Chapter

3 Weight–Volume Relationships

3.1 Introduction 63 3.5 Various Unit Weight 3.9 Summary 85

3.2 Weight–Volume Relationships 77
Relationships 63 3.6 Relative Density 77 P r ac t i c e
3.3 Relationships among 3.7 Comments on emax Problems 85
Unit Weight, Void Ratio, and emin 80 References 87
Moisture Content, 3.8 Correlations between
and Specific Gravity 66 emax, emin, emax 2 emin,
3.4 Relationships among Unit and Median Grain
Weight, Porosity, and Size (D50) 83
Moisture Content 69

62

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 3.2 Weight–Volume Relationships 63

Learning Objectives Upon completion of Chapter 3, you will be able to:

3.1 Identify void space in a given volume of soil, 3.5 Discuss the various unit-weight relationships.
compare the three-phase system, and 3.6 Explain the concept of relative density.
recognize the importance of the relationship 3.7 Restate the maximum and minimum void ratios
between weight and volume. for granular soils taking into account several
3.2 Discuss the importance of weight-volume factors such as grain size, grain shape, the
relationships. nature of the grain-size distribution curve, and
3.3 Interpret the relationships among unit weight, void the fine contents.
ratio, moisture content, and specific gravity. 3.8 Recognize the correlations between the
3.4 Identify the relationships among unit weight, maximum and minimum void ratios and the
porosity, and moisture content. median grain size.

3.1 Introduction

C
hapter 2 presented the geologic processes by which soil is formed, the
description of the limits on the sizes of soil particles, and the mechanical
analysis of soils. A given volume of soil in natural occurrence consists of
solid particles and the void spaces between the ­particles. The void space may be filled
with air and/or water; hence, soil is a three-phase system. If there is no water in the
void space, it is a dry soil. If the entire void space is filled with water, it is referred to
as a saturated soil. However, if the void is partially filled with water, it is a moist soil.
Hence it is important in all geotechnical engineering works to establish relationships
between weight and volume in a given soil mass. In this chapter, we will work to:
●●
Define and develop nondimensional volume relationships such as void ratio,
porosity, and degree of saturation.
●●
Define and develop weight relationships such as moisture content and unit
weight (dry, saturated, and moist) in combination with the volume relationships.

3.2 Weight–Volume Relationships

Figure 3.1a shows an element of soil of volume V and weight W as it would exist in a
natural state. To develop the weight–volume relationships, we must separate the three
phases (that is, solid, water, and air) as shown in Figure 3.1b. Thus, the total volume
of a given soil sample can be expressed as
V 5 Vs 1 Vv 5 Vs 1 Vw 1 Va(3.1)
where Vs 5 volume of soil solids
Vv 5 volume of voids
Vw 5 volume of water in the voids
Va 5 volume of air in the voids
Assuming that the weight of the air is negligible, we can express the total weight of
the sample as
W 5 Ws 1 Ww(3.2)

where Ws 5 weight of soil solids

Ww 5 weight of water

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 64 CHapter 3 Weight–Volume Relationships

Va

Total Total W V
weight volume V
5W 5V

Ws Vs

(a) (b)

Air Water Solid

Figure 3.1 (a) Soil element in natural state; (b) three phases of the soil element

The volume relationships commonly used for the three phases in a soil element
are void ratio, porosity, and degree of saturation. Void ratio (e) is defined as the ratio
of the volume of voids to the volume of solids. Thus,

Vv
e5 (3.3)
Vs

Porosity (n) is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume, or

Vv
n5 (3.4)
V

The degree of saturation (S) is defined as the ratio of the volume of water to the
volume of voids, or
Vw
S5 (3.5)
Vv

It is commonly expressed as a percentage.

The relationship between void ratio and porosity can be derived from Eqs. (3.1),
(3.3), and (3.4) as follows:

1V2 n
Vv
Vv Vv
e5 5 5 5 (3.6)
121 2
Vs V 2 Vv V 12n
v
V
Also, from Eq. (3.6),
e
n5 (3.7)
11e
The common terms used for weight relationships are moisture content and unit
weight. Moisture content (w) is also referred to as water content and is defined as the
ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solids in a given volume of soil:

Ww
w5 (3.8)
Ws

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 3.2 Weight–Volume Relationships 65

Unit weight (g) is the weight of soil per unit volume. Thus,

W
g5 (3.9)
V
The unit weight can also be expressed in terms of the weight of soil solids, the mois-
ture content, and the total volume. From Eqs. (3.2), (3.8), and (3.9),

3 1 W 24
Ww
Ws 1 1
W Ws 1 Ww s Ws(1 1 w)
g5 5 5 5 (3.10)
V V V V
Soils engineers sometimes refer to the unit weight defined by Eq. (3.9) as the moist
unit weight.
Often, to solve earthwork problems, one must know the weight per unit volume
of soil, excluding water. This weight is referred to as the dry unit weight, gd. Thus,

Ws
gd 5 (3.11)
V
From Eqs. (3.10) and (3.11), the relationship of unit weight, dry unit weight, and
moisture content can be given as
g
gd 5 (3.12)
11w
Unit weight is expressed in English units (a gravitational system of measure-
ment) as pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3). In SI (Système international), the unit used is
kilonewton per cubic meter (kN/m3). Because the newton is a derived unit, working
with mass densities (r) of soil may sometimes be convenient. The SI unit of mass
density is kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3). We can write the density equations
[similar to Eqs. (3.9) and (3.11)] as
M
r5 (3.13)
V
and
Ms
rd 5 (3.14)
V
where r 5 density of soil (kg/m3)
rd 5 dry density of soil (kg/m3)
M 5 total mass of the soil sample (kg)
Ms 5 mass of soil solids in the sample (kg)
The unit of total volume, V, is m3.
The unit weight in kN/m3 can be obtained from densities in kg/m3 as
gr (kg/m3)
g (kN/m3) 5
1000
and
grd (kg/m3)
gd (kN/m3) 5
1000

where g 5 acceleration due to gravity 5 9.81 m/s2.

