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Secondary data analysis in educational research: opportunities

for PhD students
Liubov Panchenko1,*, and Nataliia Samovilova2
1National Technical University of Ukraine “Igor Sikorsky Kyiv Polytechnic Institute”, 37 Peremohy Ave., Kyiv, 03056, Ukraine
2Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University, 1 Gogol Sq., Starobilsk, 92703, Ukraine

Abstract. The article discusses the problem of using secondary data analysis (SDA) in educational
research. The definitions of the SDA are analyzed; the statistics of journals articles with secondary data
analysis in the field of sociology, social work and education is discussed; the dynamics of articles with
data in the Journal of Peace Research 1988 to 2018 is conducted; the papers of Ukrainian conference
“Implementation of European Standards in Ukrainian Educational Research” (2019) are analyzed. The
problems of PhD student training to use secondary data analysis in their dissertation are discussed: the
sources of secondary data analysis in the education field for Ukrainian PhD students are proposed, and the
model of training of Ukrainian PhD students in the field of secondary data analysis is offered. This model
consists of three components: theory component includes the theoretic basic of secondary data analysis;
practice component contains the examples and tasks of using SDA in educational research with statistics
software and Internet tools; the third component is PhD student support in the process of their thesis
writing.

1 Introduction scientific research has received wide recognition in the

global scientific community [2-9].
In the modern digital globalized world, we see a large
J. Sobal discussed the problem of teaching secondary
data flow from different sources and large datasets.
data in the field of sociology [2]. E. Smith analyzed the
That’s why it’s important to prepare future researchers
pros and cons of using secondary data analysis in
for a secondary data analysis with new computer tools
educational research [3-4]. T. P. Vartanian presented
and technologies.
advantages, disadvantages, feasibility, and
Secondary data is collected by someone other than
appropriateness of using secondary data analysis with
the researcher and with another purpose. During the
focus on social work [5].
secondary research authors may draw data from
“Practical Methods for Secondary Data Analysis”
government documents, scientific papers, statistical
course program for students of School of Public Health
databases and other sources.
(University of Minnesota) is presented in [6]. The course
The relevance of this direction is indicated by a
emphasizes practical approaches to pre-statistical data
number of initiatives. For example, The Secondary Data
processing and analysis with Stata statistical software on
Analysis Initiative [1], developed in 2019, aims to
a PC with a MS Windows operating system.
deliver high-quality high-impact research through
T. Logan recent work about practical iterative
utilising existing data resources created by the ESRC and
framework for secondary data analysis in educational
other agencies in order to address some of the most
research deserves attention [7].
pressing challenges facing society.
V. Sherif discussed the problem of evaluation
Secondary data analysis is a promising area in the
preexisting qualitative research data for secondary
field of educational sciences, but it is scarcely presented
analysis [8]. M. P. Johnston describes secondary data
in PhD research in the pedagogy field in Ukraine.
analysis for qualitative and quantitative data in the field
1.1 Problem definition of libraries research [9].
The purpose of the article is to establish the features of The paper of J. Carter and others [10] focuses on the
the secondary data analyses in educational research and World Bank data and presents the usage of socioeconomic
how it is presented in scientific articles of authoritative secondary data to develop quantitative skills of social
journals, conference proceeding and program courses for science students in UK university.
PhD students. Analysis of scientific sources shows that in Ukraine
SDA is not sufficiently used in education in general, and
1.2 Analysis of recent research and publications in the training of Pedagogy majors PhD students in
The methodology of using secondary data analysis in particular.

*
Corresponding author: [email protected]

© The Authors, published by EDP Sciences. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
SHS Web of Conferences 75 , 04005 (2020) https://doi.org/10.1051/ shsconf/20207504005
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2 Results of the study • National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health

