SECTION ONE : ARCHITECTURE ,ECOLOGY AND HABITAT

Human Ecology and Urban Ecology

Ecological Concepts
Ecological Architecture
Sustainability
Climate
Factors affecting climate
Microclimate
Urban Heat island Effect

Architecture, Habitat, Ecological Design, and Human Ecology

First. The esthetic standards for design will have to be broadened to embrace wider impacts. Designers
ought to aim to cause no ugliness. Human or ecological. Somewhere else or at some later time. For
education. This means that the architectural curriculum must include ethics. Ecology and tools having
to do wit11 whole systems anal!-sis. And least-cost. End-use considerations. Further. Educational
standards need to include a more sophisticated and ecologically grounded understanding of place
and culture.

Second. it should he recognized that architecture and design are fundamental! Pedagogical. Churchill
hat1 it right: we are shaped I)!-our buildings aid landscapes in powerful hut subtle ways. The education
of all design professions ought to begin in the recognition that architecture and landscapes are a kind
of crystallized pedagogy. That informs well or bad. but never fails to inform. Design inevitable instructs
us about our relationships to nature and people that makes us allure or less mindful and more or less
ecologically competent. The ultimate object of design is not artifacts. Buildings. or landscapes. but
human minds.

Third. Architecture and design ought to he seen in their largest contest that has to do with health. At
the last obvious level ‘sick buildings’ reflect not simplified design but a truncated concept of design. A
larger design perspective would place architecture and landscape architecture as subfields of the art
and science of health with allure than passing affinity for leaving and the hole

Architecture is commonly taught and practiced as if it were only the art and science of designing
buildings. Which is to say merely as a technical subject at the mere!-of the slims of clients. I would like
to offer a contrast view that architecture ought to be placed into a larger contest as a subfield of
ecological design. The essay that follows might best be considered as a series of notes on the
boundaries of this larger field of design. Earlier fora!-s into this area mies van der R!-11 and Coven
(1996)laid the ground rock for a more expansive view of the design professions. I intend to build 011
that foundation to connect design professions. and the education of designers to the larger issues of
human ecology.

Ecological Concepts
Ecological Architecture

Sustainability

Climate

The weather of a place represents the state of the atmospheric environment over a brief period of time.
Integrated weather condition over several years is generally referred to as climate or more specifically,
as the ‘macro-climate’. An analysis of the climate of a particular region can help in assessing the
seasons or periods during which a person may experience comfortable or uncomfortable conditions. It
further helps in identifying the climatic elements, as well as their severity, that cause discomfort.

The information helps a designer to build a house that filters out adverse climatic effects, while
simultaneously allowing those that are beneficial. Discomfort and the corresponding energy demand
for mechanical systems can be significantly reduced by judicious control of the climatic effects. The
built-form and arrangement of openings of a building can be suitably derived from this analysis. For
example, in a place like Mumbai, one feels hot and sweaty owing to intense solar radiation
accompanied by high humidity. Here, the building design should be such that
(a) It is sufficiently shaded to prevent solar radiation from entering the house and,
(b) It is ventilated to reduce discomfort due to high humidity. On the other hand, in a place like Shimla,
it is necessary to maintain warmth inside the building due to the predominantly cold climate. Climate
thus plays a pivotal role in determining the design and construction of a building.
The design requirements of buildings in different climatic zones are discussed and tabulated.
Illustrative examples provide information on how to analyse the climatic conditions, vernacular
architecture of cold and cloudy climate conditions and design in the representative city of Solan, near
Shimla , Himachal Pradesh.

1.3. FACTORS AFFECTING CLIMATE

Both weather and climate are characterised by the certain variables known as climatic
factors . They are as follows:
(A) Solar radiation
(B) Ambient temperature
(C) Air humidity
(D) Precipitation
(E) Wind
(F) Sky condition

(A) Solar radiation

Solar radiation is the radiant energy received from the sun. It is the intensity of sunrays
falling per unit time per unit area and is usually expressed in Watts per square metre (W/m2). The
radiation incident on a surface varies from moment to moment depending on its geographic location
(latitude and longitude of the place), orientation, season, time of day and atmospheric conditions (Fig.
2.1). Solar radiation is the most important weather variable that determines whether a place
experiences high temperatures or is predominantly cold. The instruments used for measuring of solar
radiation are the pyranometer and the pyrheliometer. The duration of sunshine is measured using a
sunshine recorder.
Fig. 2.1 Factors affecting solar radiation
(a) effect of orientation, (b) effect of season

EFFECT OF SKY COVER

EFFECT OF TIME

Fig. 1.1 Factors affecting solar radiation (cont.)

