Lesson 1.

3: Exponential and Logarithmic

Functions

Lesson Summary
This lesson covers the exponential and logarithmic functions, solving
exponential and logarithmic functions using their properties and the rules of
exponents. Also, it will bring students to master rewriting exponential
equations to logarithmic form and vice versa.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to,
1. Rewrite exponential equation to logarithmic form and vice versa.
2. Solve exponential and logarithmic equations by applying the
properties of exponential and logarithmic functions, respectively.
3. Solve real-life word problems.

Motivation Question
What will happen when money is being deposited in a bank?
Do you think it will grow over a while?

Discussion

Rules of exponents

Before we proceed to an exponential and logarithmic function, it is essential

to recall the rules of exponents.
Product Rule
If 𝑚 and 𝑛 are positive integers and 𝑎 is a real number, then
𝑎 ∙𝑎 = 𝑎
Power Rule
If 𝑚 and 𝑛 are positive integers and 𝑎 is a real number, then
(𝑎 ) = 𝑎
Powers of Products
If 𝑛 is a positive integer and 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers, then
(𝑎𝑏) =𝑎 ∙𝑏
 78 Math 101: Elementary Calculus

Quotient Rule
For any nonzero 𝑎 and any positive integers 𝑚 and 𝑛,

=𝑎 , if 𝑚 > 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑

= , if 𝑚 < 𝑛
Powers of Quotients
If 𝑛 is a positive integer and 𝑎 and 𝑐 are real numbers, then
𝑎 𝑎
=
𝑐 𝑐
As long as 𝑐 is not equal to 0.
Negative Power
If 𝑛 is a positive integer and if a is a nonzero real number, then
1
𝑎 = , 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 ≠ 0
𝑎
Thus, whenever a negative exponent is encountered, think of “reciprocal.”
Zero Power
If 𝑎 is a nonzero real number, then
𝑎 = 1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 ≠ 0
Fraction Power
If 𝑚 and 𝑛 are nonzero integers and 𝑎 is a real number, then

 𝑎 = √𝑎

 𝑎 = 𝑎 = √𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = (𝑎 ) = √𝑎

 𝑎 = =
√

Examples: Simplify the following expressions.

Solution: Apply the rules of exponents.
1. (8𝑎) = 1
2. 𝑎 𝑎 = 𝑎 =𝑎
3. (𝑏 ) = 𝑏 ×
=𝑏
4. (𝑥 𝑦) = 𝑥 ( )
𝑦 =𝑥 𝑦
×
5. = × =

6. =𝑚 =𝑚

7. 𝑎 =

8. 𝑥 = √𝑥

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9. 𝑥 = 𝑎 = √𝑥 = √𝑥

10. 𝑝 = =

Exponential functions

Definition. For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍 (positive integers), then, the product 𝑎 ∙

𝑎 ∙ 𝑎 ∙ … ∙ 𝑎, where a occurs n times could be written in exponential
notation as 𝑎 . That is, 𝑎 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑎 ∙ 𝑎 ∙ … ∙ 𝑎.

In the expression 𝑎 , 𝑎 is called the base, and 𝑛 is called the exponent, or

power.
The function 𝑓 defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 ; where 𝑏 > 0, 𝑏 ≠ 1, and the exponent 𝑥
is a real number is called an exponential function to the base b.

Ex. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 ; 𝑓(𝑥) =

Natural Exponential Functions

Definition. The natural exponential function is the function 𝑓 defined by
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 or 𝑓(𝑥) = exp[𝑥] ; 𝑒 = 2.71 …
domain: (−∞, +∞) 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒: (0, + ∞)

Note: The graph of 𝑒 lies between the curves 𝑦 = 2 and 𝑦 = 3 .

Figure 37 Graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 .

Property 1
If 𝑏 = 𝑏 , then 𝑢 = 𝑣.

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Solving exponential functions

Examples: Solve the following exponential equations.

1. If 𝟑𝒙 𝟏
= 𝟐𝟒𝟑 , find 𝒙.
Solution: Each side of equality must be written with the same base.
Since 243 = 3 , then
3 = 243 ; 243 = 3
3 =3
Now, apply Property 1,
𝑥+1=5
𝑥 =5−1
𝒙=𝟒
2. If 𝟐𝟒𝒙 𝟏
= 𝟓𝟏𝟐 , find 𝒙.
Solution: Each side of equality must be written with the same base.
Since 512 = 2 , then
2 = 512 ; 512 = 2
2 =2
Now, apply Property 1,
4𝑥 + 1 = 9
4𝑥 = 9 − 1
4𝑥 = 8 Divide both sides by 4
𝒙=𝟐
𝟏 𝟒
3. If 𝟓𝒙(𝒙 𝟔)
= 𝟐𝟓
, find 𝒙.

