as well as
determining the number of zebras in a group; making it difficult to
determine an individual's outline when the group runs away; reducing a
predator's ability to keep track of a target during a chase; dazzling an
assailant so they have difficulty making contact; or making it difficult for a
predator to deduce the zebra's size, speed and direction via motion
dazzle. This theory has been proposed by several biologists since at least
the 1970s.[57] A 2014 computer study of zebra stripes found that they may
create a wagon-wheel effect and/or barber pole illusion when in motion.
The researchers concluded that this could be used against mammalian
predators or biting flies.[58] The use of the stripes for confusing mammalian
predators has been questioned. The stripes of zebras could make groups
seem smaller, and thus more likely to be attacked. Zebras also tend to
scatter when fleeing from attackers and thus the stripes could not break
up an individual's outline. Lions, in particular, appear to have no difficulty
targeting and catching zebras when they get close and take them by
ambush.[59] In addition, no correlations have been found between the
amount of stripes and populations of mammal predators.[55] Hughes and
colleagues (2021) concluded that solidly grey and less contrasted patterns
are more likely to escape being caught when in motion.[60]
 The aposematic hypothesis suggests that the stripes serve as warning
colouration. This hypothesis was first suggested by Wallace in 1867 and
discussed in more detail by Edward Bagnall Poulton in 1890. As with
known aposematic mammals, zebras are recognisable up close, live in
more open environments, have a high risk of predation and do not hide or
 act inconspicuous. However they are frequently preyed on by lions,
suggesting that stripes do not work on them but may on smaller predators,
and are not slow-moving enough to need to ward off threats. They also do
not possess adequate defenses to back up the warning pattern.[61]
 The social function hypothesis states that stripes serve a role in
intraspecific or individual recognition, social bonding, mutual grooming or
a signal of fitness. Charles Darwin wrote in 1871 that "a female zebra
would not admit the addresses of a male ass until he was painted so as to
resemble a zebra" while Wallace stated in 1871 that: "The stripes
therefore may be of use by enabling stragglers to distinguish their fellows
at a distance". Regarding species and individual identification, zebras
have limited range overlap with each other and horses can recognise each
other using visual communication.[62] In addition, no correlation has been
found between striping and social behaviour or group numbers among
equines,[55] and no link has been found between fitness and striping.[63]
 The thermoregulatory hypothesis suggests that stripes help to control a
zebra's body temperature. In 1971, biologist H. A. Baldwin noted that heat
would be absorbed by the black stripes and reflected by the white ones. In
1990, zoologist Desmond Morris suggested that the stripes create
cooling convection currents.[64] A 2019 study supported this, finding that
where the faster air currents of the warmer black stripes meet those of the
white, air swirls form. The researchers also concluded that during the
hottest times of the day, zebras erect the black hair to release heat from
the skin and flatten it to retain heat when it gets cooler.[65] Larison and
colleagues (2015) determined that environmental temperature is a strong
predictor for zebra striping patterns.[66] Others have found no evidence that
zebras have lower body temperatures than other ungulates whose habitat
they share, or that striping correlates with temperature.[67][55] A 2018
experimental study which dressed water-filled metal barrels in horse,
zebra and cattle hides concluded that the zebra stripes had no effect on
thermoregulation.[68]

Comparison of flight patterns and contact/landings of

horse flies around domestic horses (a-c) and plains zebras (d-f). [69]

 The fly protection hypothesis holds that the stripes deter blood-
sucking flies. Horse flies, in particular, spread diseases that are lethal to
equines such as African horse sickness, equine influenza, equine
 infectious anemia and trypanosomiasis. In addition, zebra hair is about as
long as the mouthparts of these flies.[55] This hypothesis is the most
strongly supported by the evidence.[69][70] It was found that flies preferred
landing on solidly coloured surfaces over those with black-and-white
striped patterns in 1930 by biologist R. Harris,[71] and this was proposed to
have been a function of zebra stripes in a 1981 study.[72] A 2014 study
found a correlation between striping and overlap with horse and tsetse
fly populations and activity.[55] Other studies have found that zebras are
rarely targeted by these insect species.[73] Caro and colleagues (2019)
studied captive zebras and horses and observed that neither could deter
flies from a distance, but zebra stripes kept flies from landing, both on
zebras and horses dressed in zebra print coats.[69] There does not appear
to be any difference in the effectiveness of repelling flies between the
different zebra species; thus the difference in striping patterns may have
evolved for other reasons.[70] White or light stripes painted on dark bodies
have also been found to reduce fly irritations in both cattle and humans.[74]
[75]
How the stripes repel flies is less clear.[70] A 2012 study concluded that
they disrupt the polarised light patterns these insects use to locate water
and habitat,[76] though subsequent studies have refuted this.[77][78][79] Stripes do
not appear to work like a barber pole against flies since checkered
patterns also repel them.[77][80] There is also little evidence that zebra stripes
confuse the insects via aliasing.[77] Takács and colleagues (2022) suggest
that, when the animal is in sunlight, temperature gradients between the
warmer dark stripes and cooler white stripes prevent horseflies from
detecting the warm blood vessels underneath.[78] Caro and colleagues
(2023) conclude that the insects are disoriented by the high colour
contrast and relative thinness of the patterns.[77]

