UNIT TWO: Writing Effective Paragraphs

Introduction

We have tried to familiarize you with structure of English sentences. However, being able to write correct
sentences does not necessarily mean being able to write a correct paragraph. To write at a paragraph level, you
need to be able to write a coherent and unified series of sentences that can convey a single issue /idea.

Brainstorming activities: Try to answer the following questions before we are going to deal with each.

a. What is a paragraph?
b. How many sentences can a paragraph have?
c. How many topics should a paragraph talk about?
d. What is a topic sentence?
e. Where do you usually find a topic sentence of a paragraph?
g. What are supporting details?

Now, check your ideas with the description of a good paragraph given below.

A paragraph is a group of related sentences that present and develop one main idea. A paragraph can stand alone,
or it can be part of a longer piece of writing. Just as words are the building blocks of sentence, sentences are the
building blocks of longer forms of writing. Thus, a paragraph is a unit of writing beyond a sentence level
containing one main idea or topic and sentences that develop the main idea. It is termed as unified because it has
one central idea and all the sentences in the paragraph should only talk about this central idea. A good paragraph is
well organized, is fully developed, has properly linked points and contains sentences developing one idea.

In a paragraph, every word, every point and every sentence has a useful role to play in fulfilling the purpose of the
paragraph. The sentences in a paragraph should follow each other. It is not a paragraph if every sentence begins on
a new line. The length of a paragraph varies according to the complexity of the main idea or theme to be
developed. However, a well-supported paragraph has about five to ten sentences and about 100 to 150 words.

Structure of a Paragraph

Structure of a paragraph refers to the components of a paragraph. A paragraph contains three major parts: a topic
sentence (introduction), supporting sentences (body) and a concluding sentence.
 Topic sentence: a sentence which expresses the main idea of a paragraph that tells the readers what the
paragraph is about. The topic sentence usually begins the paragraph. It can also appear in the middle or at
the end of a paragraph.
 Supporting sentences: are a group of sentences which develop/ expand the topic sentence (general idea) with
specific information. They can be developed by:
- Explaining or restating ideas
- Providing facts /evidences
- Giving specific examples and /or illustrations
- Adding specific details, etc.
 Concluding sentence: the sentence that ends a paragraph by summarizing the main points or restating the

1
 Crucial point, or by giving a final thought or comment on the issue under consideration.

A topic sentence should consist at least a topic and a controlling idea. A topic is the issue the paragraph talks
about. A controlling idea is part of a topic sentence that tells your reader what specific aspect of this topic you
are going to write about.
Example: Raw vegetables.
If I say raw vegetable, nobody will know what I will write about raw vegetables. I could write about
how they are planted, what they are used for, different recipes calling for raw vegetables, the vitamins
in them, etc.
By writing a controlling idea, I can clarify what I am talking about.
Look at the following example: Raw vegetables might not be as healthy as we thought they were.
Here I made it clear that I am going to talk about the health related aspect of raw vegetables. So, my
topic is “raw vegetables” and my controlling idea is “might not be as healthy as we thought they were”.
I also started my sentence with a shocking claim that raw vegetables might actually be harmful.

Activity: Examine the following paragraphs and answer the questions that follow.

Paragraph 1: Barefoot Boy

I had a scary experience when I was a young boy. One evening, while my parents were eating dinner, I
was playing barefoot in the yard with my toys. Even now I still remember the perfume of the flowers and
the moisture of the grass. While I was sitting on the grass and playing with a truck, I looked up at the
sky, and my attention was distracted by the beauty of the stars. Then I felt something cold and smooth
slide over my feet. I stayed perfectly still, but I looked down at my feet. Then I saw a snake slowly
slithering over my toes. I felt terrible and afraid, so my heart beats very fast. After the snake moved away,
I screamed to my parents for help, and they captured the snake and took it away. The experience
frightened me, and I never went outside barefoot again.

1. What is the topic sentence? Where is it? At the beginning, in the middle or at the end of the paragraph?
2. How many supporting sentences are there?
3. In your opinion, do the supporting sentences explain the topic sentence?
4. Write the concluding sentence below.

Paragraph 2:

There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world. First Canada has an
excellent health care system. All Canadians have access to medical services at a reasonable price. Second
Canada has a high standard of education. Students are taught by well-trained teachers and are encouraged
to continue studying at universities. Finally, Canada’s cities are clean and efficiently managed. They have
many parks and lots of spaces for people to leave. As a result, Canada is a desirable place to live.

2
 1. What could be the topic of the paragraph?
2. What is the topic sentence?
3. How many supporting sentences are there?
4. In your opinion, do the supporting sentences explain the topic sentence?
5. Write the concluding sentence below.

