UNIT 4

LARGE SIGNAL AMPLIFIERS

Introduction:
A voltage amplifier handles very small signals which are in the range of few millivolts or
volts. But to handle large signals which are in the range of volts, it requires a power amplifier
with a power transistor

Considering a public address system, it consists of sections of voltage amplifiers which are
cascaded to each other. But last section is always a power amplifier. A voltage amplifier
increases just a voltage gain but a power amplifier has large voltage and current swings
which handles large power.

A power amplifier consists of a transformer whose o/p impedance is low which is connected
to a low impedance loud speaker achieving impedance matching where maximum power
transfer takes place and drives the loud speaker.

A power amplifier develops an AC power of low watts which gets dissipated in the form of
heat at the junctions of the transistor. So the transistors used are of large size with large
power dissipation

The h-parameter analysis is applicable to small signal amplifiers. So cannot be used for
analysis of power amplifiers

Microphone

Voltage Voltage Voltage Power

Amplifier Amplifier Amplifier Amplifier

PUBLIC ADDRESS SYSTEM

SySYSTEM
Classification of Power Amplifiers
The position of Q-point on the load line decides the class of operation of power amplifier

The Q-point is shown ona load line which is plotted on the output characteristics of a
transistor
The various classes of power amplifiers are
1) Class A 2) Class B 3) Class C 4) Class AB

1) Class A Power Amplifier

The power amplifier is said to be class A amplifier, if the Q-point and the input signal are
selected such that the o/p signal is obtained for full cycle of the i/p signal.

The position of Q-point is at the mid-point of load line. The transistor remains in the active
region and never enters into cut-off region. The collector current flows for full cycle of input
signal.

Fig. Graphical Representation of Class A Power Amplifier

2) Class B Power Amplifier

The power amplifier is said to be class B amplifier, if the Q-point and the input signal are
selected such that the o/p signal is obtained for half cycle of the i/p signal.

The Q-point is shifted on x-axis due to this the transistor remains in active region for positive
half cycle and enters into cutoff region for negative half cycle .
 Fig. Graphical Representation of Class B Power Amplifier

3) Class C Power Amplifier

The power amplifier is said to be class C amplifier, if the Q-point and the input signal are
selected such that the o/p signal is obtained for less than 180 0 of the input signal.

The Q-point is shifted below x-axis. The transistor remains in the active region for less than
1800 and enters into cutoff region for other signal. The output is much more distorted hence
not useful for AF application.

Fig. Graphical Representation of Class C Power Amplifier

4) Class AB Power Amplifier

The power amplifier is said to be class AB amplifier, if the Q-point and the input signal are
selected such that the o/p signal is obtained for more than 180 0 but less than 3600 of the
input signal.
The Q-point is shifted above x-axis but below the midpoint of the loadline. This class AB is
used in eliminating Cross-over distortion which arises in Class B Power amplifier.

Fig. Graphical Representation of Class AB Power Amplifier

Class A Power Amplifier

It is further classified into 2categories.
1) Series fed direct coupled Class A Power Amplifier.
2) Transformer Coupled Class A Power Amplifier.

1) Series fed direct coupled Class A Power Amplifier

It is a simple fixed bias circuit used aas large signal Class A amplifier where load resistance
is directly connected in collector circuit. Mostly the load is a loud speaker. This circuit
handles large amount of power which is in the order of watts. The transistor used is a power
transistor. The value of Rb is selected such that Q-point lies at the center of the load line.

DC Operation

Under this only DC source is considered at the input and output circuits.

To calculate Q-point, apply KVL to input loop

Vcc = Ib Rb + Vbe

Ib = (Vcc- Vbe )/ Rb

Applying KVL to output loop

Vcc = Icq Rl + Vceq

Vceq = Vcc - Icq Rl

DC Input Power (PDC) = Vcc* Icq

The DC Power is provided by supply voltage with no input signal and the
current drawn by the circuit is Icq
AC Operation
When an input signal is applied , a base current varies sinusoidally. So the output current and
output voltage also varies sinusoidally around the Q-pont. This varying output current and
voltage delivers power to the load.

AC Output Power

For analternating o/p voltage and current

Vmin = Min. instantaneous value of o/p voltage

Vmax = Max. instantaneous value of o/p voltage

Vpp = Peak to peak value of o/p voltage.