Behaviour and ecology

Mountain zebra dustbathing in Namibia

Zebras may travel or migrate to wetter areas during the dry season.[27][28] Plains zebras
have been recorded travelling 500 km (310 mi) between Namibia and Botswana, the
longest land migration of mammals in Africa.[81] When migrating, they appear to rely
on some memory of the locations where foraging conditions were best and may
predict conditions months after their arrival.[82] Plains zebras are more water-
dependent and live in moister environments than other species. They usually can be
found 10–12 km (6.2–7.5 mi) from a water source.[27][28][30] Grévy's zebras can survive
almost a week without water but will drink it every day when given the chance, and
their bodies maintain water better than cattle.[83][24] Mountain zebras can be found at
elevations of up to 2,000 m (6,600 ft).[84] Zebras sleep for seven hours a day, standing
up during the day and lying down during the night. They regularly use various objects
as rubbing posts and will roll on the ground.[28]
 Plains zebras at Okavango Delta, Botswana
A zebra's diet is mostly grasses and sedges, but they will opportunistically
consume bark, leaves, buds, fruits, and roots. Compared to ruminants, zebras have
a simpler and less efficient digestive system. Nevertheless, they can subsist on
lower-quality vegetation. Zebras may spend 60–80% of their time feeding, depending
on the availability of vegetation.[8][28] The plains zebra is a pioneer grazer, mowing
down the upper, less nutritious grass canopy and preparing the way for more
specialised grazers, which depend on shorter and more nutritious grasses below.[85]

Zebras are preyed on mainly by lions. Leopards, cheetahs, spotted hyenas, brown
hyenas and wild dogs pose less of a threat to adults.[86] Nile crocodiles also prey on
zebras when they near water.[87] Biting and kicking are a zebra's defense tactics.
When threatened by lions, zebras flee, and when caught they are rarely effective in
fighting off the big cats.[88] In one study, the maximum speed of a zebra was found to
be 50 km/h (31 mph) while a lion was measured at 74 km/h (46 mph). Zebras do not
escape lions by speed alone but by sideways turning, especially when the cat is
close behind.[89] With smaller predators like hyenas and dogs, zebras may act more
aggressively, especially in defense of their young.[90]

Social behaviour
See also: Horse behaviour

A plains zebra group

Zebra species have two basic social structures. Plains and mountain zebras live in
stable, closed family groups or harems consisting of one stallion, several mares, and
their offspring. These groups have their own home ranges, which overlap, and they
tend to be nomadic. Stallions form and expand their harems by recruiting young
mares from their natal (birth) harems. The stability of the group remains even when
the family stallion is displaced. Plains zebras groups gather into large herds and may
create temporarily stable subgroups within a herd, allowing individuals to interact
with those outside their group. Females in harems can spend more time feeding, and
gain protection both for them and their young. The females have a linear dominance
hierarchy with the high-ranking females being the ones that have lived in the group
longest. While traveling, the most dominant females and their offspring lead the
group, followed by the next most dominant. The family stallion trails behind. Young of
both sexes leave their natal groups as they mature; females are usually herded by
outside males to become part of their harems.[8][28][91]

In the more arid-living Grévy's zebras, adults have more fluid associations and adult
males establish large territories, marked by dung piles, and mate with the females
that enter them.[28][8] Grazing and drinking areas tend to be separated in these
environments and the most dominant males establish territories near watering holes,
which attract females with dependent foals and those who simply want a drink, while
less dominant males control territories away from water with more vegetation, and
only attract mares without foals.[92] Mares may travel through several territories but
remain in one when they have young. Staying in a territory offers a female protection
from harassment by outside males, as well as access to resources.[91][93]

