B.

MUCOUS MEMBRANES
(MUCOSAE)
– Moist membranes
BODY MEMBRANES – Line all body cavities that open
FUNCTIONS OF BODY to the exterior body
MEMBRANES – surface
✓ Cover body surfaces – Adapted for absorption or
✓ Line body cavities secretion
✓ Form protective sheets around – Construction
organs Epithelium type depends
Classified according to on site
tissue types Loose connective tissue
1. EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES (lamina propria)
A. Cutaneous membranes
B. Mucous membranes
C. Serous Membranes
2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
MEMBRANES
D. Synovial membranes

1. EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES
– Epithelial membranes are
simple organs
– Also called covering and lining
membranes C. SEROUS MEMBRANES
– These membranes contain: (SEROSAE)
✓ Epithelial tissue layer – Line open body cavities that are
✓ Connective tissue layer closed to the exterior of the
A. CUTANEOUS MEMBRANE=SKIN body
– Dry membrane – Occur in pairs, separated by
– Outermost protective serous fluid, with a visceral and
boundary parietal layer
– Construction – Construction
Epidermis is composed of Simple squamous
keratinized stratified epithelium
squamous epithelium Areolar connective tissue
Dermis is mostly dense
(fibrous) connective tissue
 Integumentary system consists of the:
1. Skin (cutaneous membrane)
2. Skin appendages
A. Sweat glands
SPECIFIC SEROUS B. Oil glands
MEMBRANES C. Hair
1. PERITONEUM D. Nails
– Abdominal cavity
2. PLEURA
– Around the lungs
3. PERICARDIUM
– Around the heart – Insulates and cushion deeper body
organs
2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE – Protects the entire body from:
MEMBRANES ✓ Mechanical damage (bumps
and cuts)
A. SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES ✓ Chemical damage (acids and
– Loose areolar connective tissue bases)
only (no epithelial tissue) ✓ Thermal damage (heat or cold)
– Line fibrous capsules ✓ Ultraviolet (UV) radiation
surrounding joints (sunlight)
➢ Line bursae ✓ Microbes (bacteria)
➢ Line tendon sheaths ✓ Desiccation (drying out)
→ Secrete a – Aids in loss or retention of body
lubricating fluid to heat as controlled by the nervous
cushion organs system
moving against – Aids in excretion of urea and uric
each other during acid
muscle activity – Synthesizes vitamin D
 1. EPIDERMIS
– Outer layer
Two kinds of tissue compose the skin → Capable of being hard and tough
➢ Stratified squamous epithelium
1. Epidermis
➢ Keratinocytes (the most
2. Dermis
common cell) produce a fibrous
→ Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)
protein called keratin
– Anchors the skin to underlying
– Avascular
organs
– Composed of five layers (strata)
– Not technically part of the
integumentary system SUMMARY OF LAYERS OF THE
– Composed mostly of adipose EPIDERMIS FROM DEEPEST TO
tissue MOST SUPERFICIAL
– Serves as a shock absorber and 1. Stratum basale
insulates deeper tissues 2. Stratum spinosum
3. Stratum granulosum
4. Stratum lucidum
(thick, hairless skin only)
5. Stratum corneum
 LAYERS OF THE EPIDERMIS MELANIN
1. STRATUM BASALE – a pigment produced by
(STRATUM GERMINATIVUM) melanocytes
– Deepest layer of epidermis – Melanocytes are mostly in the
– Lies next to dermis stratum basale of the epidermis
– Wavy borderline with the – Color is yellow to brown to black
dermis anchors the two – Melanin accumulates in
together membrane-bound granules called
– Cells undergoing mitosis melanosomes
– Daughter cells are pushed – Amount of melanin produced
upward to become the more depends upon genetics and
superficial layers exposure to sunlight
2. STRATUM SPINOSUM
– Cells become increasingly EPIDERMAL DENDRITIC CELLS
flatter and more keratinized – Alert and activate immune cells to
3. STRATUM GRANULOSUM a threat (bacterial or viral invasion)