Note that unit weight of water (gw) is equal to 9.81 kN/m3, 62.4 lb/ft3, or
1000 kgf/m3.
Some typical values of void ratio, moisture content, and dry unit weight in a
natural state are given in Table 3.1.

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 66 CHapter 3 Weight–Volume Relationships

Table 3.1 Void Ratio, Moisture Content, and Dry Unit Weight for Some Typical Soils in a Natural State
Natural moisture Dry unit weight, gd
content in a satu-
Type of soil Void ratio, e rated state (%) lb/ft3 kN/m3
Loose uniform sand 0.8 30 92 14.5
Dense uniform sand 0.45 16 115 18
Loose angular-grained silty sand 0.65 25 102 16
Dense angular-grained silty sand 0.4 15 121 19
Stiff clay 0.6 21 108 17
Soft clay 0.9–1.4 30–50 73–93 11.5–14.5
Loess 0.9 25 86 13.5
Soft organic clay 2.5–3.2 90–120 38–51 6–8
Glacial till 0.3 10 134 21

3.3 Relationships among Unit Weight,

Void Ratio, Moisture Content,
and Specific Gravity
To obtain a relationship among unit weight (or density), void ratio, and moisture
content, let us consider a volume of soil in which the volume of the soil solids is 1,
as shown in Figure 3.2. If the volume of the soil solids is 1, then the volume of voids
is numerically equal to the void ratio, e [from Eq. (3.3)]. The weights of soil solids
and water can be given as

Ws 5 Gsgw
Ww 5 wWs 5 wGsgw

where Gs 5 specific gravity of soil solids

w 5 moisture content
gw 5 unit weight of water

Weight Volume

V 5e

W 5 Gs V 5 Gs

W V 511 e

Ws 5 Gs Vs 5 1

Air Water Solid

Figure 3.2 Three separate phases of a soil element with volume of soil solids equal to 1

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 3.3 Relationships among Unit Weight, Void Ratio, Moisture Content, and Specific Gravity 67

Specific gravity of soil solids (Gs) was defined in Section 2.6 of Chapter 2. It can
be expressed as
Ws
Gs 5 (3.15)
Vsgw
Now, using the definitions of unit weight and dry unit weight [Eqs. (3.9) and
(3.11)], we can write

W Ws 1 Ww Gsgw 1 wGsgw (1 1 w) Gsgw

g5 5 5 5 (3.16)
V V 11e 11e

and

Ws G s gw
gd 5 5 (3.17)
V 11e

or
G s gw
e5 2 1(3.18)
gd

Because the weight of water for the soil element under consideration is wGsgw,
the volume occupied by water is
Ww wGsgw
Vw 5 5 5 wGs
gw gw
Hence, from the definition of degree of saturation [Eq. (3.5)],

Vw wGs
S5 5
Vv e
or

Se 5 wGs(3.19)

This equation is useful for solving problems involving three-phase relationships.

If the soil sample is saturated—that is, the void spaces are completely filled with
water (Figure 3.3)—the relationship for saturated unit weight (gsat) can be derived in
a similar manner:

W Ws 1 Ww Gsgw 1 egw (Gs 1 e)gw

gsat 5 5 5 5 (3.20)
V V 11e 11e

Also, from Eq. (3.18) with S 5 1,

e 5 wGs(3.21)

As mentioned before, due to the convenience of working with densities in the

SI system, the following equations, similar to unit–weight relationships given in
Eqs. (3.16), (3.17), and (3.20), will be useful:

(1 1 w)Gs rw
Density 5 r 5 (3.22)
11e
Gs rw
Dry density 5 rd 5 (3.23)
11e

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 68 CHapter 3 Weight–Volume Relationships

Weight Volume

W 5 e V 5V 5e

W V511e

Ws 5 Gs Vs 5 1

Water Solid

Figure 3.3 Saturated soil element with volume of soil solids equal to one

(Gs 1 e) rw
Saturated density 5 rsat 5 (3.24)
11e
where rw 5 density of water 5 1000 kg/m3.
Equation (3.22) may be derived by referring to the soil element shown in Figure 3.4,
in which the volume of soil solids is equal to 1 and the volume of voids is equal to e.
Hence, the mass of soil solids, Ms, is equal to Gs rw. The moisture content has been
defined in Eq. (3.8) as
Ww (mass of water) ? g
w5 5
Ws (mass of solid) ? g
Mw
5
Ms
where Mw 5 mass of water.

V 5e
M 5 Gs 

Ms 5 Gs  Vs 5 1

Air Water Solid

Figure 3.4 Three separate phases of a soil element showing mass–volume relationship

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 3.4 Relationships among Unit Weight, Porosity, and Moisture Content 69

Since the mass of soil in the element is equal to Gs rw, the mass of water

Mw 5 wMs 5 wGs rw

From Eq. (3.13), density

M Ms 1 Mw Gs rw 1 wGs rw
r5 5 5
V Vs 1 Vv 11e

(1 1 w)Gs rw
5
11e

Equations (3.23) and (3.24) can be derived similarly.