Vpp = Vmax – Vmin

Vm = Peak value of o/p voltage

Vm = Vpp/2

Vrms = Vm/√2 = Vpp/2√2 = (Vmax-Vmin) 2√2

Similarly

Irms = Im/√2 = Ipp/2√2 = (Imax-Imin) 2√2

Imin = Min. instantaneous value of o/p current

Imax = Max. instantaneous value of o/p current

Ipp = Peak to peak value of o/p current.

Ipp = Imax – Imin

Im = Peak value of o/p current.

Pac = Vrms * Irms

Pac = Vm/√2 * Im/√2

Pac = Vpp/2√2 * Ipp/2√2

Pac = (Vpp * Ipp)/8

(𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛)(𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛)
Pac =
8

Efficiency

It is defined as the ratio of o/p ac power(Pac) to the i/p dc power (Pdc)

η = Pac/Pdc
(𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛)(𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛)
η=
8 𝑉𝑐𝑐∗𝐼𝑐𝑞

(𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛)(𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛)
%η= ∗ 100
8 𝑉𝑐𝑐∗𝐼𝑐𝑞

For maximum effi. Assuming max. current and voltage swings

then Vmax=Vcc, Vmin=0, Imax=2Icq, Imin=0.

2𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑞∗2𝐼𝑐𝑞
η= = Vceq/2Vcc = Vceq/2*2Vceq = ¼*100
8 𝑉𝑐𝑐∗𝐼𝑐𝑞

η = 25%
The maximum efficiency of Series Fed Class A power amplifier is 25% only.

Power Dissipation

It must be large for power transistor. The amount of power dissipated by transistor is given as

Pd = Pdc – Pac

Advantages

1) Simple Circuit

2) Load is directly connected to collector circuit.

Disadvantages

1) Efficiency is less

2) Power dissipation is more leading to wastage of power.

3) Impedance matching is not achieved.

Problems

1) A Series Class A power amplifier operates from DC source and i//p sinewave
generates base current of 9mA. Calculate Q-point, Pdc,Pac, η. Given Rb =
15kΩ,Rl = 16Ω.

Solution :

Given Ib = 9mA, Icq = βIb

Icq = 450mA

Vceq = Vcc- Icq RL

Vceq = 7.2v

ii) Pdc = Vcc* Icq = 6.4W

iii) Pac = Irms 2 * RL

1.619 W

iv) η = Pac/Pdc * 100 = 1.619/6.48 *100 = 24.99%

Transformer Coupled Class A Power Amplifier

Impedance matching is necessary to transfer maximum power to the load for loads like loud
speaker with low input impedance, the impedance matching is difficult to achieve as output
impedance of collector circuit of direct coupled amplifier is high. This problem can be
eliminated can be eliminated by replacing the load Rl with a transformer where a loadspeaker
is connected to the secondary winding.

DC Operation

It is assumed that winding resistance is 0Ω. So there is no voltage across primary winding of
the transformer.
The slope of DC load line is a reciprocal of DC resistance in the collector circuit which is 0.
Hence the slope of load line is ideally ꭃ so it is a vertical straight line parallel to y-axis.

Vce = Vcc - Ic RLI

Ic = -Vce/ RLI + Vcc/ RLI

m = -1/ RLI

Since RLI = 0, m = ꭃ

Applying KVL to o/p loop

Vceq = Vcc

Input DC Power

It is produced by supply voltage with no i/p signal

So Pdc = Vcc * Icq

AC Operation
For AC analysis the load line is drawn on the o/p characteristics where the load on secondary
winding is RL and reflected impedance RLI at primary winding. The load line passes through
Q-point, for a given input current Ib the o/p current and voltage varies sinusoidal around the
Q-point.

AC output power

While calculating power at primary winding the primary value of voltage, current and R LI
must be considered.

While calculating power at secondary winding load voltage and current and R L must be
considered.