(b) effect of sky cover, (d) effect of time

(B) Ambient temperature

The temperature of air in a shaded (but well ventilated) enclosure is known as the ambient
temperature; it is generally expressed in degree Celsius (ºC). Temperature at a given site depends on
wind as well as local factors such as shading, presence of water body, sunny condition, etc. When the
wind speed is low, local factors strongly influence on temperature of air close to the ground. With higher
wind speeds, the temperature of the incoming air is less affected by local factors. The effect of various
factors on the ambient temperature is shown in Fig. 1.2. A simple thermometer kept in a Stevenson’s
screen can measure ambient temperature.

EFFECT OF SHADING EFFECT OF WATER BODY

EFFECT OF SKY CONDITION

Fig. 1.2 Factors affecting ambient temperature

(C) Air humidity

Air humidity, which represents the amount of moisture present in the air, is usually expressed in terms of
‘relative humidity’. Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapour in a certain
volume of moist air at a given temperature, to the mass of water vapour in the same volume of
saturated air at the same temperature; it is normally expressed as a percentage. It varies considerably,
tending to be the highest close to dawn when the air temperature is at its lowest, and decreasing as
the air temperature rises. The decrease in the relative humidity towards midday tends to be the largest
in summer. In areas with high humidity levels, the transmission of solar radiation is reduced because of
atmospheric absorption and scattering. High humidity reduces evaporation of water and sweat.
Consequently, high humidity accompanied by high ambient temperature causes a lot of discomfort.
The effects of various combinations ofhumidity and ambient temperature are presented in Fig. 1.3.

EFFECT OF HIGH TEMPERATURE EFFECT OF HIGH TEMPERATURE

AND HIGH HUMIDITY AND LOW HUMIDITY
EFFECT OF LOW TEMPERATURE AND HIGH HUMIDITY

Fig. 1.3 Effects of air humidity

(D) Precipitation
Precipitation includes water in all its forms rain, snow, hail or dew. It is usually measured
in millimeters (mm) by using a rain gauge. The effects of precipitation on buildings are illustrated in Fig.
2.4

(E) Wind
Wind is the movement of air due to a difference in atmospheric pressure, caused by differential heating
of land and water mass on the earth’s surface by solar radiation and rotation of earth. Wind speed can
be measured by an anemometer and is usually expressed in metres per second (m/s). It is a major
design consideration for architects because it affects indoor comfort conditions by influencing the
convective heat exchanges of a building envelope, as well as causing air infiltration into the building
(Fig. 2.5).

EFFECT OF RAINFALL EFFECT OF SNOW

Fig. 1.5 Factors affecting wind

(F) Sky condition

Sky condition generally refers to the extent of cloud cover in the sky or the duration of sunshine. Under
clear sky conditions, the intensity of solar radiation increases; whereas it reduces in monsoon due to
cloud cover. The re-radiation losses from the external surfaces of buildings increase when facing clear
skies than covered skies. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.6. The measurement of sky cover is expressed in oktas.
For example, 3 oktas means that 3/8th of the visible sky is covered by clouds.

Fig. 2.6 Effect of sky condition

In addition to these factors, a number of natural elements such as hills, valleys, waterbodies, vegetation,
etc. affect the climate locally. Buildings, cities and other man-made features also have an impact on
the climate. The effects of such features are discussed in the section 2.6 under ‘Microclimate’.
Climate Zones
1.4 CLIMATIC ZONES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
Regions having similar characteristic features of climate are grouped under one climatic zone. Based
on the climatic factors discussed in the previous section, the country can be divided into a number of
climatic zones.
Bansal et al. [1] had carried out detailed studies and reported that India can be divided into six
climatic zones, namely, hot and dry, warm and humid, moderate, cold and cloudy, cold and sunny,
and composite. The criteria of classification are presented in Table 2.1 and shows the climatic zones. A
place is assigned to one of the first five climatic zones only when the defined conditions prevail there for
more than six months. In cases where none of the defined categories can be identified for six months or
longer, the climatic zone is called composite. According to a recent code of Bureau of Indian
Standards , the country may be divided into five major climatic zones. Table 2.1 presents the criteria of
this classification as well;

Table 1.2.1 Classification of Climates

The characteristic features of each climate are described briefly in the following
subsections.