3.4 Relationships among Unit Weight,

Porosity, and Moisture Content
The relationship among unit weight, porosity, and moisture content can be developed
in a manner similar to that presented in the preceding section. Consider a soil that has
a total volume equal to 1, as shown in Figure 3.5. From Eq. (3.4),
Vv
n5
V
If V is equal to 1, then Vv is equal to n, so Vs 5 1 2 n. The weight of soil solids (Ws)
and the weight of water (Ww) can then be expressed as follows:

Ws 5 Gsgw(1 2 n)(3.25)
Ww 5 wWs 5 wGsgw(1 2 n)(3.26)

So, the dry unit weight equals

Ws Gsgw(1 2 n)
gd 5 5 5 Gsgw(1 2 n)(3.27)
V 1

Weight Volume

V 5n

W 5 Gs (1 2 n)

V51

Ws 5 Gs (1 2 n) Vs 5 1 2 n

Air Water Solid

Figure 3.5 Soil element with total volume equal to one

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 70 CHapter 3 Weight–Volume Relationships

Weight Volume

W 5 n V 5V 5n

V51

Ws 5 Gs (1 2 n) Vs 5 1 2 n

Water Solid

Figure 3.6 Saturated soil element with total volume equal to 1

The moist unit weight equals

Ws 1 Ww
g5 5 Gsgw(1 2 n)(1 1 w)(3.28)
V
Figure 3.6 shows a soil sample that is saturated and has V 5 1. According to this
figure,

Ws 1 Ww (1 2 n)Gsgw 1 ngw
gsat 5 5 5 [(1 2 n)Gs 1 n]gw(3.29)
V 1

The moisture content of a saturated soil sample can be expressed as

Ww ngw n
wsat 5 5 5 (3.30)
Ws (1 2 n)gwGs (1 2 n)Gs

Example 3.1
For a saturated soil, show that

11 1 w G 2G g
1 1 wsat
gsat 5 s w
sat s

Solution
W Ww 1 Ws wsatWs 1 Ws Ws
gsat 5 5 5 5 (1 1 wsat) (a)
V V V V
From Eq. (3.15),
Ws 5 GsVsgw(b)
Also, from Eq. (3.3),

Vv 1 Vs V
e115 5 (c)
Vs Vs

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 3.4 Relationships among Unit Weight, Porosity, and Moisture Content 71

Substituting Eqs. (b) and (c) into Eq. (a),

G s w
sat 5 (1 1 wsat) (d)
11e
From Eq. (3.21),
e 5 wsatGs(e)
Substituting (e) into (d) gives

11 1 w G 2G g
1 1 wsat
gsat 5 s w
sat s

   ■

Example 3.2
For a saturated soil, show that

sat 5 1we 2111 11 we 2 w

Solution
From Eqs. (3.19) and (3.20),

(Gs 1 e)w
sat 5 (a)
11e
and
e 5 wGs
or
e
Gs 5 (b)
w

Combining Eqs. (a) and (b) gives

1we 1 e2 w

sat 5
11e
5 1we 2111 11 we 2 w

  ■

Example 3.3
In its natural state, a moist soil has a volume of 0.33 ft3 and weighs 39.93 lb. The oven
dry weight of the soil is 34.54 lb. If Gs 5 2.71, calculate the moisture content, moist
unit weight, dry unit weight, void ratio, porosity, and degree of saturation.

Solution
Refer to Figure 3.7.
Moisture Content [Eq. (3.8)]
Ww W 2 Ws 39.93 2 34.54 5.39
w5 5 5 5 5 0.156
Ws Ws 34.54 34.54
5 15.6%

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 72 CHapter 3 Weight–Volume Relationships

Moist Unit Weight [Eq. (3.9)]

W 39.93
g5 5 5 121.0 lb/ft3
V 0.33

Dry Unit Weight [Eq. (3.11)]

Ws 34.54
gd 5 5 5 104.67 lb/ft3 < 104.7 lb/ft3
V 0.33

Void Ratio [Eq. (3.3)]

Vv
e5
Vs
Ws 34.54
Vs 5 5 5 0.204 ft3
Gsgw 2.71 3 62.4
Vv 5 V 2 Vs 5 0.33 2 0.204 5 0.126 ft3

So,
0.126
e5 < 0.62
0.204
Porosity [Eq. (3.7)]
e 0.62
n5 5 5 0.38
1 1 e 1 1 0.62
Degree of Saturation [Eq. (3.5)]

Vw
S5
Vv
Ww 5.39
Vw 5 5 5 0.086 ft3
gw 62.4

So,
0.086
S5 3 100 5 68.3%
0.126

Weight (lb) Volume (ft3)

V 5
0.126
W 5 5.39 V 5
0.086

W 5 39.93 V 5 0.33

Ws 5 34.54
Vs 5 0.204

Air Water Solid

Figure 3.7
  ■

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 3.4 Relationships among Unit Weight, Porosity, and Moisture Content 73

Example 3.4
For a moist soil sample, the following are given.
Total volume: V 5 1.2 m3
Total mass: M 5 2350 kg
Moisture content: w 5 8.6%
Specific gravity of soil solids: Gs 5 2.71
Determine the following.
a. Moist density
b. Dry density
c. Void ratio
d. Porosity
e. Degree of saturation
f. Volume of water in the soil sample

Solution
Part a
From Eq. (3.13),
M 2350
r5 5 5 1958.3 kg/m3
V 1.2
Part b
From Eq. (3.14),
Ms M 2350
rd 5 5 5 5 1803.3 kg/m3
1 2
V (1 1 w)V 8.6
11 (1.2)
100

Part c
From Eq. (3.23),
Gs rw
rd 5
11e
Gs rw (2.71)(1000)
e5 215 2 1 5 0.503
rd 1803.3
Part d
From Eq. (3.7),
e 0.503
n5 5 5 0.335
1 1 e 1 1 0.503
Part e
From Eq. (3.19),

1100 2(2.71)
8.6
wGs
S5 5 5 0.463 5 46.3%
e 0.503

Part f
The volume of water is

1 2
2350
2350 2
M 8.6
M2 11
Mw M 2 Ms 11w 100
5 5 5 5 0.186 m3
rw rw rw 1000
  ■

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 74 CHapter 3 Weight–Volume Relationships

EXAMPLE 3.5
The following data are given for a soil.
Porosity: n 5 0.4
Specific gravity of the soil solids: Gs 5 2.68
Moisture content: w 5 12%
Determine the mass of water to be added to 10 m3 of soil for full saturation.