Solution: Since the right side of the equation is a fraction with exponent,
apply the negative power rule of the exponent. So,
Get the reciprocal of raised to −1 which is 25 by Negative Power Rule
( )
5 = (25 )
Since 25 = 5 , then
( )
5 = (5 ) Apply Power Rule on the right side
( )
5 =5
Now, apply Property 1,
𝑥(𝑥 − 6) = −8 Apply Distributive Property
𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 8 = 0 Factor the left side
(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 2) = 0
𝒙 = 𝟒 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒙 = 𝟐
4. If 𝟗 𝟏 𝒙
= 𝟐𝟕𝒙 𝟏
, find 𝒙.
Solution: First, each side of the equation must be written with the same
base.

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Both sides can still be simplified, so find a common factor of 9 and 27 that
can be expressed as an exponent. Since 9 = 3 and 27 = 3 , then
( ) ( )
3 =3
Now, apply Property 1,
2(1 − 𝑥) = 3(𝑥 − 1) Use Distributive Property
2 − 2𝑥 = 3𝑥 − 3 Combine like/similar terms
−2𝑥 − 3𝑥 = −3 − 2
−5𝑥 = −5 Divide both sides by − 5
𝒙=𝟏
𝟏
5. If 𝟔 𝒙
= , find 𝒙.
𝟐𝟏𝟔

Solution: Since the right side of the equation is a fraction, apply the
negative power rule of the exponent. So,
Get the reciprocal of raised to −1 which is 216 by Negative Power
Rule
6 = 216
Since 216 = 6 , then
( )
6 =6
Now, apply Property 1,
−𝑥 = 3(−1)
−𝑥 = −3 Divide both sides by − 1.
𝒙=𝟑
6. If 𝟒𝟐𝒙 𝟏
= 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒, find the value of 𝟒𝒙 .
Solution: First, we have to find the value of 𝑥 to get 4 . Each side of equality
must be written with the same base.
Since 1024 = 4 , then
4 =4
Now, apply Property 1
2𝑥 + 1 = 5
2𝑥 = 5 − 1
2𝑥 = 4
𝑥=2
Now, evaluate 𝑥 = 2 to 4 , so
4 = 4 = 𝟏𝟔

Application of exponential functions

1. Jose invested 𝑃100, 000 at an interest rate of 24%, compounded monthly.

Find the balance after 5 years.
Solution: The amount of money invested is 𝑃 = 100,000 at a rate of 24 % or
0.24. Since it is compounded monthly, 𝑛 = 12, and the money is invested for
𝑡 = 5 years. Using the formula for compound interest, we have:
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𝑟
𝐴=𝑃 1+
𝑛
( )( )
0.24
= 100,000 1 +
12
= 100,000 (1.02)
𝐴 = 𝑃 328,103.08
Therefore, after 5 years, the money invested will become 𝑃328,103.08.
2. The exponential function can approximate the population of a certain town
𝑃(𝑡) = 2.3(1.045) where 𝑡 is the year, and 𝑃 is the population in
millions. Approximate the population of the town in (a) 1998 and (𝑏) 2020.
Solution: Simply substitute the value of 𝑡 to the function.
(a) 𝑃(𝑡) = 2.3(1.045) ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡 = 1998
𝑃(1998) = 2.3(1.045)
= 2.3(1.045)
𝑃(1998) = 5.08
Therefore, in the year 1998, the population of a certain town is approximately
5.08 million people.
(b) 𝑃(𝑡) = 2.3(1.045) ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡 = 2020
𝑃(2020) = 2.3(1.045)
= 2.3(1.045)
𝑃(2020) = 13.38
Therefore, in the year 2020, the population of a certain town is approximately
13.38 million people.

Logarithmic functions

Definition. Let 𝑏 be a positive real number such that 𝑏 ≠ 1. The

logarithm of 𝒙 with base 𝒃 is denoted by 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 and is defined as
𝒚 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒙 if and only if 𝒙 = 𝒃𝒚

In both forms, note that 𝑏 is the base. In the second form, note that 𝑦 is the
exponent, which, from the first form, implies that a logarithm is an exponent.
The abbreviation 𝑙𝑜𝑔 for logarithm is used. The function 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 is read as
“𝑦 is the logarithm of 𝑥 with base 𝑏.”
Note: The domain of 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 consists of all positive real numbers. The range
is the set of all real numbers.
Exponential functions and logarithmic functions are inverses of each other.
Common logarithms- logarithms with base 10, the function “log” denotes the
logarithmic function with base 10.