Pac = Vrms * Irms

= Vm/√2 * Im/√2

= Vpp/2√2 * Im/2√2
(𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛)(𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛)
Pac =
8

Efficiency

Under Max. efficiency considering max voltage swings

η = Pac/Pdc * 100
(𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛)(𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛)
%η= *100
8 𝑉𝑐𝑐∗𝐼𝑐𝑞

(2𝑉𝑐𝑐−0)(2𝐼𝑐𝑞−0)
= * 100
8 𝑉𝑐𝑐∗𝐼𝑐𝑞

2𝑉𝑐𝑐∗2𝐼𝑐𝑞
=
8 𝑉𝑐𝑐∗𝐼𝑐𝑞

= 50%

The maximum efficiency of transformer coupled Class A power amplifier is

50%

Problems

1) A loud speaker of 8Ω is connected to secondary of transformer with

Ic=140mA. The turns ratio of transformer is 3:1 with supply voltage of 10v. If
AC power delivered to loud speaker is 0.48W, assuming ideal transformer.
Calculate RMS values of Load voltage, primary voltage, load current, primary
current, effi, Pd ?

Solution:

RLI = (N1/N2)2 * RL = 72Ω

Pac = V1rms2 / RLI

V1rms = 5.87V

N1/N2 = V1rms / V2rms

V2rms = 1.95V

Pac = I2rms2 * RL

I2rms = 0.24A

I1rrms = 0.0813A

Pdc = Vcc* Icq = 1.4W

η = Pac/Pdc *100
 = 34.28%

Pd = Pdc-Pac = 0.92W

Class B Power Amplifier

In Class B amplifier the output signal flows only for the half cycle of the input cycle which is
a distorted wave.

Toget full cycle across the load a pair of transistors is used which conducts in alternate for
half cycles.

Depending on type of transistors used class B amplifiers are of 2 types.

1) Push-pull Amplifier (Uses two identical transistors)

2) Complementary-symmetry amplifier.(Uses two different transistors)

Push-Pull Class B Power Amplifier

It consists of two center tapped transformers T1 (input transformer), T2 (output transformer),
two identical transistors Q1,Q2 in CE configuration.

Fig. Push-Pull Class B Power Amplifier

The input ac signal is applied to primary of T1 and secondary of T1 is connectedto base
terminals of Q1 & Q2. The collector terminals are connected to the primary ot T2 and
secondary of T2 are connected to load which is a loud speaker. The supply Vcc is connected
to center tapped terminal of T2.

Working:
During positive half cycle of the input signal, the secondary terminal of T1 becomes positive
w.r.t B, whhich makes transistor Q1 driven into active region amking it ON and transistor Q2
into cut-off region making it OFF. So the signal flows from Vcc to upper winding of T2,Q1
to the ground and signal flows to thesecondary winding of T2 and then to the load.

During negative half cycle of the input signal the secondary terminal B of T1 becomes
positive w.r.t A which makes q2 driven into active region making it ON and Q1 into cutoff
region making it OFF. So the signal flows fromVcc to the lower winding of T2 and then to
Q2 and to ground and the signal flows to the secondary of T2 and then to the load.

DC Operation
The Q-point is adjusted on x0axis such that Vceq=Vcc as RL =0 and Iceq=0 hence the
coordinates of Q-point are (Vcc,0)

DC input power:

Each transistor output is in the form of half rectified hence the avg DC value

Idc = Im/Π

Then total DC avg current drawn from supply is the algebraic sum of individual avg currents
drawn by the each transistor

Idc = 2Im/Π

The total DC input power is Vcc.Idc

Pdc = Vcc.Idc

= 2/Π * Vcc*Im where Im=Vm/ RLI

AC Operation
When AC signal is applied to input transformer for positive half cycle the transistor Q1
conducts but lower half cycle of primary of T2 does not carry any current. Hence only N1 no
of turns of upper part carries current.

Similarly during negative half cycle Q2 conducts, upper part of T2 doesnot conduct, only
lower part of N1 carries current. So reflected impedancecan be written as
 RLI = (N1/N2)2 * RL

The Dc load line is the vertical line passing through Q-point on x-axis the slope of AC load
line is -1/ RLI

AC Output power

Pac = Vrms * Irms

Pac = Vm/√2 * Im/√2

Pac = (Vm* Im)/2

Efficiency:

%η = Pac/Pdc * 100

= (Vm.Im/2)/(2/Π(Vcc.Im))

%η = (Π/4) * (Vm/Vcc) * 100

Maximum Efficiency:

To obtain max efficiency max value of peak voltage is assumed i.e., Vm=Vcc

%η = (Π/4) * (Vcc/Vcc) * 100

%η = 78.5%

Advantages:

1) Efficiency is higher than class A

2) Low power dissipation
3) Reduces harmonic distortion

Disadvantages:
1) Two center tapped transformers are used

2) Transformer makes circuit bulky and costly.