Solution
Equation (3.28) can be rewritten in terms of density as
r 5 Gs rw (1 2 n)(1 1 w)
Similarly, from Eq. (3.29),
rsat 5 [(1 2 n)Gs 1 n]rw
Thus,
r 5 (2.68)(1000)(1 2 0.4)(1 1 0.12) 5 1800.96 kg/m3
rsat 5 [(1 2 0.4)(2.68) 1 0.4](1000) 5 2008 kg/m3
Mass of water needed per cubic meter equals
rsat 2 r 5 2008 2 1800.96 5 207.04 kg
So, total mass of water to be added equals
207.04 3 10 5 2070.4 kg
   ■

EXAMPLE 3.6
Refer to Example 3.5. Determine the mass of water to be added to the 10 m3 of soil
if the degree of saturation has to be increased to 75%.

SOLUTION
From Eqs. (3.19) and (3.7),
wGs wGs
S5 5
11 2n n2
e

(w)(2.78)
0.75 5
11 20.40.42
w 5 0.18

From Eq. (3.28),

r (at S 5 75%) 5 Gs rw (1 2 n)(1 1 w)

5 (2.68)(1000)(1 2 0.4)(1 1 0.18) 5 1897.44 kg/m3
Mass of water to be added:
(10)(rS 5 75% 2 r) 5 (10)(1897.44 2 1800.96) 5 964.8 kg
h

Example 3.5

   ■

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 3.4 Relationships among Unit Weight, Porosity, and Moisture Content 75

Example 3.7
A saturated soil has a dry unit weight of 103 lb/ft3. Its moisture content is 23%.
Determine:
a. Saturated unit weight, gsat
b. Specific gravity, Gs
c. Void ratio, e

Solution
Part a: Saturated Unit Weight
From Eq. (3.12),

1 2
23
gsat 5 gd(1 1 w) 5 (103) 1 1 5 126.69 lb/ft3 < 126.7 lb/ft3
100
Part b: Specific Gravity, Gs
From Eq. (3.17),
G s gw
gd 5
11e
Also from Eq. (3.21) for saturated soils, e 5 wGs. Thus,
G s gw
gd 5
1 1 wGs
So,
Gs(62.4)
103 5
1 1 (0.23)(Gs)
or
103 1 23.69Gs 5 62.4Gs
Gs 5 2.66

Part c: Void Ratio, e

For saturated soils,
e 5 wGs 5 (0.23)(2.66) 5 0.61
   ■

EXAMPLE 3.8
It is known that the natural soil at a construction site has a void ratio of 0.92. At the
end of compaction, the in-place void ratio was found to be 0.65. If the moisture con-
tent remains unchanged, determine the following.
a. Percent decrease in the total volume of the soil due to compaction
b. Percent increase in the field dry unit weight
c. Percent change in the degree of saturation

SOLUTION
Part a
Consider a certain volume of soil in which the volume of soil solids is Vs.
Before construction, let the total volume be V1. So,
Vv V1 2 Vs
e1 5 5 5 0.92
Vs Vs
V1 5 1.92Vs (before construction)

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 76 CHapter 3 Weight–Volume Relationships

Similarly, at the end of construction, the same soil will have a total volume of V2. So,
V2 5 (1 1 e2)Vs 5 1.65Vs (after compaction)
Percent of decrease in total volume:
V1 2 V2 (1.92 2 1.65)Vs
5 5 0.14 5 14% (decrease)
V1 1.92Vs
Part b
G s gw G s gw G s gw
gd(1) 5 5 5
1 1 e1 1 1 0.92 1.92
G s gw
gd(2) 5
1.65
1 1
2
Dgd gd(2) 2 gd(1) 1.65 1.92
5 5 5 0.163 5 16.3% (increase)
gd(1) gd(1) 1
1.92

Part c
wGs wGs
S1 5 5
e1 0.92
wGs
S2 5
0.65
1 1
2
DS S2 2 S1 0.65 0.92
5 5 5 0.415 5 41.5% (increase)
S1 S1 1
0.92

   ■

Example 3.9
Figure 3.8 shows the cross section of an embankment to be constructed. For the
embankment, g 5 110 lb/ft3. The soil for the embankment has to be brought from
a borrow pit. The soil at the borrow pit has the following: e 5 0.68, Gs 5 2.68, and
w 5 10%. Determine the volume of soil from the borrow pit that will be required to
construct the embankment 1000 ft long.

25 ft

1V : 2H 1V : 2H
15 ft

Figure 3.8

Solution
At the borrow pit,

G s gw (2.68)(62.4)
Dry unit weight, gd 5 5 5 99.54 lb/ft3
11e 1 1 0.68

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 3.6 Relative Density 77

3
Total volume of embankment 5 (25)(15) 1 (2) 112 3 15 3 3024(1000)
5 825,000 ft3

1g 2
gd{embankment
Volume of soil from borrow pit 5 (825,000)
d{borrow pit

199.54 2 5 911,694 ft
110 3
5 (825,000)

   ■

3.5 Various Unit Weight Relationships

In Sections 3.2, 3.3, and 3.4, we derived the fundamental relationships for the moist
unit weight, dry unit weight, and saturated unit weight of soil. Several other forms of
relationships that can be obtained for g, gd, and gsat are given in Table 3.2.