1.4.1 Hot and Dry

The hot and dry zone lies in the western and the central part of India; Jaisalmer, Jodhpur and Sholapur
are some of the towns that experience this type of climate. A typical hot and dry region is usually flat
with sandy or rocky ground conditions, and sparse vegetation comprising cacti, thorny trees and
bushes. There are few sources of water on the surface, and the underground water level is also very
low. Due to intense solar radiation (values as high as 800-950 W/m2), the ground and the surroundings
of this region are heated up very quickly during day time. In summer, the maximum ambient
temperatures are as high as 40–45 ºC during the day, and 20–30 ºC at night. In winter, the values are
between 5 and 25 ºC during the day and 0 to 10 ºC at night. It may be noted that the diurnal variation
in temperature is quite high, that is, more than 10 ºC.
The climate is described as dry because the relative humidity is generally very low, ranging from 25 to 40
% due to low vegetation and surface water bodies. Moreover, the hot and dry regions receive less
rainfall- the annual precipitation being less than 500 mm. Hot winds blow during the day in summers and
sand storms are also experienced. The night is usually cool and pleasant. A generally clear sky, with high
solar radiation causing an uncomfortable glare, is typical of this zone. As the sky is clear at night, the
heat absorbed by the ground during the day is quickly dissipated to the atmosphere. Hence, the air is
much cooler at night than during the day.
In such a climate, it is imperative to control solar radiation and movement of hot winds.
The design criteria should therefore aim at resisting heat gain by providing shading, reducing exposed
area, controlling and scheduling ventilation, and increasing thermal capacity. The presence of “water
bodies” is desirable as they can help increase the humidity, thereby leading to lower air temperatures.
The ground and surrounding objects emit a lot of heat in the afternoons and evenings. As far as
possible, this heat should be avoided by appropriate design features.

1.4.2 Warm and Humid

The warm and humid zone covers the coastal parts of the country. Some cities that fall
under this zone are Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata. The high humidity encourages abundant
vegetation in these regions.The diffuse fraction of solar radiation is quite high due to cloud cover, and
the radiation can be intense on clear days. The dissipation of the accumulated heat from the earth to
the night sky is generally marginal due to the presence of clouds. Hence, the diurnal variation in
temperature is quite low. In summer, temperatures can reach as high as 30 – 35 ºC during the day, and
25 – 30 ºC at night. In winter, the maximum temperature is between 25 to 30 ºC during the day and 20
to 25 ºC at night. Although the temperatures are not excessive, the high humidity causes discomfort. An
important characteristic of this region is the relative humidity, which is generally very high, about 70 – 90
% throughout the year. Precipitation is also high, being about 1200 mm per year, or even more. Hence,
the provision for quick drainage of water is essential in this zone. The wind is generally from one or two
prevailing directions with speeds ranging from extremely low to very high. Wind is desirable in this
climate, as it can cause sensible cooling of the body. The main design criteria in the warm and humid
region are to reduce heat gain by providing shading, and promote heat loss by maximising cross
ventilation. Dissipation of humidity is also essential to reduce discomfort.

1.4.3 Moderate
Pune and Bangalore are examples of cities that fall under this climatic zone. Areas having a moderate
climate are generally located on hilly or high-plateau regions with fairly abundant vegetation. The solar
radiation in this region is more or less the same throughout the year. Being located at relatively higher
elevations, these places experience lower temperatures than hot and dry regions. The temperatures
are neither too hot nor too cold. In summers, the temperature reaches 30 – 34 ºC during the day and 17
– 24 ºC at night. In winter, the maximum temperature is between 27 to 33 ºC during the day and 16 to
18 ºC at night. The relative humidity is low in winters and summers, varying from 20 – 55%, and going
upto 55 – 90% during monsoons. The total rainfall usually exceeds 1000 mm per year. Winters are dry in
this zone. Winds are generally high during summer. Their speed and direction depend mainly upon the
topography. The sky is mostly clear with occasional presence of low, dense clouds during summers. The
design criteria in the moderate zone are to reduce heat gain by providing shading, and to promote
heat loss by ventilation.