3) Poor frequency response

Complementary-Symmetry Class B Power Amplifier

It uses a npn(Q1) and pnp(Q2) transistors with common collector configuration. Two power
supplies +Vcc, -Vcc are used to drive the ttransistors, the output signal is collected across R L,
which is connected to both the emitter terminals of transistors.

During positive half cycle of the input signal, transistor Q1 is driven into active region(ON)
and Q2 is driven into cutoff region(OFF). So the output current flows from +Vcc,Q1 and to
the load RL.

During negative half cycleof the input signal Q2 is drawn into active region(ON) and Q1 is
driven into cutoff region(OFF). So the output current flows from –Vcc,Q2 and to the load RL.

NOTE

The results whhich are derived for PushPull amplifier are applicable to complementary
symmetry amplifier. The only change is that transformer is absent. Hence in the expression
the reflectec impedance must be repplaced by load RL

Advantages:

1) As circuit is transformer less, weight and cost reduces.

2)Due to common collector impedance matching is possible.

3) Better frequency response.

Disadvantages:

1) The circuit needs two power supplies.

2) The output is distorted due to crossover distortion.

Problem:
1) A class B complementary symmetry amplifier with supply 15V and R L = 4Ω.
Calculate maximum AC power, max DC power, effi. ?

Solution:

Pac = Vm.Im/2 Im = Vm/ RL

Pac = 28.125W

Pdc = 2/Π *Vcc*Im

= 35.8W

η = Pac/Pdc *100

= 78.5%

Crossover Distortion
For a transistor to be in active region the base emitter junction must be forward biased, but
the junction cant be made to forward bias till the applied voltage becomes greater than cut-in
voltage of the junction which is 0.7V for Si, 0.2 for Ge transistors.

Hence as long as magnitude of i/p signal is less than cut-in voltage of BE junction, the
collector current remains 0 and transistor will be incutoff region.

Hence there is a period between the crossing of half cycles of input signal for which none of
transistors is active and the o/p is 0.Hence the nature of the o/p signal gets distorted and no
longer remains same as that of i/p signal, such distortion in o/p signal is called as Crossover
Distortion.

Due to this each transistor conducts for less than half cycle rather than complete half cycle.
To eliminate the crossover distortion some modifications are necessary in the amplifier
circuit. The basic reason for the distortion is the cut-in voltage of the transistor junction. To
overcome this a small forward biasing circuit is connected to the load.

In the complementary symmetry amplifier circuit the base emitter junction of the transistor
requires a fixed bias network which provides a necessary voltage of (2X0.7=1.4) the
transistor which eliminates the distortion.

Fig. Class AB Power Amplifier

Distortions in Amplifiers
The basic features of input ac signal applied to the amplifier are amplitude,frequency and
phase.Hence possible distortions will any amplifer are amplitude,frequency and phase
distortions.

The change in the gain of the amplifier w.r.t frequency is called as “Amplitude distortion”.

It is assuedthat transistor is perfectly a linear device i.e., characteristics of transistor is a

straight line over operating rangei.e.,Ic=KI in practical circuits transistoris not perfectly
linear. Due to such non-linearith the output voltage waveform difference ffrom the signal.
Such distortion is called as “Non-linear Distortion” or “Harmonic Distortion”.

This distortion occurs due to the presence of freq components in output signal which are not
present in input signal. The freq component with the same freq as same input freq is called as
“fundamental freq components”

The additional frequencies present in the output signal are integer multiples of fundamental
frequencies which are called as “Harmonics”.
For example if the fundamental frequency has ‘f’ Hz then, then the output signal has
fundamental freq and additionalfrequencies like 2Hz,3Hz……..