3.6 Relative Density

The term relative density is commonly used to indicate the in situ denseness or loose-
ness of granular soil. It is defined as
emax 2 e
Dr 5 (3.31)
emax 2 emin

where Dr 5 relative density, usually given as a percentage

e 5 in situ void ratio of the soil
emax 5 void ratio of the soil in the loosest state
emin 5 void ratio of the soil in the densest state

Table 3.2 Various Forms of Relationships for g, gd, and gsat

Moist unit weight (g) Dry unit weight (gd) Saturated unit weight (gsat)
Given Relationship Given Relationship Given Relationship
w, Gs, e (1 1 w)Gsgw g Gs, e (Gs 1 e)gw
g, w
11e 11w 11e
(Gs 1 Se)gw Gsgw G s, n [(1 2 n) Gs 1 n]gw
S, Gs, e Gs, e
11e
1 2
11e 1 1 wsat
G s, n Gsgw (1 2 n) Gs, wsat Gg
(1 1 w)Gsgw 1 1 wsatGs s w
w, Gs, S Gsgw
wGs Gs, w, S
1w 21 1 1 e 2g
11 e, wsat e 11w
1S2
wGs sat
S 11 w
sat
w, Gs, n Gsgw (1 2 n) (1 1 w)
n1 2g
S, Gs, n Gsgw (1 2 n) 1 nSgw eSgw n, wsat 11w sat
e, w, S w w
(1 1 e)w sat

g 11
1 1 e2
egw e
gsat, e gsat 2 gd, e d g w
11e
gsat, n gsat 2 ngw gd, n gd 1 ngw
gsat, Gs (gsat 2 gw)Gs
(Gs 2 1) gd, S
11 2 G1 2g 1 g s
d w

gd, wsat gd (1 1 wsat)

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 78 CHapter 3 Weight–Volume Relationships

Table 3.3 Qualitative Description of Granular Soil Deposits

Relative density (%) Description of soil deposit
0–15 Very loose
15–50 Loose
50–70 Medium
70–85 Dense
85–100 Very dense

The values of Dr may vary from a minimum of 0% for very loose soil to a maxi-
mum of 100% for very dense soils. Soils engineers qualitatively describe the granular
soil deposits according to their relative densities, as shown in Table 3.3. In-place soils
seldom have relative densities less than 20 to 30%. Compacting a granular soil to a
relative density greater than about 85% is difficult.
The relationships for relative density can also be defined in terms of porosity, or
nmax
emax 5 (3.32)
1 2 nmax
nmin
emin 5 (3.33)
1 2 nmin
n
e5 (3.34)
12n
where nmax and nmin 5 porosity of the soil in the loosest and densest conditions,
respectively. Substituting Eqs. (3.32), (3.33), and (3.34) into Eq. (3.31), we obtain

(1 2 nmin)(nmax 2 n)
Dr 5 (3.35)
(nmax 2 nmin)(1 2 n)

By using the definition of dry unit weight given in Eq. (3.17), we can express
relative density in terms of maximum and minimum possible dry unit weights. Thus,

3g 1 4 2 3g1 4
53 4 3 g 4
d(min) g 2g d g d d(min) d(max)
D 5r (3.36)
3g 4 2 3g 4
1 1 g 2g d(max) d(min) d

d(min) d(max)

where gd(min) 5 dry unit weight in the loosest condition (at a void ratio of emax)
gd 5 in situ dry unit weight (at a void ratio of e)
gd(max) 5 dry unit weight in the densest condition (at a void ratio of emin)
In terms of density, Eq. (3.36) can be expressed as

3r 4
rd 2 rd(min) rd(max)
Dr 5 (3.37)
d(max) 2 rd(min) rd
ASTM Test Designations D-4253 and D-4254 (2019) provide a procedure for
determining the maximum and minimum dry unit weights of granular soils so that
they can be used in Eq. (3.36) to measure the relative density of compaction in the
field. For sands, this procedure involves using a mold with a volume of 2830 cm3
(0.1 ft3). For a determination of the minimum dry unit weight, sand is poured loosely
into the mold from a funnel with a 12.7 mm (12 in.) diameter spout. The average
height of the fall of sand into the mold is maintained at about 25.4 mm (1 in.). The
value of gd(min) then can be calculated by using the following equation:
Ws(mold)
gd(min) 5 (3.38)
Vm

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 3.6 Relative Density 79

LEGEND
1 - Mold
2 - Dial indicator
3 - Surcharge weight
4 - Guide sleeve
5 - Surcharge base plate
6 - Vibrating table

Figure 3.9 Laboratory equipment for determination of minimum and

maximum dry densities of granular soil (Courtesy of K. Reddy, University of
Illinois, Chicago)

where Ws(mold) 5 weight of sand required to fill the mold

Vm 5 volume of the mold
The maximum dry unit weight is determined by vibrating sand in the mold for
8 min. A surcharge of 14 kN/m2 (2 lb/in2) is added to the top of the sand in the mold.
The mold is placed on a table that vibrates at a frequency of 3600 cycles/min and
that has an amplitude of vibration of 0.635 mm (0.025 in.). The value of gd(max) can
be determined at the end of the vibrating period with knowledge of the weight and
­volume of the sand. Figure 3.9 shows the equipment needed to conduct the test for
determination of emin. Several factors control the magnitude of gd(max): the magnitude
of acceleration, the surcharge load, and the geometry of acceleration. Hence, one can
obtain a larger-value gd(max) than that obtained by using the ASTM standard method
described earlier.

Example 3.10
For a given sandy soil, emax 5 0.75 and emin 5 0.4. Let Gs 5 2.68. In the field, the
soil is compacted to a moist unit weight of 112 lb/ft3 at a moisture content of 12%.
Determine the relative density of compaction.

