Addis Ababa Science and Technology University (AASTU)

To
Department of Mining Engineering

Geology for Mining Engineers I (MnEg2102)

Year 2; Semester II

Compiled By: Assnake Bekele

(MSc in Economic Geology)
Email: [email protected]
 Part II : Chapter 1

6/20/2022 Compiled By: Assnake B. 2

 1.2 Geologic time scale
 It is a standard composition of stratigraphic divisions that denote
Earth’s history based on rock sequences and is calibrated in
geologic years.

 Geologic Time Scale - A categorization of geological events based

on successively time spans: eons, eras, periods, epochs, & ages.

 Divisions of Geologic Time shows the major chrono-stratigraphic

(position) and geochronologic (time) units.
 The largest interval in geologic time scale is termed as eonothem
(Eon) and consists of: Precambrian (Hadean (hell), Archean
(ancient), Proterozoic (earlier life)) and Phanerozoic (visible life).
 The Phanerozoic eon is divided into erathem (Era):
 the Paleozoic (from the Greek paleo, meaning old," and zoi,
meaning "life"),
 the Mesozoic ("middle life"), and
 the Cenozoic ("new life").
 The eras are subdivided into system (periods).

 Periods are further subdivided into series (epochs), such as

the Miocene and Pliocene epochs of the Neogene period.
 Epochs are subdivided into smaller age intervals termed as
stages (age).
Simplified Geologic Time Scale
 Why we need geologic time scale?
1. It is highly important for effective communication in the
geosciences.

2. It enables us to reconstruct the chronology of events that

have shaped the planet.

3. It has been instrumental in validating and studying plate

tectonics.

4. It allowed estimating the rates of geologic processes too

slow to be monitored directly (ex. Opening of oceanic basins
over few to several hundred million years).
1.2.0 Some major geologic and biogenic events
1.2.1 Hadean Eon (Hades, the Greek word for "hell")
 Began with the formation of Earth 4.56 billion
years ago and ended about 3.9 billion years ago.

 During its first 660 million years, Earth was

bombarded by chunks of material from the early
 Formation
solar system. of Solar System
& the Earth.
 Formation of
 Although very few rock formations survived this carbonate
violent period, individual mineral grains 4.4 billion minerals starts
reducing
years old have been discovered. atmospheric
carbon dioxide.
 There is no
 There is also evidence that some liquid water geologic record
existed on Earth's surface at about this time, for the Hadean
Eon
suggesting that the planet cooled rapidly.
 1.2.2 Archean Eon (Greek archaios, "ancient" )
 Age range from 3.9 to 2.5 billion years Main Events
Earth's
old. crust
cooled &
solidified
 The geodynamo and the climate systems
were established, and felsic crust Blue-green
accumulated to form the first stable algae
continental masses. form strom
atolites

 The processes of plate tectonics were  Start of Plate

Tectonics
started.  Formation of first
supercontinent &
breakup.
 Life in the form of primitive unicellular  First known oxygen-
microorganisms was established, as producing bacteria
 Oldest record of
indicated by the fossils found in Earth's magnetic
sedimentary rocks of this age. field.
1.2.3 Proterozoic Eon (from the Greek proteros and zoi, meaning "earlier life")

 Spans the time interval from 2.5 billion to

542 million years ago.

Main Events in this Eon:-

Plate tectonic and climate systems were
operating pretty much as they do today. BIF
Organisms that produced oxygen as a waste
product increased & result with precipitating
remarkable amounts of iron oxide from
seawater to form distinctive red beds. Formation of the
Life remained soft-bodied. supercontinent
Rodinia

The increase in oxygen at end of the

Proterozoic encouraged single-celled
organisms to evolve into multicellular algae
Breakup of
and animals.
Rodinia
 1.2.4 Phanerozoic Eon ("visible life")
Main Events
 It comprises three eras  Abundance of multicellular
recognized in the fossil life.
 Large volcanic eruption.
record:  Transgression and
 The Paleozoic Era (542 to regression of the seas.
 Deposits of coal in Europe,
251 million years ago), Asia, etc
 The Mesozoic Era (251 to  Break-up of continents
 Industrial Revolution.
65 million years ago), and
 The Cenozoic Era (65
million years ago to the
present).