4. STRATUM LUCIDUM MERKEL CELLS

– Formed from dead cells of the – Associated with sensory nerve
deeper strata endings
– Occurs only in thick, hairless – Serve as touch receptors called
skin of the palms of hands and Merkel discs
soles of feet
5. STRATUM CORNEUM 2. DERMIS
– Outermost layer of epidermis – Connective tissue
– Shingle-like dead cells are filled – Underlies the epidermis
with keratin (protective protein
prevents water loss from skin)
 TWO LAYERS OF THE DERMIS
1. PAPILLARY LAYER
(UPPER DERMAL REGION) Three pigments contribute to skin color
– contains projections called dermal 1. MELANIN
papillae – Yellow, reddish brown, or black
✓ Indent the epidermis above pigments
✓ Many projections contain 2. CAROTENE
capillary loops, and others – Orange-yellow pigment from
house pain and touch receptors some vegetables
On palm and sole surfaces, 3. HEMOGLOBIN
papillae increase friction – Red coloring from blood cells in
and gripping ability dermal capillaries
Fingerprints are identifying – Oxygen content determines the
films of sweat extent of red coloring
2. RETICULAR LAYER
(DEEPEST SKIN LAYER)
– Blood vessels A. REDNESS (ERYTHEMA)
– Sweat and oil glands – due to embarrassment,
– Deep pressure receptors inflammation, hypertension,
(lamellar corpuscles) fever, or allergy
B. PALLOR (BLANCHING)
– due to emotional stress (such as
fear), anemia, low blood
pressure, impaired blood flow
to an area
C. JAUNDICE (YELLOW CAST)
– indicates a liver disorder
D. BRUISES (BLACK & BLUE MARKS)
– hematomas

1. Cutaneous glands are all

exocrine glands
A. Sebaceous glands
OTHER DERMAL FEATURES B. Sweat glands
1. Cutaneous sensory receptors 2. Hair
2. Phagocytes 3. Hair follicles
3. Collagen and elastic fibers 4. Nails
4. Blood vessels
A. SEBACEOUS (OIL) GLANDS
– Located all over the skin except
for palms and soles
– Produce sebum (oil)
✓ Makes skin soft and moist
✓ Prevents hair from
becoming brittle
✓ Kills bacteria
– Most have ducts that empty into
hair follicles; others open
directly onto skin surface
– Glands are activated at puberty

2. APOCRINE GLANDS
– Ducts empty into hair follicles in
the armpit and genitals
– Begin to function at puberty
→ Release sweat that also
contains fatty acids and
proteins (milky or yellowish
color)
→ Play a minimal role in body
temperature regulation

B. SWEAT (SUDORIFEROUS) GLANDS – Produced by hair follicle

→ Produce sweat – Root is enclosed in the follicle
– Widely distributed in skin – Shaft projects from the surface of
Two types of sudoriferous glands the scalp or skin
1. Eccrine glands – Consists of hard keratinized
2. Apocrine glands epithelial cells
1. ECCRINE GLANDS – Melanocytes provide pigment for
– Open via duct to sweat pores on hair color
the skin’s surface – Hair grows in the matrix of the hair
→ Produce acidic sweat bulb in stratum basale
→ Water, salts, vitamin C, traces
of metabolic waste
→ Function in body temperature
regulation
 ASSOCIATED HAIR
STRUCTURES
1. HAIR FOLLICLE
– Composed of an epithelial root
sheath and fibrous sheath
– Dermal region provides a blood
supply to the hair bulb
(deepest part of the follicle)
– Arrector pili muscle connects to
the hair follicle to pull hairs
upright when we are cold or
frightened

HAIR ANATOMY
1. Central medulla
2. Cortex surrounds medulla
3. Cuticle on outside of cortex
Most heavily keratinized
region of the hair

– Heavily keratinized, scalelike

modifications of the epidermis
– Stratum basale extends beneath
the nail bed, which is responsible
for growth
– Lack of pigment makes nails
colorless
PARTS OF A NAIL
– Free edge
– Body is the visible attached portion
– Nail folds are skin folds that overlap 4. CONTACT DERMATITIS
the edges of the nail; the cuticle is – Caused by exposure to
the proximal edge chemicals that provoke allergic
– Root of nail is embedded in skin responses
– Growth of the nail occurs from nail – Itching, redness, and swelling of
matrix the skin
5. IMPETIGO
– Caused by bacterial infection
– Pink, fluid-filled raised lesions
around mouth/nose
6. PSORIASIS
– Triggered by trauma, infection,
hormonal changes, or stress
– Red, epidermal lesions covered
with dry, silvery scales that itch,
burn, crack, or sometimes
bleed