1.4.4 Composite
The composite zone covers the central part of India. Some cities that experience this type of climate
are New Delhi, Kanpur and Allahabad. A variable landscape and seasonal vegetation characterise this
zone. The intensity of solar radiation is very high in summer with diffuse radiation amounting to a small
fraction of the total. In monsoons, the intensity is low with predominantly diffuse radiation. The maximum
daytime temperature in summers is in the range of 32 – 43 ºC, and night time values are from 27 to 32
ºC. In winter, the values are between 10 to 25 ºC during the day and 4 to 10 ºC at night.
The relative humidity is about 20 – 25 % in dry periods and 55 – 95 % in wet periods. The presence of high
humidity during monsoon months is one of the reasons why places like New Delhi and Nagpur are
grouped under the composite and not hot and dry climate. Precipitation in this zone varies between
500 – 1300 mm per year. This region receives strong winds during monsoons from the south-east and dry
cold winds from the north-east. In summer, the winds are hot and dusty. The sky is overcast and dull in
the monsoon, clear in winter and frequently hazy in summer.
Generally, composite regions experience higher humidity levels during monsoons than hot and dry
zones. Otherwise most of their characteristics are similar to the latter. Thus, the design criteria are more
or less the same as for hot and dry climate except that maximising cross ventilation is desirable in the
monsoon period.
1.4.5 Cold and Cloudy
Generally, the northern part of India experiences this type of climate. Most cold and cloudy regions are
situated at high altitudes. Ootacamund, Shimla, Shillong, Srinagar and Mahabaleshwar are examples of
places belonging to this climatic zone. These are generally highland regions having abundant
vegetation in summer. The intensity of solar radiation is low in winter with a high percentage of diffuse
radiation.Hence, winters are extremely cold. In summer, the maximum ambient temperature is in the
range of 20 – 30 ºC during the day and 17 – 27 ºC at night, making summers quite pleasant. In winter,
the
values range between 4 and 8 ºC during the day and from -3 to 4 ºC at night, making it quite chilly. The
relative humidity is generally high and ranges from 70 – 80 %. Annual total precipitation is about 1000
mm and is distributed evenly throughout the year. This region experiences cold winds in the winter
season. Hence, protection from winds is essential in this type of climate. The sky is overcast for most part
of the year except during the brief summer. Conditions in summer are usually clear and pleasant, but
owing to cold winters, the main criteria for design in the cold and cloudy region aim at resisting heat
loss by insulation and infiltration, and promoting heat gain by directly admitting and trapping solar
radiation within the living space.

1.4.6 Cold and Sunny

The cold and sunny type of climate is experienced in Leh (Ladakh). The region is
mountainous, has little vegetation, and is considered to be a cold desert. The solar radiation is generally
intense with a very low percentage of diffuse radiation. In summer, the temperature reaches 17 – 24 ºC
during the day and 4 – 11 ºC at night. In winter, the values range from -7 to 8 ºC during the day and -14
to 0 ºC at night. Winters thus, are extremely cold. The relative humidity is consistently low ranging from
about 10 – 50 % and precipitation is generally less than 200 mm per year. Winds are occasionally
intense. The sky is fairly clear throughout the year with a cloud cover of less than 50%. As this region
experiences cold desert climatic conditions, the design criteria are to resist
heat loss by insulation and controlling infiltration. Simultaneously, heat gain needs to be promoted by
admitting and trapping solar radiation within the living space.

1.5 IMPLICATIONS OF CLIMATE ON BUILDING DESIGN

The characteristics of each climate differ and accordingly the comfort requirements vary
from one climatic zone to another. Before proceeding further, it would be useful to define comfort and
the conditions that affect it. According to ASHRAE [10], thermal comfort is, “that condition of mind
which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment”. It is also, “the range of climatic conditions
within which a majority of the people would not feel discomfort either of heat or cold”. Such a zone in
still air corresponds to a range of 20 – 30 ºC dry bulb temperature with 30 – 60 % relative humidity.
Besides, various climatic elements such as wind speed, vapour pressure and radiation also affect the
comfort conditions

1.6 URBAN CLIMATE

The air temperatures in densely built urban areas are often higher than the temperatures of the
surrounding countryside. This is due to rapid urbanisation and industrialisation. The term “urban heat
island” refers to increased surface temperatures in some pockets of a city, caused by an ever changing
microclimate. The difference between the maximum city temperature (measured at the city centre)
and the surrounding country side is the urban heat-island intensity. An urban heat island study was
carried out in Pune, Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, Vishakapatnam, Vijayawada,Bhopal and Chennai; the
heat-island intensities of these cities are presented in Table 2.3. It is seen that, among the cities listed in
the table, the heat island intensity is greatest in Pune (about 10 °C) and lowest in Vishakhapatnam
(about 0.6°C). In the metropolitan cities of Mumbai, New
Delhi, Chennai and Kolkata, the corresponding values are 9.5, 6.0, 4.0 and 4.0oC respectively.Clearly,
the values are quite high. The density of the built environment and the extent of tree cover or
vegetation primarily affect the heat-island intensity. Pollution and heat due to vehicular traffic,
industrialisation and human activities are other contributing factors.