(Add Health)
2.1. SDA methodology analysis • National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY)
What is the definition and essence of secondary data • National Survey of American Families (NSAF)
analysis? • National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being
J. Sobal notes that any data which have been (NSCAW)
collected for “another purpose and later reanalysed may • National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH)
be seen as secondary data” [2, p.480]. P. Vartanian says, • NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth
that “secondary data can include any data that are Development (SECCYD)
examined to answer a research question other than the • Programme for International Student Assessment
question for which the data were initially collected” [5]. (PISA)
We agree with E. Smith and others, that secondary • Progress in International Reading Literacy Study
data analysis is a research methodology that has the (PIRLS)
potential to greatly impact greatly educational research • Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
[3]. We share also the opinion of J. Sobal that secondary (TIMSS)
data analysis, “the reanalysis of machine-readable data, • U.S. Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID): Child
is one of the great supplements to traditional teaching Development Supplement (CDS).
methods, especially for teaching research methodology
and statistics” [2]. The training in using SDA is
especially important for PhD students because they are
preparing to become both researchers and university
teachers.
There are different methods of using SDA. We can
use SDA in isolation with the purpose of re-assessing
data set with a new research question. The other path is
the combination of two or more data sets for
investigation of the relation between the variables in
those data. We can also combine secondary data analysis
with primary data analysis.
Secondary data can be numeric or non-numeric or
qualitative data. Qualitative secondary data include data Fig. 1. Secondary data analysis and related terms (by Sage
retrieved second hand from interviews, ethnographic Method Space) [11].
accounts, photographs, documents, conversations and
other. According to T. Vartanian, an excellent archive for
The list of sources of numeric or quantitative data educational datasets, is the International Archive of
that are suited to secondary analysis would include: Educational Data [13]. Here, we will find datasets and
population census, government surveys, cohort and other online tools to examine a wide range of educational
longitudinal studies, administrative records and other surveys.
regular or continuous surveys, university and college We can add some Ukrainian resources for this list.
records, author websites and other. The first one is the Ukrainian Center for Education
Secondary data can be restricted or public; it can Quality Assessment. It offers a service through which
arise from direct (biomarker data) and indirect you can analyze the results of external independent
observation (self-report). evaluation, taking into account different indicators.
Analysis of scientific sources shows [11] that SDA is There are data sets from 2015-2019 [14]. Our sociology
a wide field, related to literature search and Internet students used this data to compare the ZNO results of
search, literature review, cross-national research, their region with another region, Kyiv, all of Ukraine in
demographics data, qualitative and quantitative data social statistics classes and in course papers.
analysis, comparative research etc. (Fig. 1). The second source we presented in our work [15].
The scientists presented a wide list of examples of We offer our PhD students the survey data from
large secondary datasets for educational and social Ukrainian teachers [16-17] for analysis. In 2017, the
sciences research [12]: Ukrainian Association of Educational Researchers
• Common Core of Data (CCD) conducted the All-Ukrainian monitoring “Teaching and
• Current Population Survey (CPS) Learning Survey on Principals and Teachers of
• Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS): Birth Secondary Education Institutions” (based on the TALIS
(ECLS-B) and Kindergarten (ECLS-K) Cohort methodology [18]). 3,600 teachers and 201 school
• General Social Survey (GSS) principals from 201 schools, representing all regions of
• Head Start Family and Child Experiences Survey Ukraine, took part in the study. According to the OECD
(FACES) policy the results of the study, are open and accessible.
• Monitoring the Future (MTF) This year we can use the data of a new wave of TALIS-
• National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) 2018 and conduct the comparative research with
• National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS) different countries.
• National Household Education Surveys (NHES)