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Natural Logarithmic Functions

Definition. The natural logarithmic function is the inverse of the natural
exponential function. The natural logarithmic function can be denoted by
𝑙𝑜𝑔 but a more customary notation is ln defined as
𝑦 = ln 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑥=𝑒

Converting from one of the equivalent forms 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 to the

other is a useful skill.
Logarithmic Form Exponential Form
𝑙𝑜𝑔 9 = 2 3 =9
𝑙𝑜𝑔 16 = 4 2 = 16
Compare to a logarithmic function, the exponential form is easier to convert.
Accordingly, when there is a question regarding logarithmic form, it is often
useful to convert to the exponential form.
Example 1: Convert each of the following exponential forms to logarithmic
form.

a. 4 = 8 b. 8 = 16
Solution:
Exponential Form Logarithmic Form
3
a. 4 = 8 𝑙𝑜𝑔 8 =
2
4
b. 8 = 16 𝑙𝑜𝑔 16 =
3
Example 2: Convert each of the following logarithmic forms to exponential
form.
a. 𝑙𝑜𝑔 9 = 1 b. 𝑙𝑜𝑔 . = −3

Solution:
Logarithmic Form Exponential Form
a. 𝑙𝑜𝑔 9 = 1 9 =9
b. 𝑙𝑜𝑔 = −3 1000
. 0.3 =
27
1 1000
=
0.3 27

Properties of logarithms

Logarithms have some very useful properties that can be derived from the
definition and the laws of exponents.

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Property 2
a) 𝑙𝑜𝑔 1 = 0 𝑏) 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎 = 1

In the properties that follow, 𝑥 and 𝑏 are positive real numbers, with 𝑏 ≠ 1, and
𝑟 is any real number.

Property 3
The number 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 is the exponent to which 𝑏 must be raised to obtain 𝑥.
That is,
𝑏 =𝑥

Property 4
The logarithm to the base 𝑏 of 𝑏 raised to a power equals that power.
That is,
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑏 = 𝑟

In the following properties, 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑏 are positive real numbers with 𝑏 ≠ 1,

and 𝑟 is any real number.

The Product Rule for Logarithms

The logarithm of a product is the sum of the logarithms of the factors.
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦
ln 𝑥𝑦 = ln 𝑥 + ln 𝑦

Let 𝑢 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 and let 𝑣 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦. These expressions are equivalent to the
exponential expressions
𝒃𝒖 = 𝒙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒃𝒗 = 𝒚
Now,
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝒙𝒚 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝒃𝒖 )(𝒃𝒗 ) Apply Product Rule of Exponents
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑏 Applying Property 4
=𝑢+𝑣
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦

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The Quotient Rule for Logarithms

The logarithm of a quotient is the difference of the logarithms.
𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦
𝑦
𝑥
ln = ln 𝑥 − ln 𝑦
𝑦
The Power Rule for Logarithms
The logarithm of a number with an exponent is the product of the exponent
and the logarithm of that number.
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥
ln 𝑥 = 𝑟 ln 𝑥

Example 1: Write as a sum of logarithms: 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 √𝑥 + 1 .

Solution:
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 √𝑥 + 1 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 √𝑥 + 1 Product Rule for Logarithms
= 3𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑥 + 1) / Power Rule for Logarithms
1
= 3𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑥 + 1) Power Rule for Logarithms
2
Example 2: Write as a difference of logarithms: 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
.

Solution:
𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑥 − 3) Quotient Rule for Logarithms
(𝑥 − 3)
= 2𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 − 3𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑥 − 3) Power Rule for Logarithms

The Change of Base Formula

Let 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑥 be positive real numbers, with 𝑎 ≠ 1 and 𝑏 ≠ 1.

a) 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 =
b) 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 =

Solving logarithmic functions

Example 1: Solve the logarithmic equation for 𝒙: 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝒙 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 (𝒙 − 𝟑) = 𝟏.

Solution:
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑥 − 3) = 1 Given
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥(𝑥 − 3) = 1 Write the left side as a single logarithm, simplify.
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 − 3𝑥 = 1 Rewrite the equation in exponential form
10 = 𝑥 − 3𝑥 Write the equation in standard form
0 = 𝑥 − 3𝑥 − 10 Factor the right side
0 = (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 2) Set each factor equal to zero
𝑥−5=0 𝑥+2 =0
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𝑥=5 𝑥 = −2
The possible solutions are 5 and −2. But recall that the domain of a logarithmic
function is (0, ∞). Therefore, 5 is the only solution; -2 is called an extraneous
solution. It does not satisfy the equation.
Example 2: Solve for 𝒙: 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 (𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟐) − 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 (𝒙 + 𝟐) = 𝟏.
Solution:
𝑙𝑜𝑔 (3𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 2) − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑥 + 2) = 1 Given
3𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 2
𝑙𝑜𝑔 =1 Write the left side as a single logarithm
𝑥+2
3𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 2
= 10 Rewrite the equation in exponential form
𝑥+2
3𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 2 = 10𝑥 + 20 Applying Cross Multiply method
3𝑥 − 15𝑥 − 18 = 0 Combining like terms
3(𝑥 − 5𝑥 − 6) = 0 Factoring out 3
3(𝑥 − 6)(𝑥 + 1) = 0
Set each factor equal to 0.
𝑥−6=0 𝑥+1=0
𝑥=6 𝑥 = −1
Since the domain is (0, ∞), the solution is 𝑥 = 6.