Heat island intensities

Normally, the central business district (CBD) or the centre of a city experiences higher
temperatures than the other parts. This is because the CBD mainly consists of concrete buildings and
asphalted roads, which heat up very quickly due to radiation from the sun. Most of this heat is stored
and released very slowly, sometimes even upto the night. This phenomenon does not allow the daily
minimum temperature to become too low. Though it may be a welcome phenomenon in cold regions
during winters, it makes life unbearable for people in the hot regions. Thus, in tropical climates, the
provision of sufficient ventilation and spacing between buildings is required to allow the accumulated
heat to escape to the atmosphere easily. Street patterns and urban blocks can be oriented and sized
to incorporate concerns of light, sun, and shade according to the dictates of the climate. For example,
the densely built areas produce, store and retain more heat than low-density areas. Thus, the
temperature differential between urban areas and the surrounding countryside increases as the
surrounding areas cool at
night. As a result, cooler air from the surrounding countryside flows towards the centre. This kind of
circulation is more pronounced on calm summer nights and can be utilised to flush dense areas of heat
and pollutants. To achieve cool air movement, a belt of undeveloped and preferably vegetated land
at the perimeter of the city, can be provided to serve as a cool air source. Radial street patterns can
also be designed for facilitating movement of air from less dense to more dense areas.
A system of linear greenways or boulevards converging towards the city centre will help to maintain the
movement of cool air. Provided the soil is adequately moist, a single isolated tree may transpire upto
400 litres of water per day. This transpiration together with the shading of solar , creates a cooler
environment around the tree. On a hot summer day, the temperature can drop significantly under trees
due to cool breezes produced by convective currents and by shading from direct sunlight. Planted
areas can be as much as 5– 8 oC cooler than built-up areas due to a combination of evapo
transpiration, reflection, shading, and storage of cold. Local wind patterns are created when the warm
air over a dense built up area rises, and is replacedby cooler air from vegetated areas. Having many
evenly distributed small open spaces will produce a greater cooling effect than a few large parks.
Studies suggest that for a city with a
population of about one million, 10-20% of the city area should be covered by vegetation for
effectively lowering local temperatures. As the vegetation cover in the city increases from 20 to 50%,
the minimum air temperature decreases by 3-4 oC, and the maximum temperature decreases by
about 5 oC .Figure 2.15 illustrates the temperature drop as a function of tree cover in the city of
Montreal. Similar findings were reported in another study conducted in Sacramento, Phoenix, USA .

Cooling due to tree cover

The heat released from combustion of fuels and from human activities, adds to the ambient
temperature of the city. Air pollution, caused mainly by emissions from vehicles and industries, reduces
the longwave radiation back to the sky thereby making the nights are warmer. Global solar radiation
during daytime is also reduced due to increased scattering and absorption by polluted air (this can be
upto 10-20% in industrial cities). Pollution also affects visibility, rainfall and cloud over. Effective land use
to decongest cities, and the provision of proper vegetation would mitigate the effects of pollution. It is
also important to use cleaner fuels and more efficient vehicles.
Meteorological studies and remote sensing by satellites can be used to ascertain drastic
changes in the climate, land use and tree cover patterns. Remote sensing can also be used to map
hot and cool areas across a city by using GIS tools (Geographical Information System). Such mapping
can help to reduce unplanned growth of a city, in preparing a proper land use plan, and to identify
future vulnerable areas (those devoid of natural vegetation, parks and water bodies). These measures
would certainly help in reducing urban heat island intensity.

1.7 MICROCLIMATE
The conditions for transfer of energy through the building fabric and for determining the
thermal response of people are local and site-specific. These conditions are generally grouped under
the term of ‘microclimate’, which includes wind, radiation, temperature, and humidity experienced
around a building. A building by its very presence will change the microclimate by causing a bluff
obstruction to the wind flow, and by casting shadows on the ground and on other buildings. A designer
has to predict this variation and appropriately account for its effect in the design.