The 2f frequency is called “Second Harmonics”, 3f freq is called “Third Harmonics” and
soon

If fundamental freq component has amplitude of ‘B1’ and nth harmonic component with
amplitude ‘Bn’, then the percentage harmonic distortion due to nth harmonic component is
expressed as

%Harmonic Distortion of nth Harmonic (%Dn) = ‫׀‬Bn‫׀‬/‫ ׀‬B1‫*׀‬100

%D2 = ‫׀‬B2‫׀‬/‫ ׀‬B1‫*׀‬100

%D3 = ‫׀‬B3‫׀‬/‫ ׀‬B1‫*׀‬100

When the output signal gets distorted due to various harmonic distortion components, the
Total Harmonic Distortion(THD) is espressed as

THD = √D22 + D32 + D42 + -------- Dn2

Output Power due to distortion

Pac = Irms2 *RL

= Im2/2 *RL where Im = B1

Pac = B12/2 * RL

(Pac)D = B12/2 * RL + B22/2 * RL + B32/2 * RL

= B12/2 * RL [1+ B22/ B12 + B32/ B12 +--------]

(Pac)D = Pac[1+ D22 + D32 +---------]

(Pac)D = Pac(1+ D2 )

Class AB amplifier:

Class AB amplifier output stage combines the advantages of the Class A amplifier and the
Class B amplifier producing a better amplifier design.The purpose of any amplifier is to
produce an output which follows the characteristics of the input signal but is sufficiently large
enough to supply the needs of the load connected to it. We have seen that the power output of
an amplifier is the product of the voltage and current, (P = V*I) applied to the load, while the
power input is the product of the DC voltage and current taken from the power supply.
Although the amplification of a Class A amplifier, (where the output transistor conducts
100% of the time) can be high, the efficiency of the conversion from the DC power supply to
an AC power output is generally poor at less than 50%. However if we modify the Class A
amplifier circuit to operate in Class B mode, (where each transistor conducts for only 50% of
the time) the collector current flows in each transistor for only 180 o of the cycle. The
advantage here is that the DC-to-AC conversion efficiency is much higher at about 75%, but
this Class B configuration results in distortion of the output signal which can be
unacceptable. One way to produce an amplifier with the high efficiency output of the Class B
configuration along with the low distortion of the Class A configuration is to create an
amplifier circuit which is a combination of the previous two classes resulting in a new type of
amplifier circuit called a Class AB Amplifier.
Then the Class AB amplifier output stage combines the advantages of the Class A amplifier
and the Class B amplifier while minimising the problems of low efficiency and distortion
associated with them.
As we said above, the Class AB Amplifier is a combination of Classes A and B in that for
small power outputs the amplifier operates as a class A amplifier but changes to a class B
amplifier for larger current outputs. This action is achieved by pre-biasing the two transistors
in the amplifiers output stage.
Thus each transistor will conduct between 180 o and 360o of the time depending on the
amount of current output and pre-biasing. Thus the amplifier output stage operates as a Class
AB amplifier.
First lets look at a comparison of output signals for the different amplifier classes of
operation.
Comparison of the Different Amplifier Classes

Then the amplifier classes are always defined as follows:

 Class A: – The amplifiers single output transistor conducts for the full 360 o of the
cycle of the input waveform.
 Class B: – The amplifiers two output transistors only conduct for one-half, that is,
180o of the input waveform.
 Class AB: – The amplifiers two output transistors conduct somewhere between 180o
and 360o of the input waveform.