Property 5
Let 𝑢, 𝑣 and 𝑎 be positive real numbers, with 𝑎 ≠ 1.
If 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑢 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑣, then 𝑢 = 𝑣.

Example 3: Solve for 𝒙 if 𝐥𝐧 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝟐 = 𝐥𝐧 𝟐𝒙 + 𝐥𝐧(𝒙 − 𝟏).

Solution:
ln(𝑥 + 𝑥 − 2) = ln 2𝑥 + ln(𝑥 − 1) Given
ln(𝑥 + 𝑥 − 2) = ln 2𝑥 (𝑥 − 1) Write the right side as a single logarithm
𝑥 + 𝑥 − 2 = 2𝑥(𝑥 − 1) Applying Property 5
𝑥 + 𝑥 − 2 = 2𝑥 − 2𝑥 Combine like/similar terms
0 = 2𝑥 − 𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 + 2
𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0 Factor the left side
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1) = 0
𝒙=𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒙=𝟏
Since the domain is (0, ∞). The solutions are 1 and 2.
Example 4: Solve for x if 𝒙𝟔 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝟒𝟑 .
Solution:
𝑥 = log 4 Rewrite the equation in exponential form.
2 =4
Each side of equality must be written with the same base. Since 4 = 2 , then
2 =2 ( ) Apply Property 1
𝑥 = 2(3)
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𝑥 =6 Get the 6 root of both sides

𝟔
𝒙 = √𝟔
Since the domain is (0, ∞), the solution is √6.
Example 5: If 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒙 𝟐 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝒙 = 𝟐, solve for x.
Solution:
𝑙𝑜𝑔 2 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 = 2
Apply the Change-of-base Formula(b) on the first term (left side of the
equation)
1
+ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 = 2
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥
To make the equation a bit simpler, 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥.
1
+𝑦 =2 Simplify by getting the LCD
𝑦
1+𝑦
=2 Cross multiply
𝑦
1 + 𝑦 = 2𝑦 Write the quadratic equation in standard form
𝑦 − 2𝑦 + 1 = 0 Factor the quadratic equation
So,
(𝑦 − 1) = 0 Get the square root of both sides
𝑦−1 =0
𝑦=1
Now, evaluate 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥. So,
𝑦=1
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 = 1
2 =𝑥 Rewriting to exponential form
𝒙=𝟐
Since the domain is (0, ∞). The solution is 2.
Example 6: If 𝐥𝐨𝐠𝟒 [𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 (𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝒚)] = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 [𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟑 (𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟒 𝒙)] = 𝟏, find (𝒙 ÷ 𝒚).
Solution: To solve this logarithmic equation, we must do it step by step. Note
that we can form two equations. These are:
log [log (log 𝑦)] = 1 (𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1)
log [log (log 𝑥)] = 1 (𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2)
We begin by solving the value for 𝑦 in the first equation, then solve for the value
of 𝑥 in the second equation.
Equation 1: log [log (log 𝑦)] = 1, solve for 𝑦.
Rewrite the logarithmic equation into exponential form. But we will do it step
by step. So,
4 = log (log 𝑦) Simplify the left side.
4 = log (log 𝑦) Rewrite again into exponential form.
2 = log 𝑦 Simplify the left side.
16 = log 𝑦 Rewrite again into exponential form.
2 =𝑦 Simplify the left side.
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 88 Math 101: Elementary Calculus

So,
𝒚 = 𝟔𝟓, 𝟓𝟑𝟔
Equation 2: log [log (log 𝑥)] = 1, solve for 𝑥.
Rewrite the logarithmic equation into exponential form. Again, we will do it step
by step. So,
2 = log (log 𝑥) Simplify the left side
2 = log (log 𝑥) Rewrite again into exponential form.
3 = log 𝑥 Simplify the left side
9 = log 𝑥 Rewrite again into exponential form.
4 =𝑥 Simplify the left side
So,
𝒙 = 𝟐𝟔𝟐, 𝟏𝟒𝟒
We can now find 𝑥 ÷ 𝑦.
𝑥 ÷ 𝑦 = 262,144 ÷ 65,536
Hence,
𝒙÷𝒚 =𝟒
This example can be solved as well by applying Property 3.

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