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The third source is a population census in Ukraine. (http://nces.ed.gov/datalab/), Data Analysis System
We use data bases that contain Ukrainian census data (DAS)(http://nces.ed.gov/das/), AM Statistical Software
since 1959 [19]. For example, one of the tasks is related (http://am.air.org/). Also we can use general purpose
to building and comparing the gender-age pyramid of the software that can account for complex sampling. These
population of Ukraine at different years and includes tools are usually commercial and cost a lot. (except R).
searching for the relevant, data, building the pyramid They are generally syntax-based, more flexible.
using standard diagram building Excel tools, using SPSS Examples of such tools are: SAS (certain analyses
tools (Chart Builder, Histogram, Population Pyramid), require SUDAAN add-on), Stata, SPSS, Mplus and
and using pyramid package of R environment. The other.
second task is related to the calculation of child care and In R environment there is a special package called
grandparent care load coefficients, visualizing of their “survey” [21]. The package is oriented on analysis of
dynamics, and includes an introduction to the complex survey samples and provides the following
demographic passport of Ukraine [19]. features: summary statistics, two-sample tests, rank tests,
In Demographic and Social Statistics / Education generalized linear models, cumulative link models, Cox
page on the State Statistics Service of Ukraine models, log linear models, and general maximum pseudo
(http://www.ukrstat.gov.ua/) we can find some likelihood estimation for multistage stratified, cluster-
educational statistics about: sampled, unequally weighted survey samples. Also, we
• Preschool educational institutions (1990-2018) can use variances by Taylor series linearization or
• Secondary education schools (1990-2018) replicate weights, post-stratification, calibration, and
• Vocational schools (1990-2018) raking. There are two-phase subsampling designs,
• Institutions of higher education (1990-2019). graphics, PPS sampling without replacement; principal
Also the Women and Men / Demographic and Social components, factor analysis. So, the students need
Statistics / Education page presents gender data about: substantial training in order to be able to use this
• Pre-school education in 2017 package.
• Secondary education schools and vocational schools The next section discusses how the secondary data
in 2017 analysis application is displayed in the articles of
• Institutions of higher education in 2017 scientific journals, as well as the maintenance of the
• Indices of gender parity among students of article by data sets.
educational institutions of Ukraine
2.2. Presenting secondary data analysis and
What are the advantages of using secondary data?
quantitative methods in the journal article
We can save time and money; those datasets are ideal for
use in classroom examples, course projects, master’s The British Scientist E. Smith [4] explores the use of
theses, dissertations and supplemental studies; data may quantitative methods in educational research and the use
be of higher quality and more representative. of numeric secondary data analysis.
The disadvantages of using secondary data are: data She reviewed the published output of eight well-
may not facilitate particular research question; regarded journals in the fields of Education, Sociology
information regarding study design and data collection and Social Work over a seven-year period (Table 1).
procedures may be scarce; data may potentially lack Those journals were:
depth; may require knowledge of survey statistics and In the Education field
methods which is not generally provided by basic • British Educational Research Journal
graduate statistics courses. • Oxford Review of Education
Scientists list [20] the following important steps in • Research Papers in Education
the teaching SDA. In the Sociology field
1. Develop student’s research question • British Journal of Sociology
2. Identify a secondary data set • Sociology
3. Evaluate a secondary data set • Sociological Review
• What was the aim of the original study? In the Social Work field
• Who has collected the data? • British Journal of Social Work
• Which measures were employed? • International Social Work
• When was the data collected?
Table 1. The number of papers using secondary data analysis
• What methodology was used to collect the data?
and quantitative methods (E. Smith [4, p. 327])
• Making a final evaluation
4. Prepare and analyse secondary data. Secondary data Quantitative Total
Journal
It is useful to correlate these steps with use SDA in analysis methods papers
isolation, with the combination two or more data sets and Education
80 192 627
to combine secondary data analysis with primary data journals
analysis. Sociology
89 119 706
What software is used for SDA? We can use the journals
software specifically developed for analysing complex Social work
33 181 683
journals
survey data [12]. It is generally free, but may lack
All journals 202 492 2016
flexibility and be only useful for initial data analysis.
The examples of such tools are: PowerStats

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About one quarter of all the papers (24 %) that were researcher. The data for calculations for two journals are
reviewed by E. Smith used some form of quantitative given in the Table 2.
method, of these around 42% presented secondary data
analysis. The use of quantitative methods changed from Table 2. Comparison of publications of two educational
journals using SDA (calculated with data from [4]).
31% of papers in the ‘Education’ journals, 27% in the
‘Social work’ journal, and 17% in ‘Sociology’ (Fig. 2). Secondary data Secondary data
Journals analysis, yes analysis, no Total
n % n %
British Educational
34 12,4 240 87,6 274
Research Journal
Oxford Review of
30 13,6 190 86,4 220
Education
Total 64 430 494