 Its start is marked by the first

appearance of shelly fossils at
the beginning of the
Cambrian period.
Why Study the Earth?
 We're part of it.
 Humans have the capability to make rapid changes. All
construction from houses to roads to dams are effected by the Earth,
and thus require some geologic knowledge.

 All life depends on the Earth for food and nourishment. The
Earth is there everyday of our lives.

Energy and Mineral resources that we depend on for our lifestyle

come from the Earth.

Geologic Hazards -- Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes /

cyclones, landslides, could affect us at any time. A better
understanding of the Earth is necessary to prepare for these
eventualities.
 Rocks and the rock cycle

Basic rock types

 Rocks can be grouped in to three, based on their
mode of origin (formation)
1) Igneous rocks
2) Sedimentary rocks
3) Metamorphic rocks
 •Igneous rocks
Formed by cooling and solidification of magma (molten
rock)
Examples include granite and basalt
•Sedimentary rocks
Accumulate in layers at Earth’s surface
Sediments are derived from weathering of preexisting
rocks
Examples include sandstone and limestone
•Metamorphic rocks
Formed by “changing” preexisting igneous, sedimentary
or other metamorphic rocks
The main agents of metamorphism are Pressure and
Temperature
Examples include gneiss and marble

6/20/2022 Compiled By: Assnake B. 14

 Rock cycle
 The 3 groups of rocks, namely igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic, which occur in nature, give birth one to each
other due to different geological process acting on them.
 This phenomenon is called rock cycle.
 The
rock
cycle
 Exogenous and Endogenous Earth Processes

Endogenous/ Internal Earth Process

Exogenous/ External Earth Process

17
 Dynamic Earth
1.3 Types of Tectonic Plate Boundaries
 The theory of plate tectonics
• Theory, called plate tectonics, has now emerged that
provides geologists with the first comprehensive model of
Earth’s internal workings
 Plate boundaries
• All major interactions among individual plates occurs
along their boundaries

CPB DPB

18
 1.3 Tectonic Plates Boundaries

 There are three major types of plate boundaries

(margins):
1) Divergent plate boundary

2) Convergent plate boundary

3) Transform plate boundary

 1.3.1) Divergent plate boundary

What is Divergent plate boundary?

 It is the zones where lithospheric plates move

apart from one another.

 Characterized by tensional stresses that typically

associated with:-
 long rift zones DPB
 normal faults
 basaltic volcanism

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 Where do we find divergent plate boundaries?

 It is found in ocean (spreading ocean ridges) and

 In Continent (continental rift zones)

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 Sea floor spreading and Ocean ridge systems
 The ocean floor contained
mountain ranges which is
called mid-oceanic ridge/
extensive submarine ridge
system.
What is oceanic ridge ?
 It is a continuous/long
mountainous ridge/chain
on the floor of ocean basins.
It is characterized by :-
 elevated position
 extensive faulting and
 numerous volcanic
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What is oceanic ridge and How it is formed?
 It is a continuous/long mountainous ridge/chain on the floor of ocean basins.

 Continental crust can

begin to rift.
 Stretches the crust
 Faulting and volcanism
 E.g East Africa Rift Valley

 The valley then becomes

a narrow linear sea
 E.g. Red sea

 The rifting created

ridge system
 Atlantic Ocean.
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Seafloor spreading center
(e.g., East Pacific RISE or
Mid-Atlantic RIDGE)

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Deep Ocean
 Evolution of continental rifts
 Continental rifting occurs when divergent plate margins
develop within continents.

 Continental rifts are characterized by:

- thin crust
- tensional stress
- normal faults
- shallow earthquakes
- basalt and rhyolite magmatism

 Continued rifting creates new continental margins, marked

by:-
- normal faults
- volcanic rocks inter-layered with thick sequences of
continental sedimentary rocks.
Compiled By: Assnake 25
Rifting in the
Afar Depression,
Ethiopia (Afar
Rift Consortium,
2012)

 The dominant structure is a system of parallel

normal faults with large vertical displacements.

 Faulting produces large elongate:-

- down-dropped blocks (grabbens)
- associated uplifted blocks (horsts)
 Recent volcanic activity is
associated with the rifting.

 Structural and geophysical

data show that the region is
extending at a rate of about
0.5 cm/yr.

 The total extension being

slightly less than 50 km.