Group of Grévy's zebras grazing

In all species, excess males gather in bachelor groups. These are typically young
males that are not yet ready to establish a harem or territory.[8][28] With the plains
zebra, the oldest males are the most dominant and group membership is stable.
[28]
Bachelor groups tend to be at the boundaries of herds and during group
movements, the bachelors follow behind or along the sides.[30] Mountain zebra
bachelor groups may also include young females that have left their natal group
early, as well as old, former harem males. A territorial Grévy's zebra stallion may
allow non-territorial bachelors in their territory, however when a mare in oestrous is
present the territorial stallion keeps other stallions at bay. Bachelors prepare for their
future harem roles with play fights and greeting/challenge rituals, which make up
most of their activities.[28]

Fights between males usually occur over mates and involve biting and kicking. In
plains zebra, stallions fight each other over recently matured mares to bring into their
group and her family stallion will fight off other males trying to abduct her. As long as
a harem stallion is healthy, he is not usually challenged. Only unhealthy stallions
have their harems taken over, and even then, the new stallion slowly takes over,
peacefully displacing the old one. Agonistic behaviour between male Grévy's zebras
occurs at the border of their territories.[28]

Communication
 Plains zebras mutually grooming
Zebras produce a number of vocalisations and noises. The plains zebra has a
distinctive, barking contact call heard as "a-ha, a-ha, a-ha" or "kwa-ha, kaw-ha, ha,
ha".[27][28] The mountain zebra may produce a similar sound while the call of Grévy's
zebra has been described as "something like a hippo's grunt combined with a
donkey's wheeze". Loud snorting and rough "gasping" in zebras signals alarm.
Squealing is usually made when in pain, but can also be heard in friendly
interactions. Zebras also communicate with visual displays, and the flexibility of their
lips allows them to make complex facial expressions. Visual displays also consist of
head, ear, and tail postures. A zebra may signal an intention to kick by dropping
back its ears and whipping its tail. Flattened ears, bared teeth and a waving head
may be used as threatening gestures by stallions.[28]

Individuals may greet each other by rubbing and sniffing and then mutually rub their
cheeks, and move along their bodies towards each other's genitals to sniff. They
then may caress their shoulders against each other and lay their heads on one
another. This greeting usually occurs between harem or territorial males or among
bachelor males playing.[28] Plains and mountain zebras strengthen their social bonds
with grooming. Members of a harem nibble and rake along the neck, shoulder, and
back with their teeth and lips. Grooming usually occurs between mothers and foals
and between stallions and mares. Grooming establishes social rank and eases
aggressive behaviour,[28][94] although Grévy's zebras generally do not perform social
grooming.[24]

Reproduction and parenting

See also: Horse breeding

Captive Grévy's zebras mating

Among plains and mountain zebras, the adult females mate only with their harem
stallion, while in Grévy's zebras, mating is more promiscuous and the males have
larger testes for sperm competition.[92][95] Female zebras have five to ten day long
oestrous cycles; physical signs include a swollen, everted (inside out) labia and
copious flows of urine and mucus. Among reaching peak oestrous, mares spread-out
their legs, lift their tails and open their mouths when in the presence of a male. Males
assess the female's reproductive state with a curled lip and bared teeth (flehmen
response) and the female will solicit mating by backing in. Gestation is typically
around a year. A few days to a month later, mares can return to oestrus.[28] In harem-
holding species, oestrus in a female becomes less noticeable to outside males as
she gets older, hence competition for older females is virtually nonexistent.[27]

Mountain zebra suckling a foal

Usually, a single foal is born, which is capable of running within an hour of birth. [8] A
newborn zebra will follow anything that moves, so new mothers prevent other mares
from approaching their foals as they become more familiar with the mother's striping
pattern, smell and voice.[24] At a few weeks old, foals begin to graze, but may continue
to nurse for eight to thirteen months.[8] Living in an arid environment, Grévy's zebras
have longer nursing intervals and young only begin to drink water three months after
birth.[96]