Solution
From Eq. (3.16),
(1 1 w)Gsgw
g5
11e
or

Gsgw(1 1 w) (2.68)(62.4)(1 1 0.12)

e5 215 2 1 5 0.67
g 112

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 80 CHapter 3 Weight–Volume Relationships

From Eq. (3.31),

emax 2 e 0.75 2 0.67

Dr 5 5 5 0.229 5 22.9%
emax 2 emin 0.75 2 0.4
  ■

EXAMPLE 3.11
A 3 m high sandy fill material was placed loosely at a relative density of 55%.
Laboratory studies indicated that the maximum and minimum void ratios of the fill
material are 0.94 and 0.66, respectively. Construction specifications required that the
fill be compacted to a relative density of 85%. If Gs 5 2.65, determine:
a. Dry unit weight of the fill before and after compaction
b. Final height of the fill after compaction

SOLUTION
From Eq. (3.31),
emax 2 e
Dr 5
emax 2 emin
Part a
e1 5 emax 2 Dr(emax 2 emin ) 5 0.94 2 0.55(0.94 2 0.66) 5 0.786
G s gw (2.65)(9.81)
gd 5 5 5 14.55 kN/m3 (before compaction)
1 1 e1 1 1 0.786
e2 5 emax 2 Dr(emax 2 emin ) 5 0.94 2 0.85(0.94 2 0.66) 5 0.702
(2.65)(9.81)
gd 5 5 15.27 kN/m3 (after compaction)
1 1 0.702
Part b

DH De 0.786 2 0.702
5 5 5 0.047
H 1 1 e1 1 1 0.786
DH 5 (0.047)H 5 (0.047)(3) 5 0.141 m
Final height 5 3 – 0.141 5 2.86 m
  ■

3.7 Comments on emax and emin

The maximum and minimum void ratios for granular soils described in Section 3.5
depend on several factors, such as
●●
Grain size
●●
Grain shape
●●
Nature of the grain-size distribution curve
●●
Fine contents, Fc (that is, fraction smaller than 0.075 mm)
Youd (1973) analyzed the variation of emax and emin of several sand samples
and provided relationships between angularity A (see Section 2.9) of sand particles
and the uniformity coefficient (Cu 5 D60 /D10; see Section 2.8). The qualitative

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 3.7 Comments on e max and e min 81

descriptions of sand particles with the range of angularity as provide by Youd (1973)
are given below.
●●
Very angular—the particles that have unworn fractured surfaces and
multiple sharp corners and edges. The value of A varies within a range of
0.12–0.17 with a mean value of 0.14.
●●
Angular—the particles with sharp corners having approximately prismoi-
dal or tetrahedral shapes with A 5 0.17–0.25 with a mean value of 0.21.
●●
Subangular—The particles have blunted or slightly rounded corners and
edges with A 5 0.25–0.35 with a mean value of about 0.30.
●●
Subrounded—The particles have well rounded edges and corners.
The magnitude of A varies in the range of 0.35–0.49 with a mean value of
0.41.
●●
Rounded—The particles are irregularly shaped and rounded with no dis-
tinct corners or edges for which A 5 0.49–0.79 with a mean value of 0.59.
●●
Well-rounded—The particles are spherical or ellipsoidal shape with
A 5 0.7–1.0 with a mean value of about 0.84.
The variations of emax and emin with criteria described above are given in
Figure 3.10. Note that, for a given value of Cu, the maximum and minimum void
ratios increase with the decrease in angularity. Also, for a given value of A, the mag-
nitudes of emax and emin decrease with an increase in Cu. The amount of nonplastic
fines present in a given granular soil has a great influence on emax and emin.

emin emax

emax

1.2 1.6 emin

1.0 1.4
A 5 0.17
0.2

0.8 1.2

0.25

A 5 0.17
0.6 1.0
0.3

0.2
0.4 0.8
0.25
0.49 0.3
0.35
0.49
0.2 0.6 0.7 0.7
0.35

0 0.4
1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10 15
Uniformity coefficient, Cu

Figure 3.10 Variation of emax and emin with A and Cu (Based on Youd, 1973)

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 82 CHapter 3 Weight–Volume Relationships

Table 3.4 D50-sand and D50-fine of the Soils based on Lade et al. (1998)
D50{sand
Sand description D50-sand (mm) D50-fine (mm) D50{fine
Nevada 50/80 0.211 0.050 4.22
Nevada 80/200 0.120 0.050 2.4

Lade et al. (1998) conducted several tests by mixing sand with nonplastic fines
(passing 0.075 mm–US No. 200 sieve) at different proportions by volume to deter-
mine emax and emin in two types of sand (Nevada 50/80 and Nevada 80/200) along
with one type of nonplastic fine. The median grain size of the sand samples (D50-sand)
and the fines (D50-fine) are given in Table 3.4.
Figure 3.11 shows the variation of emax and emin with percent of fine by volume
for (a) Nevada 50/80 sand and fines and (b) Nevada 80/200 sand and fines. From this
­figure, it can be seen that
●●
For a given sand and fine mixture, the emax and emin decrease with the increase
in the volume of fines from zero to about 30%. This is the filling-of-the-
void phase, where fines tend to fill the void spaces between the larger sand
particles.
●●
There is a transition zone, where the percentage of fines is between 30% to
40%.
●●
For percentage of fines greater than about 40%, the magnitudes of emax and
emin start increasing. This is the replacement-of-solids phase, where larger-
sized solid particles are pushed out and gradually replaced by fines.

Nevada 50/80 sand and fines

1.2
Nevada 80/200 sand and fines
emax

emax

0.8
emax, emin

emin

emin

0.4

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent fines (by volume)

Figure 3.11 Variation of emax and emin with percent of nonplastic

fines (Based on the test results of Lade et al., 1998). Note: For 50/80
sand and fines, D50-sand  /D50-fine 5 4.22 and for 80/200 sand and fines,
D50-sand  /D50-fine 5 2.4

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 3.8 Correlations bet ween e max, e min, e max − e min, and Median Grain Size (D 50 ) 83

EXAMPLE 3.12
Consider two sand samples with the following:
Sand A: Subangular grains, A < 0.3, Cu 5 3
Sand B: Subrounded grains, A < 0.41, Cu 5 3
Determine emax, emin, and emax – emin from Figure 3.10 and comment on the results.