The microclimate of a site is affected by the following factors:

(A) Landform
(B) Vegetation
(C) Waterbodies
(D) Street width and orientation
(E) Open spaces and built form

An understanding of these factors greatly helps in the preparation of the site layout plan. For example,
in a hot and dry climate, the building needs to be located close to a waterbody. The waterbody helps
in increasing the humidity and lowering the temperature by evaporative cooling.
(A) Landform
Landform represents the topography of a site. It may be flat, undulating or sloping. Major
landforms affecting a site are mountains, valleys and plains. Depending on the macroclimate and
season, some locations within a particular landform experience a better microclimate than others. In
valleys, the hot air (being lighter) rises while cooler air having higher density, settles into the depressions,
resulting in a lower temperature at the bottom. Upward currents form on sunny slopes in the morning. By
night, the airflow reverses because cold ground surfaces cool the surrounding air, making it heavier and
causing it to flow down the valley. Moreover, the wind flow is higher along the direction of the valley
than across it due to unrestricted movement. On mountain slopes, the air speed increases as it moves
up the windward side, reaching a maximum at the crest and a minimum on the leeward side. The
difference in air speed is caused due to the low
pressure area developed on the leeward side.Temperature also varies with elevation. The cooling rate is
about 0.80C for every 100m of elevation. Air moving down the slope will thus be cooler than the air it
replaces lower down, and vice versa. Further, the orientation of the slope also plays a part in
determining the amount of solar radiation incident on the site. For example a south-facing slope will get
more exposure than a
north-facing one in the northern hemisphere. Studies conducted in Mardin, Turkey showed that building
groups located on a south facing slope in the city needed approximately 50% less heat to maintain the
same indoor temperature as buildings located on the plain land.Careful positioning of a building with
respect to landform can thus help in achieving comfort.

(B) Water bodies

Water bodies can be in the form of sea, lake, river, pond or fountains. Since water has a
relatively high latent heat of vaporization
, it absorbs a large amount of heat from the surrounding air for evaporation. The cooled air can then be
introduced in the building. Evaporation of water also raises the humidity level. This is particularly useful in
hot and dry climates. Since water has a high specific heat, it provides an ideal medium for storage of
heat that can be used for heating purposes. Large waterbodies tend to reduce the difference
between day and night temperatures because they act as heat sinks. Thus, sites near oceans and large
lakes have less temperature variation between day and night, as well as between summer and winter
as compared to inland sites. Also, the maximum temperature in summer is lower near water than on
inland sites. The wind flow pattern at a site is influenced by the presence of a large waterbody in the
following way. Wind flow is generated due to the difference in the heat storing capacity of water and
land, and the consequent temperature differentials. During the day, the land heats up faster than the
water, causing the air over the land to rise and be replaced by cool air from water. Hence, the breeze
blows towards the land from water during the day and in the reverse direction at night. (as land cools
more rapidly than water).
Evaporative cooling can help to maintain comfort in buildings in hot and dry climate. This
feature was successfully adopted in vernacular architecture. For example, the Deegh palace in
Bharatpur is surrounded by a water garden to cool the neighbourhood. Other examples include the Taj
Mahal at Agra and the palace at Mandu. The evaporation rate of water in such an open spaces
depends on the surface area of the water, the relative humidity of the air, and the water temperature.

(C) Vegetation
Vegetation plays an important role in changing the climate of a city, as seen in section 2.5. It is also
effective in controlling the microclimate. Plants, shrubs and trees cool the environment when they
absorb radiation for photosynthesis. They are useful in shading a particular part of the structure and
ground for reducing the heat gain and reflected radiation. By releasing moisture, they help raise the
humidity level. Vegetation also creates different air flow patterns by causing minor pressure differences,
and thus can be used to direct or divert the prevailing wind advantage.Based on the requirement of a
climate, an appropriate type of tree can be selected. Planting deciduous trees such as mulberry to
shade east and west walls would prove beneficial in hot and dry zones. In summer, they provide shade
from intense morning and evening sun, reduce glare, as
well as cut off hot breezes. On the other hand, deciduous trees shed their leaves in winter and allow
solar radiation to heat the building. The cooling effect of vegetation in hot and dry climates comes
predominantly from evaporation, while in hot humid climates the shading effect is more significant.Trees
can be used as windbreaks to protect both buildings and outer areas such as lawns and patios from
both hot and cold winds. The velocity reduction behind the windbreak depends on their height,
density, cross-sectional shape, width, and length, the first two being the most important factors. When
the wind does not blow perpendicular to the windbreak, the sheltered area is decreased. The rate of
infiltration in buildings is proportional to the wind pressure. Therefore, it is more important to design
windbreaks for maximum wind speed reduction in extreme climates, than to attempt to maximize the
distance over which the windbreak is effective. In cold climates, windbreaks can reduce the heat loss
in buildings by reducing wind flow over the buildings, thereby reducing convection and infiltration
losses. A single-row of high
density trees in the form of a windbreak can reduce infiltration in a residence by about 60% when
planted about four tree heights from the building. This corresponds to about 15% reduction inenergy
costs .Thus, trees can be effectively used to control the micro climate. The data for various trees found
in India are presented in Tab