As stated so far, a paragraph contains only one main idea or topic. Topics should be neither narrow nor wide but
should be moderate enough to be fully developed. Look at the following examples of broad topics which have been
gradually narrowed down to specific ones.
Example 1

1. HIV/AIDS in Ethiopia
2. HIV/AIDS in Ethiopian Higher Institutions
3. HIV/AIDS in Ethiopian Universities
4. Anti HIV/AIDS campaign Program in Ethiopian Universities
5. Anti HIV/AIDS campaign Program in Wollega University

Here, the last topic (topic No 5) is the most specific and appropriate for adequate development.

Example 2

1. The Problem of University Students

2. The Academic Problem of University Students
3. The Language Problem of University Students
4. The Language Problem of Wollega University Students
5. The Language Problem of First Year Wollega University Students
6. The Writing Problem First Year Wollega University Students
7. The Problem of Taking Notes of First Year Nursing Department of Wollega University Students
8. My Problems in Taking Notes

The title in number 8 is narrowed down to a specific one ‘My problems in taking notes’.

My Problems in Taking Notes

I have hard time while taking notes during my Nursing class. The instructor talks so fast that I cannot keep up with
him. He has a soft voice and I miss lots of things. He never writes on the blackboard like other instructors. He also
talks everything in the same tone and never emphasizes the important points. Because of this, I have trouble in
separating the important points from the rest. Thus, I have decided to listen and write my notes from reference
materials.

Activity: Comment on the following topics of a paragraph

1. A surprise party is a kind of party

2. There were 14 guests at my surprise birthday party
3. My classmates gave me an unforgettable surprise party for my 18th birthday

Essentials/Characteristics of a Good Paragraph

A good paragraph has the following characteristics: unity, coherence and completeness.
3
1. Unity
Brainstorming activity
1. What do you think is unity in a paragraph?
2. How can unity be achieved in a paragraph?
Unity: refers to the idea that all points and the sentences in a paragraph are related to and aimed at developing the
main idea (topic sentence) of the paragraph. Unity is achieved by advancing a single point and sticking to that
point with examples, details, steps or definitions.
Example 1: Topic sentence
My friend Meaza is generous.

Supporting sentences
She often lets travelers stay in her home. She has hosted many students temporarily. She sends money to her family
in Jimma every month to help them with their bills. She always brings food or items to her friends when they are
sick or have a need.

Concluding sentence
Generally, Meaza is one of the most generous people I know.

Notice that all sentences are about Meaza’s generosity. A sentence about the way she looks or about her job will
not support the unity of the paragraph unless it somehow relates to her generosity.

Example 2:
(1)When I was a freshman in high school, I enjoyed most of my courses. (2) Physical education, to be sure, I didn’t
like, probably because I was small for my age then, and rather frail. (3) But English was easy for me, as I had
always been a great reader. (4) I found algebra mostly fun, even, as I am naturally good at figures and logically
relationships. (5) It was biology, however, that I enjoyed most of all; this study of animals and plants opened a
whole new world to me. Generally speaking, I performed well in most of the subject.

Activity
A. Read the following topic sentences and circle the sentence that is deviating from the controlling idea. Write
your reasons in the blank spaces.
1. There are several reasons why online courses are increasing in popularity.
a. Online courses are flexible in terms of time.
b. Online courses have been available since 1990s.
c. Online courses are more convenient for students who live far away from the campus.

2. Train stations are interesting places to visit

a. The architecture of each train station is often connected to the history of a city.
b. The passengers are frequently more interested to watch than other types of travelers.
c. Using trains is a good alternative for people who are afraid of flying.

3. My city is famous because of its architecture.

a. We have ancient buildings around the main square
b. The restaurants near the beach serve great sea food.
c. It has expensive tree-lined road with beautiful limestone buildings and monuments
d. A famous university is located on the side of a mountain.

4
Examine the organization of the following paragraphs and answer the questions below it.
1. Native Americans cultivated and developed many plants. Among them were white potatoes, sweet potatoes,
corn, beans tobacco, chocolate, peanuts, cotton, rubber and gum. Native Americans were also expert builders
and tanners. Some of the plants were used for dyes, medicines, soap, clothes, shelter and baskets.

2. My composition class is in the old building. The classroom walls are white and the desks and chairs are brown.
There are large windows in one wall. The chalkboard is in the front of the room near the door. My composition
class is difficult and I do not like to write compositions. The classroom is cool in warm weather and warm in
winter. I like my classroom.

1. Underline the topic sentence.

2. One sentence in the paragraph is irrelevant. Identify.
3. Why is the sentence irrelevant? Write your explanation below :

2. Coherence

Brainstorming Activities: Try to answer the following questions before you read the notes.
a) What is coherence, and how can we achieve coherence in a paragraph?
b) What are the functions of cohesive devices?
c) List the linking devices you know with their functions.

Coherence refers to the logical flow/ proper linkage of ideas in a paragraph, and this can be maintained by
appropriate use of linking devices.