 The northern end of the

rift, in the Afar region, has a
very thin crust (about 8
km). Here, rifting of the
continental crust is nearly
complete, and basalt
volcanoes are abundant.
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 1.3.2) Convergent plate boundary
It is formed when two plates collide with each other.

 Three distinctive types of convergence are

recognized:
 Oceanic -to- Oceanic
 Oceanic –to- Continental
 Continental -to- Continental

CPB

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Convergence of Oceanic -to- Oceanic Crust

Deep Sea Trench

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  Convergence of Oceanic –to- Continental Crust

 In this type of
convergence, rising melt
builds volcanic arcs.
 The subducting
plate descends into
the mantle, where it
is heated, triggering
the generation of
magma.

 Magma wells up
along the subduction
zone creating
volcanoes and creates
a continental
volcanic arcs Compiled By: Assnake 30
Compiled By: Assnake 31
Subduction Zone

Compiled By: Assnake 32

How Arcs Grow

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 Convergence of Continental -to- Continental Crusts

 Neither is subducted into the mantle, because continental

crust is too buoyant, resist downward motion.

 Instead, the crust tends to buckle and be pushed upward or

sideways, and the continents ultimately are “fused” into a
single block/continent marking the line of the suture.

 In contrast to the other two types of convergence, there is

no:
- deep subduction zone
- trench
- forearc wedge
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Compiled By: Assnake 35
 During Convergence of Two Continental Plates
 Continental crust is deformed and uplifted, creating
mountains such as Himalaya Mountains and Tibetan
Plateau.

Compiled By: Assnake 36

 1.3.3) Transform Plate Boundary

 Transform plate boundaries (also called conservative plate

boundaries) are formed where two separate tectonic plates
grind horizontally/ slide past each other , and are produced
by shearing.

- It is Conservative boundary (i.e the lithosphere is neither

created nor destroyed)

- In ocean basins and on the continents are expressed by

steep, linear ridges and valleys.

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Compiled By: Assnake 38
Summary of plate boundaries

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Global Tectonic ages
1.4) External Earth Process: Weathering and Erosion

6/20/2022 Compiled By: Assnake B. 41

 1.4.1) Weathering

Weathering refers to the group of

destructive processes that change the
physical and chemical characteristics of
rocks at or near the surface of the Earth.
• Two major types of Weathering: physical and chemical weathering.

1.4.1.1) Physical Weathering

 Disintegration of rock and mineral by physical or
mechanical process
 It retain the chemical composition of the parent
material, only physical change in size and shape of
parent materials.
 It is caused by:-
1. Temperature variation
2. Freezing and thawing (frost wedging)
3. Crystal growth
4. Unloading
5. Plant and Animals
 Role of Physical Weathering

1) Reduces rock material to smaller fragments that

are easier to transport

2) Increases the exposed surface area of rock,

making it more vulnerable to further physical and
chemical weathering
Surface Area and Weathering
Frost Wedging
Plant Roots
Burrowing of Animals
Temperature Changes
 1.4.1.2) Chemical Weathering

 Is a process where by rock materials are

decomposed by chemical alteration of the
parent material.

 Water and weak acids are the main agents

responsible for chemical weathering.
 Water

• Water weathers rock by dissolving it

 Acid Rain
• Compounds from burning coal, oil and gas
react chemically with water forming acids.
• Acid rain causes very rapid chemical
weathering
 Factors affecting weathering
Factors Rate of weathering
Slow Fast
1. Properties of parent rock
a. Mineral Solubility Low High
b. Rock structure Massive Fractured
2. Climate
a. rain fall Low Heavy
b. temperature Cold Hot
3. Presence or absence of soil
a. thickness of soil None Thick soil
b. Organic activities Sparse Abundant
4. Length of time Short Long
5. Temperature at which the minerals Low temp. High temp.
originally formed (zone of stability)
 Other factors

Other factor is topography

 Steep slope promote mechanical weathering

 Gentle slope promote chemical weathering

(because in gentle slope there will be thick soil
and the soil retain organisms which promote
chemical weathering)
 1.4.2) Erosion

• The process by which water, ice, wind or

gravity moves fragments of rock and soil.
 Water Erosion
• Rivers, streams, and runoff
 Ice Erosion
• Glaciers
Wind Erosion