(D) Street width and orientation

The amount of direct radiation received by a building and the street in an urban area is
determined by the street width and its orientation. The buildings on one side of the street tend to cast a
shadow on the street on the opposite building, by blocking the sun’s radiation. Thus the width of the
street can be relatively narrow or wide depending upon whether the solar radiation is desirable or not.
For instance in Jaisalmer (hot and dry climate), most of the streets are narrow with buildings shading
each other to reduce the solar radiation, and consequently the street temperature and heat gain of
buildings. Figure 2.16 shows the street temperatures in summer and winter in Jaisalmer as compared to
temperatures recorded at the meteorological station. It is seen that street temperatures can be upto
2.5oC lower than the ambient air temperatures due to
mutual shading of buildings. At high latitudes in the northern hemisphere, the solar radiation is
predominantly from the south, hence wider east-west streets give better winter solar access. AIR The
orientation of the street is also useful for controlling airflow. Air movement in streets
can be either an asset or a liability, depending on season and climate. The streets can be oriented
parallel to prevailing wind direction for free airflow in warm climates. Smaller streets or pedestrian
walkways may have number of turns (zigzags) to modulate wind speed. Wind is desirable in streets of
hot climates to cool people and remove excess heat from the streets. It can also help in cross
ventilation of buildings. This is important in humid climates, and at night in arid climates. In cold regions,
wind increases heat losses of buildings due to infiltration. For restricting or avoiding wind in cold regions,
the streets may be oriented at an angle or normal to the prevailing wind direction. For regular
organisations of buildings in an urban area, tall buildings on narrow streets yield the most wind
protection, while shorter buildings on wider streets promote more air move ment. When major streets
are parallel to winds, the primary factors affecting the
wind velocity are the width of streets and the frontal area (height and width) of windward building
faces.

(E) Open spaces and built form

The form of a building and the open spaces in its neighbourhood affect the radiation falling on the
building’s surface and the airflow in and around it. Open spaces such as courtyards can be designed
such that solar radiation incident on them during daytime can be reflected on to building façades for
augmenting solar heat. This is desirable in cold climates, and it is possible if the surface finish of the
courtyard is reflective in nature. Inside a courtyard, wind conditions are primarily dependent on the
proportion between building height and courtyard width in the section along the wind flow line.
Courtyards can also be designed to act as heat sinks. Grass and other vegetation in a courtyard can
provide cooling due to evaporation and shading. Water sprayed on
the courtyards would cause cooling effect due to evaporation. Consequently, the air temperature in
the courtyard can be much lower compared to street or outdoor air temperatures in a hot and dry
climate. Figure 2.17 presents the measured temperature at Jaisalmer, showing thecourtyard
temperature as 4 oC less than that of the outdoor air temperature . The air in open spaces shaded by
surrounding buildings would be cooler and can be used to facilitate proper ventilation and promote
heat loss through building envelope. Built forms can be so oriented that buildings cause mutual shading
and thus reduce heat gain. For ensuring unobstructed airflow, taller structures can be planned towards
the rear side of a building complex. Thus, open spaces and built form can be appropriately used to
modulate the microclimate.