Note: Cohesion can be achieved by using linking devices such as transitional expressions, pronouns, synonyms
and repeated key word. Cohesive devices have different functions. But generally they help to make writing clear,
natural and easy to read. They are used to link parts of a sentence or separate sentences and in showing the
relationship between the ideas or facts the writer is expressing.
A paragraph must have coherence. This means that the supporting details are organized so that information that
goes together appears together. A true paragraph is not just a set of sentences put together, but sentences which are
interlinked with each other. These interlinked sentences provide coherence to the paragraph. .

Example 1:
(1)When I was a freshman in high school, I enjoyed most of my courses. (2) Physical education, to be sure, I didn’t
like, probably because I was small for my age then, and rather frail. (3) But English was easy for me, as I had
always been a great reader. (4) I found algebra mostly fun, even, as I am naturally good at figures and logically
relationships. (5) It was biology, however, that I enjoyed most of all; this study of animals and plants opened a
whole new world to me. Generally speaking, I performed well in most of the subject.

As you can notice in the example paragraph, the phrase to be sure in sentence 2 indicates that the writer’s attitude
towards physical education is the exception to the general claim of enjoyment in the topic sentence. The word but
at the beginning of sentence 3 shows that the attitude towards English is in contrast to that expressed about
physical education in sentence 2. The word even in the middle of sentence 4 stresses the fact that algebra is
pleasurable too, despite what many students feel about it. In sentence 5, however indicates that the feeling toward

5
biology is again in contrast to that expressed in the preceding sentence, and most of all tells us that this subject is
held in the highest regard.

Note: These devices are not needed in every sentence, but they should be used frequently.
There are four significant ways of achieving paragraph coherence.
I. Using connectives

Connectives are words and phrases that writers use to make smooth transition from one idea to another within a
paragraph. They are also called transitional devices or cohesive devices. Some of them are mentioned below with
their functions.

1) Addition : and, furthermore, moreover, besides, again, likewise, similarly, also, in addition, what is more,
what is worse, next, the other reason
2) Contrast : but, however, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the contrary, though, even though, although
3) Result/conclusion: therefore, hence, thus, consequently, as a result, in summary,
4) Enumeration: firstly, second,(ly)
5) Sequence : first, second, third, last, then finally, next
6) Time : in the meantime, then, later, soon, next, after, before, as, while, now, during, finally
7) Space : above, below, beside, behind, in front of, next, across, the opposite side, to the left, nearby
8) Illustration : Namely, that is, for instance, for example, specifically, such as

Transitional words signal the direction of a writer’s thought. They are like the road signs that guide travelers.
Writers often use time, space or order of importance to present the supporting information in a paragraph
coherently. The following example is organized by space.

When you drive into the airport, you will see many signs for the different terminals. After you pass the signs, you
drive over a hill. On your right you will see the international terminal. This terminal is two stories tall. The front is
all glass. On the left, you will see the domestic terminals.

Activities

Underline the cohesive devices in the following paragraphs and then state the direction they give to readers.

Paragraph 1

After you’ve snagged the job of TV sports reporter, you have to begin working on the details of your image. First
invest in two or three truly loud sports jackets. Look for gigantic plaid patterns in odd colour combinations like
purple and green or orange and blue. These should become familiar enough to viewers so that they will associate
that crazy jacket with that dynamic sportscaster. Next, try to cultivate a distinctive voice that will be just annoying
enough to be memorable. Be sure to speak only in tough, punchy sentences that seem to be punctuated with
imaginary exclamation points. Finally, you must share lots of pompous, obnoxious opinions with your viewers.
You tone of voice must covey the hidden message “I dare anyone to disagree with me.”

Paragraph 2

Supermarkets also use psychology to encourage you to buy. For example, in most supermarkets, the milk and the
bread are either at opposite ends of the store or located far away from the first aisle. Even if you have stopped at
the market only for staples like these, you must pass hundreds of items in order to reach them. The odds are that
instead of leaving with just a quart of milk, you will leave with additional purchases as well. Special displays such
as a pyramid of canned green beans in an aisle and a large end display of cartons of paper towels, also increase
6
sales. Because you assume that these items are a good buy, you may pick them up. However they may not even be
on sale! Store managers know that the customer is automatically attracted to a display like this and they will use it
to move an overstocked product.

II. Repeating words

You might have been taught not to repeat words in writing. However, repeating key words helps you tie together
the flow of thought in your writing.

Example:

Capital can build irrigation canals in India, supply pumps and tube-wells to tap the fresh water under the saline
marshes of the Indus river basin in West Pakistan. Capital can supply tools, machinery, pesticides, and fertilizers
and provide training in modern methods. Most important of all, foreign capital can create an atmosphere that is
conducive to self-help. In the countless analysis of the subject, one fact stands out: the lack of incentive in the
poverty stricken, potentially rich, farm lands of the third world. Capital generates incentive by producing goods
and creating demand and it widest the distribution of the fruits of labor.

As you can see the key word “capital” is repeated to achieve coherence of the paragraph.