In plains and mountain zebras, foals are cared for mostly by their mothers, but if
threatened by pack-hunting hyenas and dogs, the entire group works together to
protect all the young. The group forms a protective front with the foals in the centre,
and the stallion will rush at predators that come too close.[28] In Grévy's zebras, young
stay in "kindergartens" when their mothers leave for water. These groups are tended
to by the territorial male.[96] A stallion may look after a foal in his territory to ensure
that the mother stays, though it may not be his.[91] By contrast, plains zebra stallions
are generally intolerant of foals that are not theirs and may
practice infanticide and feticide via violence to the pregnant mare.[97]

Human relations
Cultural significance

San rock art depicting a zebra

With their distinctive black-and-white stripes, zebras are among the most
recognisable mammals. They have been associated with beauty and grace, with
naturalist Thomas Pennant describing them in 1781 as "the most elegant of
quadrupeds". Zebras have been popular in photography, with some wildlife
photographers describing them as the most photogenic animal. They have become
staples in children's stories and wildlife-themed art, such as depictions of Noah's Ark.
In children's alphabet books, the animals are often used to represent the letter 'Z'.
Zebra stripe patterns are popularly used for body paintings, dress, furniture and
architecture.[98]

Zebras have been featured in African art and culture for millennia. They are depicted
in rock art in Southern Africa dating from 28,000 to 20,000 years ago, though less
often than antelope species like eland. How the zebra got its stripes has been the
subject of folk tales, some of which involve it being scorched by fire.
The Maasai proverb "a man without culture is like a zebra without stripes" has
become popular in Africa. The San people connected zebra stripes with water, rain
and lighting, and water spirits were conceived of having these markings.[99]

"Zebra Stripes," trademark for the defunct Glen Raven

Cotton Mills Company
For the Shona people, the zebra is a totem animal and is glorified in a poem as an
"iridescent and glittering creature". Its stripes have symbolised the union of male and
female and at the ruined city of Great Zimbabwe, zebra stripes decorate what is
believed to be a domba, a school meant to prepare girls for adulthood. In the Shona
language, the name madhuve means "woman/women of the zebra totem" and is a
name for girls in Zimbabwe. The plains zebra is the national animal of Botswana and
zebras have been depicted on stamps during colonial and post-colonial Africa. For
people of the African diaspora, the zebra represented the politics of race and
identity, being both black and white.[100]

In cultures outside of its range, the zebra has been thought of as a more exotic
alternative to the horse; the comic book character Sheena, Queen of the Jungle, is
depicted riding a zebra and explorer Osa Johnson was photographed riding one. The
film Racing Stripes features a captive zebra ostracised from the horses and ends up
being ridden by a rebellious girl. Zebras have been featured as characters in
animated films like Khumba, The Lion King and the Madagascar films and television
series such as Zou.[101]

Zebras have been popular subjects for abstract, modernist and surrealist artists.
Such art includes Christopher Wood's Zebra and Parachute, Lucian Freud's The
Painter's Room and Quince on a Blue Table and the various paintings of Mary
Fedden and Sidney Nolan. Victor Vasarely depicted zebras as black and white lines
and connected in a jigsaw puzzle fashion. Carel Weight's Escape of the Zebra from
the Zoo during an Air Raid was based on a real life incident of a zebra escaping
during the bombing of London Zoo and consists of four comic book-like panels.
Zebras have lent themselves to products and advertisements, notably for 'Zebra
Grate Polish' cleaning supplies by British manufacturer Reckitt and Sons and
Japanese pen manufacturer Zebra Co., Ltd.[102]

Captivity

Zebra (1763) by George Stubbs. A portrait of Queen

Charlotte's zebra
Zebras have been kept in captivity since at least the Roman Empire. In later times,
captive zebras have been shipped around the world, often for diplomatic reasons. In
1261, Sultan Baibars of Egypt established an embassy with Alfonso X of Castile and
sent a zebra and other exotic animals as gifts. In 1417, a zebra was gifted to the
Chinese people by Somalia and displayed before the Yongle Emperor. The
fourth Mughal emperor Jahangir received a zebra from Ethiopia in 1620 and Ustad
Mansur made a painting of it. In the 1670s, Ethiopian Emperor Yohannes I exported
two zebras to the Dutch governor of Jakarta. These animals would eventually be
given by the Dutch to the Tokugawa Shogunate of Japan.[103]

When Queen Charlotte received a zebra as a wedding gift in 1762, the animal
became a source of fascination for the people of Britain. Many flocked to see it at
its paddock at Buckingham Palace. It soon became the subject of humour and satire,
being referred to as "The Queen's Ass", and was the subject of an oil painting
by George Stubbs in 1763. The zebra also gained a reputation for being ill-tempered
and kicked at visitors.[104] In 1882, Ethiopia sent a zebra to French president Jules
Grévy, and the species it belonged to was named in his honour.[9]