BURNS
– Tissue damage and cell death
caused by heat,
INFECTIONS AND ALLERGIES
– electricity, UV radiation, or
1. ATHLETE’S FOOT
chemicals
– Caused by fungal infection
– Associated dangers:
(Tinea pedis)
❖ Protein denaturation and cell
– Itchy, red peeling skin between
death
the toes
❖ Dehydration and electrolyte
2. BOILS (FURUNCLES) AND
CARBUNCLES imbalance
– Caused by inflammation of hair ❖ Circulatory shock
follicles – Result in loss of body fluids and
– Carbuncles are clusters of boils infection from the invasion of
caused by bacteria bacteria
3. COLD SORES (FEVER
BLISTERS)
– Caused by human herpesvirus 1
– Blisters itch and sting
 EXTENT OF A BURN IS 3. THIRD-DEGREE BURN
ESTIMATED USING THE RULE (FULL-THICKNESS BURN)
OF NINES – Destroys epidermis and dermis;
1. Body is divided into 11 areas for burned area is painless
quick estimation – Requires skin grafts, as
2. Each area represents about 9 regeneration is not possible
percent of total body surface area – Burned area is blanched (gray-
The area surrounding the white) or black
genitals (the perineum) 4. FOURTH-DEGREE BURN
represents 1 percent of body (FULL-THICKNESS BURN)
surface area – Extends into deeper tissues
(bone, muscle, tendons)
– Appears dry and leathery
– Requires surgery and grafting
– May require amputation

1. FIRST-DEGREE BURN
(SUPERFICIAL BURN)
CRITERIA FOR DEEMING
– Only epidermis is damaged
BURNS CRITICAL
– Skin is red and swollen (if anyone is met):
2. SECOND-DEGREE BURN ✓ Over 30 percent of body has
(PARTIAL-THICKNESS
second-degree burns
BURN)
✓ Over 10 percent of the body has
– Epidermis and superficial part
third- or fourth-degree burns
of dermis are damaged
✓ Third- or fourth-degree burns of
– Skin is red, painful, and
the face, hands, or feet, or genitals
blistered
✓ Burns affect the airways
– Regrowth of the epithelium can
✓ Circumferential (around the body
occur
or limb) burns have occurred
 2. SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA
– Believed to be induced by UV
– Most common form of cancer in exposure
humans – Arises from cells of stratum
– Most important risk factor is spinosum
overexposure to ultraviolet – Lesions appear as scaly, reddened
– (UV) radiation in sunlight and papules that gradually form
tanning beds shallow ulcers
– Early removal allows a good chance
CANCER CAN BE CLASSIFIED
of cure
TWO WAYS
– Metastasizes to lymph nodes if not
1. BENIGN removed
– the neoplasm (tumor) has not
spread
2. MALIGNANT
– the neoplasm has invaded
other body areas
MOST COMMON TYPES OF SKIN
CANCER
1. Basal cell carcinoma 3. MALIGNANT MELANOMA
2. Squamous cell carcinoma – Most deadly of skin cancers, but
3. Malignant melanoma accounts for only 5% of skin cancers
– Arises from melanocytes
1. BASAL CELL CARCINOMA – Metastasizes rapidly to lymph and
– Least malignant and most common blood vessels
type of skin cancer – Detection uses ABCDE rule for
– Arises from cells in stratum basale recognizing melanoma
that are altered so that they can no A = Asymmetry
longer make keratin – Two sides of pigmented mole do
– Lesions appear as shiny, dome- not match
shaped nodules that develop a B = Border irregularity
central ulcer – Borders of mole are not smooth
C = Color
– Different colors in pigmented
area
D = Diameter
– Spot is larger than 6 mm in
diameter
E = Evolution
– One or more of the ABCD
characteristics is evolving
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF
SKIN AND BODY MEMBRANES

❖ Lanugo, a downy hair, covers the

body by the fifth or sixth month of
fetal development but disappears
by birth
❖ Vernix caseosa, an oily covering, is
apparent at birth
❖ Milia, small white spots, are
common at birth and disappear by
the third week
❖ Acne may appear during
adolescence
❖ In youth, skin is thick, resilient, and
well hydrated
❖ With aging, skin loses elasticity and
thins
❖ Skin cancer is a major threat to skin
exposed to excessive sunlight
❖ Balding and/or graying occurs with
aging; both are genetically
determined; other factors that may
contribute include drugs and
emotional stress