III. Using pronouns

Pronouns (he, she, it, they and others) are another ways to connect ideas in a paragraph. Pronouns have transitional
values by referring to their antecedents. Also using pronouns in place of other words can help you avoid needless
repetition. .

Pasteur proved that he was right by a very simple and clever experiment. He put some soup in to some bottles and
then he boiled it in order to destroy any germs that might already be in the soup. After that, he heated and pulled
out the neck of each bottle until it formed a long narrow neck with a big bend in the middle.

IV. Using Synonyms

Synonyms are words alike in meaning. Using synonyms can also help you move easily from one thought to the
next. In addition, the use of synonyms increases variety and interest by avoiding needless repetition. Note how the
writer used synonyms to achieve paragraph coherence in the following example.

There are several methods of fund-raising that work well with small organizations. One technique is to hold an
auction, with everyone either contributing an item from home or obtaining a donation from a sympathetic local
merchant. Because all the merchandise and the service of the auctioneer have been donated, the entire proceeds
can be placed in the organizations treasury. A second fund-raising procedure is a car wash. Club members and
their children get together on a Saturday and wash all the cars in the neighborhood for a few dollars apiece. A
third time-tested way to raise money is to hold a bake sale, with each family contributing homemade cookies,
brownies, layer cakes, or cupcakes. Sold by the piece or by the box, these baked goods will satisfyingly fill both the
stomach and the pocketbook.

Generally, coherence in a paragraph means that the ideas have a logical flow: the relationship between the
sentences is clear and one idea connects to the next. All the ideas fit together in a logical flow.

7
Exercises
A. Underline the sentence(s) that violates unity in the following paragraphs.
Paragraph 1

(1) I live in a flat with my family. (2) We have two bedrooms and a living room. (3) We have a garden and we have
some flowers there. (4) In weekdays I arrive home at five o’clock and I have lunch. (5) Then I do my homework
and go to bed. (6) I had a computer, but now it doesn’t work. (7) I have a brother and a sister and I think I am very
lucky to leave with them in the flat. (8) Sometimes our relatives visit us and (9) our flat sometimes becomes very
crowded. However, I like it.

Paragraph 2

(1) I am a Thai girl living in the USA, and there many adjustments that I must make. (2) First of all, I must get used
to a new kind of food. (3) I am learning to eat a lot of hamburgers because they are not expensive and they are
easy to buy. (4) The people are different and I am learning to meet new foreign friends. (5) For example two of my
new friends are from Pakistan. (6) Pakistan is also an interesting country to visit. (7) The weather requires another
kind of adjustment. (8) Some days it is hot just as in my country, but on other days it is cold and this is very strange
for me. (9) I came to us to study and I enjoy my classes and my teachers. I am adjusting to the USA in many ways,
but it is not a problem for me because I like to know about different places and people.

B. Read the following paragraph. Then list the transitional devices used to achieve the coherence. Explain
their specific function in the paragraphs.

Paragraph

(1)For people who would like to act in the theater, there are several important rules to remember. (2) One rule,
often forgotten, is to make sure you face your audience when you are on stage. (3) If you turn away from the
audience, they cannot see your facial expressions. (4) Next, make sure that you speak loudly enough. (5) If your
audience has difficulty hearing you, they will quickly lose interest. (6) Another important point is to memorize your
lines. (7) Rehearse them often in the taxi, in the mirror while you walk to the class so that you remember them. (8)
Finally, perhaps the most important rule of all is to remain calm on stage if you forget your lines. (9) Don’t panic
and stop speaking because the audience will notice. (10) Instead make up something to say until you remember
your next line. As long as you continue speaking and appear relaxed, the audience will probably not realize that
you have made a mistake. (12) In conclusion, following these rules will help you ensure a successful stage
performance.

A. Cohesive devices: __________________________________________________________________________

B. Specific Functions: _________________________________________________________________________

C. The following sentences are from a paragraph. Some of them are out of orders. Number them from 1-10
so that they can show logical time order.
a. My family hugged me and cried because I had been gone so long.
b. I will never forget one day when I have to travel alone on the subway.
c. I was pregnant, and I had to go to an appointment at the hospital
d. When my appointment ended, I got on the subway to go home.
e. That is why my surrounding looked unfamiliar.
f. My appointment was at 1:00 p.m.
8
 g. Suddenly I looked up and did not know where I was.
h. I was exhausted and fell asleep on my way home.
i. Then I realized that I had fallen asleep.
j. It took me five more hours to get back to my home.

The logical order is ____

D. Put the following jumbled sentences in a logical order to make unified and coherent paragraph.

a. The first year can be a tiring time for parents.

b. Consequently, the child bonds equally with both the mother and the father.
c. Some children suffer from colic, which makes them cry for long hours and refuse to go to sleep.
d. When the child is older, co parents both participate in the daily routines of care giving: cooking, feeding,
bathing, entertaining, and discipline.
e. Many American couples today have chosen not to follow the traditional way of being parents, in which the
mother serves as the primary care giver.
f. Both father and mother take family leave when the body is born, and both feed and change the newborn.
g. During its first year, a baby is very demanding.