Walter Rothschild with a zebra carriage

Attempts to domesticate zebras were largely unsuccessful. It is possible that having
evolved under pressure from the many large predators of Africa, including early
humans, they became more aggressive, thus making domestication more difficult.
[105]
However, zebras have been trained throughout history. In Rome, zebras are
recorded to have pulled chariots during amphitheatre games starting in the reign
of Caracalla (198 to 217 AD).[106] In the late 19th century, the zoologist Walter
Rothschild trained some zebras to draw a carriage in England, which he drove to
Buckingham Palace to demonstrate that it can be done. However, he did not ride on
them knowing that they were too small and aggressive.[107] In the early 20th
century, German colonial officers in East Africa tried to use zebras for both driving
and riding, with limited success.[108]

Conservation
 Mountain zebra hide
As of 2016–2019, the IUCN Red List of mammals lists Grévy's zebra as endangered,
the mountain zebra as vulnerable and the plains zebra as near-threatened. Grévy's
zebra populations are estimated at less than 2,000 mature individuals, but they are
stable. Mountain zebras number near 35,000 individuals and their population
appears to be increasing. Plains zebra are estimated to number 150,000–250,000
with a decreasing population trend. Human intervention has fragmented zebra
ranges and populations. Zebras are threatened by hunting for their hide and meat,
and habitat destruction. They also compete with livestock and have their travelling
routes obstruct by fences.[109][110][111] Civil wars in some countries have also caused
declines in zebra populations.[112] By the early 20th century, zebra skins were being
used to make rugs and chairs. In the 21st century, zebras may be taken by trophy
hunters as zebra skin rugs sell for $1,000 to $2,000. Trophy hunting was rare among
African peoples though the San were known to hunt zebra for meat.[113]

Endangered Grévy's zebras in Samburu National

Reserve
The quagga (E. quagga quagga) population was hunted by early Dutch settlers and
later by Afrikaners to provide meat or for their skins. The skins were traded or used
locally. The quagga was probably vulnerable to extinction due to its restricted range,
and because they were easy to find in large groups. The last known wild quagga
died in 1878.[114] The last captive quagga, a female in Amsterdam's Natura Artis
Magistra zoo, lived there from 9 May 1867 until it died on 12 August 1883.
[115]
The Cape mountain zebra, a subspecies of mountain zebra, nearly went extinct
due to hunting and habitat destruction, with less than 50 individuals left by the 1950s.
Protections from South African National Parks allowed the population to rise to 2,600
by the 2010s.[116]

Zebras can be found in numerous protected areas. Important areas for Grévy's zebra
include Yabelo Wildlife Sanctuary and Chelbi Sanctuary in Ethiopia and Buffalo
Springs, Samburu and Shaba National Reserves in Kenya.[109] The plains zebra
inhabits the Serengeti National Park in Tanzania, Tsavo and Masai Mara in
Kenya, Hwange National Park in Zimbabwe, Etosha National Park in Namibia,
and Kruger National Park in South Africa.[111] Mountain zebras are protected
in Mountain Zebra National Park, Karoo National Park and Goegap Nature
Reserve in South Africa as well as Etosha and Namib-Naukluft Park in Namibia.[110][117]

See also
 Fauna of Africa
 Lord Morton's mare
 Primitive markings – markings found on other equines
 Zonkey (Tijuana) – a donkey painted with zebra stripes

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General bibliography
 Caro, Tim (2016). Zebra Stripes. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-41101-9.
 Plumb, C.; Shaw, S. (2018). Zebra. Reaktion Books. ISBN 9781780239712.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Zebras.

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Zebra".

 The Quagga Project—An organisation that selectively breeds zebras to

recreate the hair coat pattern of the quagga
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Extant Perissodactyla (Odd-toed ungulates) species by suborder

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Species of the genus Equus

 Wikidata: Q32789

 ITIS: 926087

 NCBI: 35506

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Authority control databases
Categories:
 Zebras
 Equus (genus)
 Fauna of Sub-Saharan Africa
 Herbivorous mammals
 Mammals of Africa
 Extant Pleistocene first appearances
 This page was last edited on 8 December 2023, at 17:05 (UTC).
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