1.8 TOOLS FOR ANALYSING WEATHER DATA

The effects of sun, wind and light on a particular site can be analysed in many ways
depending on the type of information available for a place. They can be graphical in nature (such as
bioclimatic chart and psychrometric chart, or in worksheet format (such as Mahoney table .One could
also use computer software such as Climate Consultant
Therm. For example, the effects of temperature and humidity can be plotted on a bioclimatic or
psychrometric chart to understand the climate and suggest ways of expanding the comfort zone.
Similarly, Mahoney tables facilitate diagnosis of climate and provide design recommendations. The
computer software ‘Therm’ evaluates climatic factors and predicts the adaptive comfort index.
Climate Consultant, in addition to analyzing weather variables, provides recommendations for building
design from the point of view of comfort requirements. To generate relevant information on the climate
of a place, one can use graphical procedures or adopt the measurement route, or resort to
computational techniques. The measurement route can be either analysis of therecorded data
available from Indian Meteorological Department and other sources (section 2.2), or for conducting
on-site measurements. various techniques that can be adopted to generate and analyse climatic
factors.
The procedure to be adopted for the analysis of the climate of a place is as follows:
1. Obtain weather data.
2. Find out which months are comfortable (hot or cold), using mean temperature and
relative humidity. This also gives an indication of the severity of the climate.
3. Identify the climatic zone to which the city belongs for adopting appropriate
strategies to achieve comfort.
4. Establish the positive and negative aspects of climate for a particular season. For
example, shading from the sun may be needed during overheated periods. Which
are those seasons, and what is the position of the sun in the sky ? During the same
period, wind may be required to alleviate discomfort. What are the speed and the
direction of the wind during that period ?
5. Adjust the impact of local microclimatic conditions and the urban context in the
analysis. For example, in northern hemisphere, larger buildings in the south create
shadow zones in the north. Thus the amount of direct solar radiation falling on a
smaller building in the north is affected. Also, the presence of a large building, or
the orientation of the street can impact the speed and direction of wind Finalise the zoning of the site.
For example, the presence of water bodies on the site
may be advantageous in a hot and dry zone. The wind, if allowed to pass over the
water body can increase the potential for evaporative cooling. So the building has to
be oriented facing the wind.

Table 2.5 Techniques for analysis of climatic factors

THERMAL COMFORT

ANALYSIS CLIMATE PARAMETERS

I. THERMAL COMFORT
II. FACTORS INFUENCING THERMAL COMFORT
RECOMMENDATIONS :

Recommendations from above data :

Design Parameters
 Building orientation
East-west orientation (base case) is better than a north-south orientation.
 Glazing type
Double-glazing with low-E coated glass gives the best performance. It reduces the load by 20.2% in
comparison with plain glass (base case). Double-glazing with reflective coated glass and double-
glazing with clear glass can also be used to reduce the loads by 16.7 and 19.1% respectively.
 Shading
Shading of windows is not desirable in this cold and cloudy climate. If 50% of the window areas are
shaded throughout the year, the annual load increases by 5.3%.
 Wall type
Insulation of walls helps to improve the performance significantly. Thermocol insulation can save annual
loads by 26.7% and autoclaved cellular concrete block walls (e.g., Siporex) can save 24.6% as
compared to a brick wall (base case). Plain concrete block wall increases
the load by 22.8% and hence needs to be avoided.
 Colour of the external surface
Dark grey colour is suitable due to its higher absorptivity.
 Roof type
Insulation of the roof improves the performance of the building. Polyurethane foam (PUF) insulation
brings down the loads by 12.9%. In contrast, a plain uninsulated RCC roof increases the load by 7.0%.
 Air exchanges
A lower air change rate of 0.5 ach is desirable for reducing the loads.

Operational Parameters
The operational parameters such as internal gain, set point and scheduling of air changes can help in
reducing the annual load of the building. The effects are summarised as follows.
 Internal gain
In cold climates, internal gains help to keep the building warm and hence are preferable.
 Set point
Lowering the operating parameters for comfort cooling and heating can reduce the cooling loads by
11.9%. Thus, a change in the expectation of comfort can lead to significant savings.
 Scheduling of air exchanges
The scheduling of air changes does not have a significant effect on the annual load.

Apart from above design elements various passive techniques in different climates
In case of heating requirement, the techniques for cold climates may be used. Techniques such as roof
pond, roof radiation trap, solar chimney, earth berming, etc. which find dual usage can also be
incorporated.

1.Direct gain 7. Roof radiation trap 13. Earth berm

2. Trombe wall 8. Solarium 14. Wind tower
3. Water wall 9. Evaporative cooling 15. Earth-air tunnel
4. Solar chimney 10. Nocturnal radiation cooling 16. Curved roof / air vents
5. Trans wall 11. Desiccant cooling 17. Cavity wall / insulation
6. Roof pond 12. Induced ventilation 18.Varytherm wall
19. Dayl ighting