The logical order is

3. Completeness

Completeness is related to what explanation an idea requires, and it depends on how much the reader needs. When
there is incompleteness, there is an error by giving either too much explanation or not enough. Giving a reader
unnecessary explanation may be boring, but giving too little may block communication.

Organization of a Paragraph

An effective paragraph is the result of carefully selected and properly ordered details. Different techniques of
organizing details create different effects. In writing a paragraph, you may order details by using one of these
orders: spatial order, order of importance, or order of impression.

a) Spatial Order
 What kind of order is spatial order?

This is a way of organizing a paragraph with respect to spatial relations between ideas.

Example:

My bedroom is very cozy. It is a small room with thick carpeting and light blue walls. Below the north
window is my double bed covered with an imitation leopard skin bed spread. To the left of the bed against the
wall is a walnut night stand with a reading lamp, a clock a radio. At the foot of the bed is a wooden stand
holiday my portable black-and-white TV and stereo. In all four corners of the room, my speakers are mounted
just below the ceiling. Behind the wooden stand and in front of the closet are three red bean bag chairs that
are sagging from years of use. On the east and west walls are posters of rock groups, and a family of stuffed
monkeys sits on the north and south window ledges. My room is small and cluttered and has that “lived in”
feeling I like.

As the paragraph shows, the details of the paragraph are organized in spatial order. The paragraph also gives detail
information about the position of one object in relation to the other in the scene.
9
 b) Time (Chronological) Order

 What does chronological order in a paragraph organization mean?

It is a way of organizing a paragraph in relating with time. This means that it is presenting ideas based on their
happenings one after the other.

Example:
Sunday was a long day. I had to get up at 5:00 a. m. to attend an Easter sunrise service. Then I had duties at
the church the rest of the morning. In the afternoon I visited the Manor Rest Home and talked to shut-ins who
seldom have visitors. Then I went to my aunt’s for dinner and played cards with Uncle Herman until about
9:00 p.m. Then I drove up into the hills with my family for a special Easter midnight chapel service in the
pines. We stayed in a mountain cabin with ten other people that night and didn’t get to sleep until after 2:00
a. m. I was exhausted after twenty one hours of activity.

c) Emphatic Order (Order of Importance)

It is a method of organizing details which writers use when they want to show readers that some details are more
significant than others. Details can be written (sequenced) by placing the most important ones before the least
important.

Example:

Our apartment needs a lot of fixing up. First, we’ve got to fix the leaky roof before the September rains come.
Next, need to patch the big holes in the bedroom walls and then strip the peeling paint off the walls. Then we
can repaint the apartment. After the walls are painted, we can work on replacing the linoleum squares in the
kitchen that are loose or cracked. Later the living room carpet needs shampooing, and we should replace that
old sway backed sofa. Then we won’t be embarrassed to have company over once in a while.

d) Size Order

This is a way of organizing ideas based on the size of objects or things to be developed in a paragraph.

Types of Paragraph

There are four basic types of paragraph in English. They are descriptive, narrative, expository and argumentative
(persuasive) paragraph.

1. Descriptive Paragraph

Descriptive paragraph is a paragraph which clearly and vividly portrays the image of an object, a place, a scene, a
person or spiritual aspects of a person (feeling, emotion, attitude etc). It uses details that concentrated on the five
senses such as hearing, smell, taste and touch. When writing a descriptive paragraph, writers use appropriate words
which clearly describe the image and nature of the thing described. The most appropriate and commonly used
words and expressions are describers such as adjectives, adverbs, adverbial phrases etc.

Example:

Mekuria is a well-known local man. He is both wealthy and generous – he is also a very handsome man and
popular with the women of the area. Mekuria lives in a huge, rectangular house on the green banks of Lake
10
 Tana. Mekuria works in a nearby Bahir Dar and every morning he drives into town in his expensive, excellent
– new Toyota Amazon. He lives alone. He does not have a wife. He doesn’t have children. He lives alone with
Toto, a beautiful vibrant yellow bird with pink-red eyes black-coloured feet and very red beak.

As the above paragraph shows, almost all the describing words and phrases are adjectives. The adjectives used to
describe the man are well-known, wealthy, generous, handsome and popular. The adjectives employed to
modify the house are huge and rectangular. The describing words used to express the car are expensive, excellent
and new. Words and phrases used to describe the bird are beautiful, vibrant, yellow, pink-red, black-colored
and very red.

In descriptive writing, a person, a place or object can be described.

A) Describing a person

When describing a person, it is possible to describe him or her in terms of his or her physical appearance, behavior,
particular characteristics (such as intelligence, wisdom, creativity and social interaction) etc. It is also possible to
describe a person based on the role and responsibilities he has in the family, society, organization etc.