SOLUTION
From Figure 3.10,
Sand A: emax < 0.73
emin < 0.41
emax – emin < 0.73 – 0.41 5 0.32

Sand B: emax < 0.66

emin < 0.36
emax – emin < 0.66 – 0.36 5 0.30
Comments: A decease in angularity, A, results in an increase of emax and emin, although
the magnitudes of emax – emin are approximately the same for both sand samples.
  ■

3.8 Correlations between emax, emin, emax 2 emin,

and Median Grain Size (D50)
Cubrinovski and Ishihara (2002) studied the variation of emax and emin for a much
larger number of soils. Based on the best-fit linear-regression lines, they provided
the following relationships.
●●
Clean sand (Fc 5 0 to 5%)
emax 5 0.072 1 1.53 emin (3.39)

●●
Sand with fines (5 , Fc # 15%)
emax 5 0.25 1 1.37 emin (3.40)

●●
Sand with fines and clay (15 , Fc # 30%; Pc 5 5 to 20%)
emax 5 0.44 1 1.21 emin (3.41)

●●
Silty soils (30 , Fc # 70%; Pc 5 5 to 20%)

emax 5 0.44 1 1.32 emin (3.42)

where Fc 5 fine fraction for which grain size is smaller than 0.075 mm
Pc 5 clay-size fraction (,0.005 mm)
Figure 3.12 shows a plot of emax 2 emin versus the mean grain size (D50) for a
number of soils (Cubrinovski and Ishihara, 1999 and 2002). From this figure, the
average plot for sandy and gravelly soils can be given by the relationship

0.06
emax 2 emin 5 0.23 1 (3.43)
D50 (mm)

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 84 CHapter 3 Weight–Volume Relationships

1.0

0.8

Void ratio range, emax 2 emin

0.6

emax 2 emin 5 0.23 1 0.06

D50
0.4

0.2

0.0
0.1 1.0 10
Mean grain size, D50 (mm)

Clean sands (FC 5 0 – 5%)

Sands with fines (5 , FC # 15%)
Sands with clay (15 , FC # 30%, PC 5 5 – 20%)
Silty soils (30 , FC # 70%, PC 5 5 – 20%)
Gravelly sands (FC , 6%, PC 5 17 – 36%)
Gravels

Figure 3.12 Plot of emax 2 emin versus the mean grain size (Based on Cubrinovski
and Ishihara, 2002)

Example 3.13
The median grain size (D50) of a clean sand is 0.5 mm. The sand is compacted in the
field to a dry unit weight of 15.72 kN/m3. Estimate the relative density of compac-
tion. Given: Gs for the sand is 2.66.

Solution
We will use the correlations provided by Cubrinovski and Ishihara. From
Eq. (3.39),
emax 5 0.072 1 1.53emin
or

emax 2 0.072
emin 5 (a)
1.53
From Eq. (3.43),

0.06
emax 2 emin 5 0.23 1 (b)
D50

Combining Eqs. (a) and (b),

1 2
emax 2 0.072 0.06
emax 2 5 0.23 1
1.53 0.5

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 Practice problems 85

emax 2 0.6536emax 1 0.04706 5 0.35

0.35 2 0.04706
emax 5 5 0.875
1 2 0.6536
From Eq. (a),
0.875 2 0.072
emin 5 5 0.525
1.53
From Eq. (3.18),
G s gw (2.66)(9.81)
efield 5 215 2 1 5 0.66
gd 15.72
Hence, the relative density of compaction in the field is

emax 2 efield 0.875 2 0.66

Dr 5 5 5 0.614 5 61.4%
emax 2 emin 0.875 2 0.525
   ■

3.9 Summary
In this chapter, we discussed weight–volume relationships of soils. Following is a
summary of the subjects covered:
●●
Volume relationships consist of void ratio (e), porosity (n), and degree of
saturation (S), or
Volume of void
Void ratio, e 5
Volume of solid
Volume of void
Porosity, n 5
Total volume
Volume of water in void
Degree of saturation, S 5
Total volume of void
●●
Weight relationships consist of moisture content (w) and unit weight (gd, g, gsat).
Weight of water in void
Moisture content, w 5
Weight of solid
The relationships of dry, moist, and saturated unit weights are given, respectively, by
Eqs. (3.17), (3.16), and (3.20).
●
Relative density (Dr) is a measure of denseness of granular soil in the field
and is defined by Eqs. (3.31) and (3.36).
●●
Approximate empirical relationships between maximum void ratio (emax)
and ­minimum void ratio (emin) for granular soils with varying fine contents
and clay-size fraction are given in Eqs. (3.39)–(3.42).
●●
The magnitude of emax 2 emin for sandy and gravelly soils can be correlated
to the median grain size (D50) via Eq. (3.43).

Practice problems
3.1 For a given soil, show the following. gsat 2 gd
c. e 5
gd 2 gsat 1 gw
a. gsat 5 gd 1 11 1e e2g
w
ngw
eSgw d. wsat 5
gsat 2 ngw
b. gd 5
(1 1 e)w

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 86 CHapter 3 Weight–Volume Relationships