The empirical value of Fisher’s criterion |*| is 0,403,

which does not exceed the critical one 1,64, so these
journals do not differ significantly in terms of the
proportion of articles that use the SDA. Similar results
were obtained when comparing the other two pairs of the
educational journals.
Fig. 2. Percent of papers with quantitative methods from total We also analyzed the conference proceedings of
papers. Built by author with data from [4, p.327] UERA (Ukrainian Educational Research Association).
The aim of the UERA is to promote the development of
Less than 10% of all papers reviewed involved some scientific competence of the researchers in Education
analysis of secondary data. In the ‘Sociology’ journals field, to raise the quality of educational research in order
the majority (75%) of numeric papers did make use of to influence the educational system and the society
secondary data, including the data from surveys such as (uera.org.ua). The discussion of Third UERA
the National Child Development Study, the British Conference “Implementation of European Standards in
Family Resources Survey, the Labour Force Study and Ukrainian Educational Research” (June 21, 2019) was
the European Values Survey. In ‘Education’ journals, held in the following networks: Educational Research
42% of the papers which used numeric methods involved Potential for Developing Education in Ukraine; Practical
the analysis of secondary data (Fig. 3). Application of Educational Research for Pre-Service
Teacher Training Reform in Ukraine; Academic
Integrity and European Ethical Standards in Educational
Research [22]. 62 articles were submitted to the
conference. Among them, 3 articles contained a
secondary data analysis, and 14 – a primary quantitative
analysis. Articles with secondary analysis accounted for
about 5% of the total number of articles, and articles
with quantitative methods – for about 23%.
2.3 Journal articles with data: Journal of Peace
Research
One of the trends in the social and behavioral sciences is
to support the idea of reproducible research, as a result
Fig. 3. Percent of papers with secondary data analysis from of which the author publishes, together with the
paper with quantitative methods. Built by author with data publication, research data, scripts for their processing,
from [4, p.327]
support tools and files. This data can be the useful source
of secondary analysis.
The vast majority of articles made use of school
Consider the example of the Journal of Peace
performance data; some others authors used studies such
Research [23], how to publish reproducible research on
as the Youth Cohort Study, the 1958 British Birth Cohort
peace and conflict. The journal is guided by the
Study and administrative data produced by the Higher
principles of access to data and transparency of research
Education Statistics Agency [4].
[24], which means that research authors, editors,
We are going to perform a secondary statistical
publishers, and professional associations seek to increase
analysis for this data. The research question is: “Are
the reliability and openness of various studies by
publications of the three education journals significantly
publishing the authors data.
different in using SDA?” To compare the journals we
We obtained the following statistics about the
used the statistical Fisher criterion *, which estimates number of articles with data in 1984-2018 (Table 3).
the significance of differences between the percentages An analysis of the dynamics of the number of articles
of two samples that have an effect of interest to the with data published in the journal since 1984 (Table 3,
Fig. 4) shows that, unlike one article in 1984, readers

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received an average of 52 articles in the last three years R 3.4.1 and Stata 13.1 software versions are required to
(2015-2017). reproduce this study; the following R packages need to
be installed: “MatchIt”, “dplyr”, “ggplot2”, “haven”,
Table 3. Statistics about articles with data in Journal of Peace “readr”, “xtable”, “tidyverse”, “RStata”. Among the files
Research
that accompany the article are .txt, .csv text files; scripts
Number of articles The average number of articles R, Stata; html files; Stata (.dta) and R (.rda) data files.
Year
with data with data in a single issue
1984 1 0,2
1998 10 1,7
1999 22 3,7
2008 28 4,7
2014 41 6,8
2015 52 8,7
2016 55 9,2
2017 49 8,2
2018 45 7,5

Fig. 6. Files to article “Better peacekeepers, better protection?

Troop quality of United Nations peace operations and violence
against civilians” [25]

Thus, the magazine promotes the publication of

reproducible research, which has the following
advantages: increased reliability of research and quality
of data analysis; expanding further research on this topic;
examples and standards for teaching future researchers,
in particular in the field of peace and conflict studies
[26].
2.4 Secondary data analysis courses for master
and PhD students
We analyzed courses on SDA for masters and doctoral
Fig. 4. The dynamics of the number of articles with data in the
Journal of Peace Research students. We will discuss the following two examples.
The course ‘Practical Methods for Secondary Data
Fig. 5 shows dynamics of average number of articles Analysis’ from the School of Public Health (University
with data in a single issue. There are 8-9 articles with of Minnesota) emphasizes practical approaches to pre-
data on average per issue. Note that unlike articles in the statistical data processing and analysis with Stata
journal, access to the data provided by the authors is statistical software, advantages and limitations of several
free. national data resources are discussed [6]. The course is
designed for three credits. The course goals are:
• Better appreciation the steps required to take a raw
data set and produce an analytic data set.
• Appreciation the vast number and variety of existing
data resources potentially useful in the field of
public health investigations, as well as methods for
finding and exploiting these data.
• Understanding basic and moderately advanced data
structures, including the binary and hexadecimal
number systems, flat-files, relational and
hierarchical data resources.
• Ability to read into Stata at least moderately
complex ASCII data.
• Ability to exploit existing data conversion software.
Fig. 5. The average number of articles with data in a single • Awareness of central issues in complex sampling
issue designs.
• Familiarity with U.S. Census data.
Consider, for example, one of the 2018 articles which • Awareness of the National Health Interview Survey.
provides the contents of the files (Fig. 6). We can see Course ‘Use of electronic archives of social data’
that the authors of the article provided numerous files as from Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv
support for their article [25]. They also offered a detailed [27]. The purpose of the course is to familiarize the
explanation of the software needed to reproduce the students with the possibility of using in the research and
calculations; which packages should be installed etc. analytical work of electronic archives of social data,