Example:

My best friend Brahim

Beka has been my best friend since we were in primary school. He's a tall and slim young man with
tanned skin and curly dark hair. He has brown small eyes in an oval shiny face. He always wears
casual clothes in a very messy way. Beka is very outgoing. He is an extroverted person who loves
having fun all the time. He has got a great sense of humor, and he always makes me laugh. Beka is
a very generous and sensitive person. However, he can be a little tense at times. For example, when
someone crosses him, he suddenly becomes very quarrelsome and wild. Beka is very keen on
playing games, particularly soccer. During the weekends, he spends hours either training his
football team or watching matches on TV. In addition to that, he enjoys singing and dancing, as
well, and he is fond of listening to pop music in particular. Everybody likes him for his modesty and
sociability. All in all, I'm satisfied to have such a good person like Beka as a friend. I really enjoy
his company. I never feel bored or sad when I am with him. I'm sure we'll always be intimate
friends.

B. Describing an Object

In describing objects, you can deal with either the physical appearance or the function, or both. When you describe
an object in terms of the physical appearance, you describe it mentioning its attributes as size, shape, colour,
texture, material, type etc. when you describe it in terms of its function you mention its uses in detail. Look at the
examples given below, and notice how the paragraphs are developed.

Example:

A piston pump consists of a cylinder, a piston connected to a handle, an inlet value and an on let check value.
The piston is pushed down wards to force air out through the out let value. Then the piston is pushed upwards
to suck air in through the inlet value. On the return down ward stroke, the inlet check value is forced against
the piston wall, thus preventing any air from escaping; while the out let check value opens to allow the air to
flow through the connecting tube. Pumping is continued by moving the position up and down in the cylinder.

11
B) Describing a Place

In describing places, the main issues you raise in the description are the location of the place described, things that
are found in the place, the position of the things and the appearance of the place.

Example:

From north to south across the region, there are five major zones. First there is a narrow coastal plain,
immediately behind which there are coastal ranges up to a thousand feet high. Behind these ranges, there is a
wide zone of Intermontane low land, which is intersected by extensive alluvial plains. Finally, there are the
inland ranges, running parallel to the coast, and rising to 12,000 feet at the highest point.

2) Narrative Paragraph

Narrative paragraph is a type of discourse writing that reports an account of events in the past. It is a reporting of a
series of happenings, incidents, actions and events. Since it is concerned with time and action, it is presented
following chronological order. The most commonly used verb forms in narrative writing are simple past and past
perfect though it is possible to use other verb forms too.

Example:

My first step onto the bus was filled with fear. I had never taken the bus alone before, but I was reassured by
an old guy who smiled at me, so I sat next to him. I couldn’t help noticing the many wrinkles on his face and
obviously out-of-style clothes he wore. I took out my cookies and thought that mom would have wanted me to
offer him one. He said no, mentioning not being able to chew well. I couldn’t imagine not being able to chew
sweets. I was feeling a little uncomfortable, but he got off soon. He walked away slowly as if it hurt to move. It
was really sad, and I realized, I was lucky to be young and healthy.

Activity
Read the following sentences rearrange them to form a paragraph. Use the sequence words/phrases as clues.
a. A few years ago, my two older brothers and I went trekking in the mountains.
b. Finally, I found the muddy trail, and we made it back to our base camp.
c. Soon we were hiking through thick pine forests.
d. After that experience, I realized it is very important to be careful when hiking in the mountains.
e. We set out from base camp on a bright winter morning.
f. A little while later, we stopped to eat, and my oldest brother said we should turn around because we were losing
the trail in show.
g. Eventually, it began to snow, and visibility became poor.
h. Going back down the mountain was harder because it was icy

The correct order is __________________________________________________________

3. Expository Paragraph

This is the other type of paragraph in which facts are presented, information is explained and concepts or ideas are
expressed in detail. As its name implies, expository paragraph exposes and explains topics, ideas, thoughts or
issues. It is the most frequently used type of written discourse. When students answer essay questions, when they
give written instructions, define terms, express the cause and effect of something, when explaining process;

12
comparing and contrasting things, and when classifying topics, they often use expository writing. Since it is
usually factual, expository paragraph is free from the emotion of the writer.

Example:

Behavioral scientists have found that a child’s emotional health is strongly affected by the number of brothers
and sisters he or she has. Emotional health means the ability of a person to cope intellectually and emotionally
with everyday stress. Several studies of elementary and high school children have shown that youngsters in
small family get along more happily with their brothers and sisters, as well as their parents, than youngsters in
a large family. They are less liable to suffer emotional upsets and much less likely to end up in a mental
hospital. A survey of state hospitals in Maryland revealed that mental illness among children in two-parent
families increases with the number of children in the family.

Activity

Now Read the Following Paragraph and Analyze Its Features Based on the Questions Given Below It.