3.2 A 0.4 m3 moist soil sample has the following. 3.11 The porosity of a soil is 0.35. Given Gs 5 2.69, calculate:
●
Moist mass 5 711.2 kg a. Saturated unit weight (kN/m3)
●
Dry mass 5 623.9 kg b. Moisture content when moist unit weight 5 17.5 kN/m3
●
Specific gravity of soil solids 5 2.68 3.12 A saturated soil has w 5 23% and Gs 5 2.62. Determine its
Estimate: saturated and dry densities in kg/m3.
a. Moisture content 3.13 A soil has e 5 0.75, w 5 21.5%, and Gs 5 2.71. Determine:
b. Moist density a. Moist unit weight (lb/ft3)
c. Dry density b. Dry unit weight (lb/ft3)
d. Void ratio c. Degree of saturation (%)
e. Porosity
3.14 A soil has w 5 18.2%, Gs 5 2.67, and S 5 80%. Determine
3.3 The moist weight of a soil is 17.8 kN/m3 and the moisture the moist and dry unit weights of the soil in lb/ft3.
content is 14%. If the specific gravity of the soil solids is
3.15 The moist unit weight of a soil is 112.32 lb/ft3 at a moisture
2.69, calculate the following.
content of 10%. Given Gs 5 2.7, determine:
a. Dry unit weight
a. e
b. Void ratio
b. Saturated unit weight
c. Degree of saturation
3.16 The moist unit weights and degrees of saturation of a soil
3.4 The moist weight of 0.2 ft3 of a soil is 23 lb. The moisture
are given in the table.
content and the specific gravity of the soil solids are
determined in the laboratory to be 11% and 2.7, respectively. g (lb/ft3) S (%)
Calculate the following.
a. Moist unit weight (lb/ft3) 105.73 50
b. Dry unit weight (lb/ft3) 112.67 75
c. Void ratio Determine:
d. Porosity a. e
e. Degree of saturation (%) b. Gs
f. Volume occupied by water (ft3) 3.17 Refer to Problem 3.16. Determine the weight of water, in lb,
3.5 The saturated unit weight of a soil is 19.8 kN/m3. The mois- that will be in 2.5 ft3 of the soil when saturated.
ture content of the soil is 17.1%. Determine the following. 3.18 Refer to Figure 3.13. After the construction of a concrete re-
a. Dry unit weight taining wall, backfill material from a nearby borrow pit was
b. Specific gravity of soil solids brought into the excavation behind the wall and compacted
c. Void ratio to a final void ratio of 0.8. Given that the soil in the borrow
3.6 The unit weight of a soil is 95 lb/ft3. The moisture content pit has a void ratio of 1.1, determine the volume of borrow
of this soil is 19.2% when the degree of saturation is 60%. material needed to construct 1 m3 of compacted backfill.
Determine:
a. Void ratio
b. Specific gravity of soil solids Excavation Ground level
c. Saturated unit weight
3.7 For a given soil, the following are given: Gs 5 2.67;
moist unit weight, g 5 112 lb/ft3; and moisture content,
w 5 10.8%. Determine: Compacted
Soils from
a. Dry unit weight (e 5 0.8) borrow pit
b. Void ratio Concrete (e 5 1.1)
retaining
c. Porosity
wall
d. Degree of saturation
3.8 Refer to Problem 3.7. Determine the weight of water, in
pounds, to be added per cubic foot of soil for
a. 80% degree of saturation
b. 100% degree of saturation
3.9 The moist density of a soil is 1680 kg/m3. Given w 5 18%
and Gs 5 2.73, determine:
a. Dry density Figure 3.13
b. Porosity
c. Degree of saturation 3.19 Refer to Problem 3.18. Given that the borrow pit has a mois-
d. Mass of water, in kg/m3, to be added to reach full ture content of 11% and Gs 5 2.7, determine:
saturation a. Moist unit weight of the borrow soil
3.10 The dry density of a soil is 1780 kg/m3. Given Gs 5 2.68, b. Degree of saturation of the borrow soil
what would be the moisture content of the soil when c. Moist unit weight of the compacted backfill
saturated?

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 references 87

3.20 For a given sand, the maximum and minimum void ratios 3.23 The moisture content of a soil sample is 18.4%, and its dry
are 0.78 and 0.43, respectively. Given Gs 5 2.67, determine unit weight is 100 lb/ft3. Assuming that the specific gravity
the dry unit weight of the soil in kN/m3 when the relative of solids is 2.65,
density is 65%. a. Calculate the degree of saturation.
3.21 For a given sandy soil, emax 5 0.75, emin 5 0.46, and Gs 5 b. What is the maximum dry unit weight to which this soil
2.68. What will be the moist unit weight of compaction can be compacted without change in its moisture content?
(kN/m3) in the field if Dr 5 78% and w 5 9%? 3.24 A loose, uncompacted sand fill 6 ft in depth has a relative
3.22 For a given sandy soil, the maximum and minimum dry unit density of 40%. Laboratory tests indicated that the minimum
weights are 108 lb/ft3 and 92 lb/ft3, respectively. Given Gs 5 and maximum void ratios of the sand are 0.46 and 0.90, re-
2.65, determine the moist unit weight of this soil when the spectively. The specific gravity of solids of the sand is 2.65.
relative density is 60% and the moisture content is 8%. a. What is the dry unit weight of the sand?
b. If the sand is compacted to a relative density of 75%, what
is the decrease in the thickness of the 6 ft fill?

references
American Society for Testing and Materials (2019). Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Sec. 4, Vol. 04.08.
West Conshohocken, PA.
Cubrinovski, M. and Ishihara, K. (1999). “Empirical Correlation Between SPT N-Value and Relative
Density for Sandy Soils,” Soils and Foundations. Vol. 39, No. 5, 61–71.
Cubrinovski, M. and Ishihara, K. (2002). “Maximum and Minimum Void Ratio Characteristics of Sands,”
Soils and Foundations. Vol. 42, No. 6, 65–78.
Lade, P. V., Liggio, C. D., and Yamamuro, J. A. (1998). “Effects of Non-Plastic Fines on Minimum and
Maximum Void Ratios of Sand,” Geotechnical Testing Journal, ASTM. Vol. 21, No. 4, 336–347.
Youd, T. L. (1973). “Factors Controlling Maximum and Minimum Densities of Sand,” Evaluation of Relative
Density and Its Role in Geotechnical Projects Involving Cohesionless Soils, STP 523, ASTM, 98–122.

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