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including archives of the results of sociological research 2. J. Sobal, Teaching with Secondary Data. Teaching
(quantitative and qualitative); data from statistical Sociology 8(2), 149–170 (1981).
agencies; global (international) indexes and their ratings doi:10.2307/1316942
of countries, cities, regions; data from national and 3. E. Smith, Pitfalls and promises: the use of secondary
international non-governmental research organizations, data analysis in educational research. British Journal
etc. The purpose is also to teach students to search data of Educational Studies 56(3), 323–339 (2008).
in electronic archives; to acquaint students with the doi:10.1111/j.1467-8527.2008.00405.x
peculiarities of preparation for analysis of data obtained
4. E. Smith, Using Secondary Data in Educational and
from archives, with the specifics and methods of
Social Research (Open University Press,
secondary data analysis; provide basic knowledge of
Maidenhead, Berkshire, 2008)
data management planning in empirical sociological
projects and preparation of own research data for 5. T.P. Vartanian, Secondary Data Analysis (Oxford
placement in electronic archives of social data. University Press, New York, 2011)
An analysis of the content of these courses showed 6. Practical Methods for Secondary Data Analysis
that not all topics related to the SDA (Fig. 1) were (2017),
reflected in their programmes. http://www.sph.umn.edu/site/docs/syllabi/Syllabi/20
In addition, we have not found such courses for 17/Fall/PubH-6617.pdf. Accessed 30 Dec 2019
masters and doctoral programs in the field of 7. T. Logan, A practical, iterative framework for
pedagogical sciences in Ukraine. secondary data analysis in educational research. The
3 Conclusion Australian Educational Researcher 47, 129–148
(2020). doi:10.1007/s13384-019-00329-z
Advanced informational technologies have made data
resources more accessible and easier to research. Modern 8. V. Sherif, Evaluating Preexisting Qualitative
initiatives about open access data provide wide Research Data for Secondary Analysis. Forum
opportunities for researchers. The most important Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative
initiatives are: UK Data Service (UKDS), Office for Social Research, 19(2), Art. 7 May (2018).
National Statistics, Organization for Economic doi:10.17169/fqs-19.2.282
Cooperation and Development (OECD), World Bank. 9. M.P. Johnston, Secondary Data Analysis: A Method
So, it is important to prepare future researchers for a of which the Time Has Come. Qualitative and
secondary data analysis using new computer tools and Quantitative Methods in Libraries 3(3), 619–626
technologies. This is especially true for PhD students in (2014), http://www.qqml-
the field of education. They should search, analyze and journal.net/index.php/qqml/article/view/169.
interpret educational statistics in the framework of their Accessed 21 Mar 2020
dissertations. 10. J. Carter, S. Noble, A. Russell, E. Swanson,
This model of this training may consist of three Developing statistical literacy using real-world data:
components. Theory component includes the theoretic investigating socioeconomic secondary data
basic of secondary data analysis, strength and weakness resources used in research and teaching.
of this methodology. Practice component contains the International Journal of Research & Method in
examples and tasks of using SDA in educational research Education 34(3), 223–240 (2011).
with computer tools (specialised and general). These two doi:10.1080/1743727x.2011.609553
components are implemented in lectures, seminars and 11. SAGE Publications, MethodSpace - Connecting the
independent work in courses on research methods and Research Community (2020),
courses on quantitative methods. The third component is https://www.methodspace.com. Accessed 21 Mar
implemented as PhD student support in the process of 2020
writing a dissertation work and includes consultations,
seminars and peer reviews. 12. N. Koziol, A. Arthur, An Introduction to Secondary
In our opinion, the course of research methods need Data Analysis. CYFS (2011),
to contain a mandatory unit about SDA. The further http://r2ed.unl.edu/presentations/2011/RMS/120911
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