What children eat can affect their health. Children who do not eat enough foods containing vitamin A can
develop serious nutritional disorders. Of the effects caused by vitamin A deficiency, those involving eye
diseases are the most pronounced and widespread. Several thousand children became blind each year because
of this dietary deficiency, which is most prevalent in poor, non industrialized countries. Another result of
vitamin A deficiency is skin dryness.

1. What is the topic of the paragraph?

2. Which sentence contains the most important idea in the paragraph?
3. How is the paragraph developed?

4. Argumentative (Persuasive) Paragraph

Argumentative paragraph is a paragraph in which you try to show that your idea or belief is more acceptable than
another idea. In this kind of paragraph, writers attempt to influence readers to accept their idea and think or act in
certain way. In developing an argumentative paragraph, you need to employ logical reasoning and concrete
evidences by stating facts, giving sound reasons, using examples or/and quoting experts.

When we state evidences, hearsays, personal opinion, speculations are not effective. Thus, in argumentative
paragraph, using reliable evidences which are relevant, unbiased, up-to-date, complete and verifiable is very
important.

Now look at the following two paragraphs about the solution of the growing problem of trash disposal.
Which paragraph is more convincing and why?

Example 1:

Americans have developed a throwaway mindset. We are too accustomed to throwing away everything. You
name it; we throw it away. Many people think recycling is the answer, but it is not enough. We need to reduce
the amount of waste we produce as well. We need to change our disposable lifestyle. And one way to do that is
to discourage the throwaway habit by charging households and businesses for the amount of trash they create.

Example 2:

13
 We live in a throwaway society. Each day, all day long, we dispose of things – napkins, paper bags, diapers,
juice boxes, and razors - more than three pounds of trash per person per day. Of the approximately 160
million tons of garbage American produce each year, only about 10 percent is recycled. The rest goes into
about 6,000 landfills, one – third of which are nearly full. What’s more, people do not want pollution – causing
landfills started in their communities. More recycling can help, but it won’t be enough. We also need to
produce less trash, and one way to encourage people to reduce the amount of trash they produce is to charge
them for it.

As you can see the above examples, the first paragraph is developed without the use of supporting evidences. The
second paragraph is more specific and uses concrete examples and statistics as evidences; that is, it is developed by
the use of supporting evidences. Thus, it is more convincing than the paragraph in example one.
Methods of Paragraph Development
A writer can employ various paragraph developing techniques according to the nature of the topic. Thus, in this
section, we will introduce you with the most common methods of paragraph development.
1. The Method of Definition
This method is used when a term in a topic sentence is explained at some length. Mostly the terms defined at
length are abstract, unfamiliar or unknown words. When defining such kinds of words, a writer describes or
explains the unknown term by relating it to something known or concrete.
Example:
Empathy is the ability to completely understand another person’s point of view. It is a great asset in a police
work. By practicing empathy, police officers can avoid being closed-minded. It will help them to see all sides of a
traffic accident or a criminal incident. Empathy eliminates bias; instead, introduces tolerance, understanding
and sympathetic human relations.
2. The Method of Illustration

This is a paragraph developing technique which writers employ to help readers understand a more general idea
with something specific. It is a method of developing paragraph by giving examples to readers to help them
understand an idea easily.

Example:

Science has helped us get rid of many sicknesses of the mind and the body. For example, advancement in the
field of psychology have enabled effective cures for many mental elements like claustrophobia, schizophrenia
etc. Similarly, many other discoveries in science have made it possible to cure terrible diseases such as malaria,
small pox, pneumonia and tuberculosis.

As you can see in the paragraph, the writer illustrated the general ideas stated in the topic sentence by presenting
instances that helped to get rid of many sicknesses of the mind and the body. All the sentences beginning from
sentence two are examples used to illustrate the idea in the topic sentence.

3. The Method of Comparison

This is a paragraph developing technique which is used to show the similarity between two things. It compares the
similar aspects or qualities of two subjects. Notice how a paragraph and an essay are compared below.

Example:

14
 Despite their obvious differences in length, the paragraph and the essay are quite similar structurally. For
example, the paragraph is introduced by either a topic introducer followed by topic sentence. In an essay, the
first paragraph provides introductory material and establishes the topic focus. Next, the sentences in the body
of an essay consist of a number of paragraphs that expand and support the idea presented in the introductory
paragraph. Finally, a terminator, whether it is a restatement, conclusion or observation ends the paragraph.
The essay too, has a device which brings its ideas to a logically and psychologically satisfying completion: the
concluding paragraph. Although exceptions to these generalizations may be observed in modern creative
writing, most well written expository paragraphs and essays are comparable in structure.

4. The Method of Contrast.

The method of contrast is a way of developing a paragraph by showing the differences exist between two subjects.

Example:

Antarctica differs from the Arctic regions, which are better known to us and easier to reach. The North Pole
is crossed daily by commercials airlines, whereas not a single commercial airliner operates over Antarctica.
The Arctic is an ocean with drifting ice and hemmed in by the continents of North America, Asia, and Europe,
The Antarctic, on the other hand, is a continent as large as Europe and the United States put together, and
surrounded entirely by oceans- the Atlantic, the Indian, and the Pacific. More than a million persons live with
2,000 miles of the North Pole, and the area is rich in forest and industry. There are animals and birds of
many varieties. Within the same distance of the South Pole, there are no settlement a part from scientific
stations, which are entirely dependent on outside supplies for every need. There is not a single tree and not a
single animal. It takes 70 to 80 years to grow an inch of moss.

The writer discussed the differences between the two regions, Antarctica and Arctic, in terms of their location and
what they possess.

5. The Method of Cause and Effect

This is a method of developing idea that looks for the relationship between two actions or two events of which one
is the reason and the other the result.

Example:

During the past five years, the number of persons killed annually in car accidents has risen to more than 55,000.
This needless slaughter on streets and highways can be attributed to general causes. Mechanical failures,
especially, those related to faulty brakes and bald tires, account for a significant number of fatal accidents.
Environmental conditions such as blind corners, narrow streets and heavy roads also contribute to the grisly
accident statistics. But without doubt, the most frequently reported factors in car accidents are errors of human
judgment, all the way from follies such as excessive speed and drunken driving to such momentary lapses as
failure to signal a turn, or a change from one lane to another.

The above paragraph reveals the general and specific causes for car accidents. The writer developed the paragraph
by presenting evidences for the causes of the accidents.

6. The Method of Classification

15
This is a method of developing a paragraph by classifying subjects into separate category. It presents ideas, objects,
or issues to be discussed in their respective category. The following sample paragraph illustrates how the
paragraph is developed by classifying illustrations used in science and technology writing.

Example:

Illustrations used in science and technology writings can be broadly classified into two categories namely
‘tables’ and ‘figures’. A table is used for displaying the original numerical data and the derived statistics in a
logical, orderly and compact fashion. There are two sub-categories of table, namely, dependent table and
independent table. The former is a part of the text, where as the letter is self contained and separated
noticeably from the text. A figure is generally used as a visual to summarize the text and to present the details
left out in the discussion. The sub-categories of the figure are graph, chart, drawing, photograph and map. The
choice of the type to be used depends up on the purpose and the kind of information to be presented.

Activity: Complete the Chart Below Transferring the Information in the Paragraph Right Above.

Illustrations used in science and technology

writing

Tables 2

3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Write your answers here.

2. 6. _______________
3. ___________________ 7. _______________
4. ___________________ 8. _______________
5. 9. ______________________
7. The Method of Enumeration

This is a method of paragraph development which lists or enumerates details.

Example:

Whatever be our purpose of writing, it is likely to correspond to one of the four types of writing
conventionally classified as discourse. The first type is exposition or explanation, where our main intention is
to convey information. The second is argument or persuasion, in which we persuade our readers to accept or
do what we want. The third is description, in which our aim is to share with our readers those impressions
that have made an impact on our senses. Finally, it is narration where our intention is to enable the reader to
perceive real or imagined events that took place within a particular framework of time.

When using a method of enumeration, writers normally use words or phrases which enable them to list their points.
As used in the example above, words like first, second, third, finally are words which maintain the coherence and
smooth flow of a paragraph.
16
8. The Method of Process Description

This is a method which explains how to do something step by step. It is a convenient method to enable readers to
be able to follow the step to get a desired result.

Example:

Imagine that you are on vacation at beach, and open your suitcase to discover that you have forgotten your
swimsuit! This and other disasters and inconveniences can be avoided if you follow certain steps when
packing your suitcase. The first step is to review your travel plans and activities. Make a list and save it so
that you can check your items before you leave. Next, gather the items you will need for your activities.
Remove any item that is not necessary. Try to mix and match fewer pieces of clothing and shoes by choosing a
colour or colours that match. Third, you are ready to pack. Start with large items such as books or shoes.
Stuff your shoes with extra socks to save space. Then place shoes in plastic bags and fit them into the corners
of your suitcase. There should be plenty of room for the clothes. To avoid wrinkles, layer your clothes and roll
them up. Put the rolls of clothing into the suitcase. Then put in the smaller items. Finally, before you close
your suitcase, check your list. Make sure you have not forgotten your swimsuit!

In developing a paragraph by describing a process, writers employ words or phrases which show sequence or time
order. These words tell readers the sequence of steps in a process. The most commonly used words are first,
second, next, then, later, after that, finally etc.

The other feature of a process description paragraph is the use of imperative sentences. An imperative is used to
give instructions or direction or to tell the reader the steps in the process directly. Apart from this, modals of
advice, necessity and prohibition such as should, must, should not or must not are common when developing a
process description paragraph. Passive sentences can also be used.

17