For Class A amplifier operation the switching transistors Q-point is located near to the centre
of the output characteristic load line of the transistor and within the linear region. This allows
the transistor to conduct for the complete 360o so the output signal varies over the full cycle
of the input signal. The main advantage of Class A is that the output signal will always be an
exact reproduction of the input signal reducing distortion. However it suffers from poor
efficiency, because to bias the transistor in the center of the load line there must always be a
suitable DC quiescent current flowing through the switching transistor even if there is no
input signal to amplify. For Class B amplifier operation, two complimentary switching
transistors are used with the Q-point (that is its biasing point) of each transistor located at its
cut-off point. This allows for one transistor to amplify the signal over one half of the input
waveform, while the other transistor amplifies the other half. These two amplified halves are
then combined together at the load to produce one full waveform cycle. This NPN-PNP
complimentary pair is also known as a push-pull configuration. Because of the cut-off
biasing, the quiescent current is zero when there is no input signal, therefore no power is
dissipated or wasted when the transistors are in the quiescent condition, increasing the overall
efficiency of a Class B amplifier with respect to Class A. However, as the Class B amplifier
is biased so that the output current flows through each transistor for only half of the input
cycle, the output waveform is therefore not an exact replica of the input waveform since the
output signal is distorted. This distortion occurs at every zero-crossing of the input signal
producing what is generally called cross-over distortion as the two transistors switch “ON”
between themselves. This distortion problem can be easily overcome by locating the biasing
point of the transistor slightly above cut-off. By biasing the transistor slightly above its cut-
off point but much below the centre Q-point of the class A amplifier, we can create a Class
AB amplifier circuit. The basic purpose of a Class AB amplifier is to preserve the basic Class
B configuration while at the same time improving its linearity by biasing each switching
transistor slightly above threshold.

Biasing A Class AB Amplifier

A Class AB amplifier can be made from a standard Class B push–pull stage by biasing
both switching transistors into slight conduction, even when no input signal is present. This
small biasing arrangement ensures that both transistors conduct simultaneously during a very
small part of the input waveform by more than 50 per cent of the input cycle, but less than
100 per cent. The 0.6 to 0.7V (one forward diode volt drop) dead band that produces the
crossover distortion effect in Class B amplifiers is greatly reduced by the use of suitable
biasing. The pre-biasing of the transistor devices can be achieved in a number of different
ways using either a preset voltage bias, a voltage divider network, or by using a series
connected diode arrangement.

Class AB Amplifier Voltage Biasing

Here the biasing of the transistors is achieved by using a suitable fixed bias voltage applied
the bases of TR1 and TR2. Then there is a region where both transistors are conducting and
the small quiescent collector current flowing through TR1 combines with the small quiescent
collector current flowing through TR2 and into the load. When the input signal goes positive,
the voltage at the base of TR1 increases producing a positive output of a similar amount
which increases the collector current flowing through TR1 sourcing current to the load, RL.
However, because the voltage between the two bases is fixed and constant, any increase in
the conduction of TR1 will cause an equal and opposite decrease in the conduction of TR2
during the positive half cycle. As a result, transistor TR2 eventually turns off leaving the
forward biased transistor, TR1 to supply all the current gain to the load. Likewise, for the
negative half of the input voltage the opposite occurs. That is, TR2 conducts sinking the load
current while TR1 turns off as the input signal becomes more negative. Then we can see that
when the input voltage, VIN is zero, both transistors are slightly conducting due to their
voltage biasing, but as the input voltage becomes more positive or negative, one of the two
transistors conducts more either sinking of sourcing the load current. As the switching
between the two transistors occurs nearly instantly and is a smooth one, the crossover
distortion which affects the Class B configuration is greatly reduced. However, incorrect
biasing can cause sharp crossover distortion spikes as the two transistor switch over. The use
of a fixed biasing voltage allows each transistor to conduct for more than one-half of the
input cycle, (Class AB operation). However, it is not very practical to have extra batteries
within the amplifiers output stage design. One very simple and easy way of producing two
fixed biasing voltages to set a stable Q-point near to the transistors cut-off, is to use a
resistive voltage divider network.
Class AB Amplifier Resistor Biasing

When a current passes through a resistor, a voltage drop is developed across the resistor as
defined by Ohm’s law. So by placing two or more resistors in series across a supply voltage
we can create a voltage divider network that produces a set of fixed voltages at the values of
our choosing. The basic circuit is similar to the above voltage biasing circuit in that
transistors, TR1 and TR2 conduct during the opposite half cycles of the input waveform. That
is, when VIN in is positive, TR1 conducts and when VIN is negative, TR2 conducts. The four
resistances R1 to R4 are connected across the supply voltage Vcc to provide the required
resistive biasing. The two resistors, R1 and R4 are chosen to set the Q-point slightly above
cut-off with the correct value of VBE being set at about 0.6V so that the voltage drops across
the resistive network brings the base of TR1 to about 0.6V, and that of TR2 to about –0.6V.
Then the total voltage drop across biasing resistors R2 and R3 is approximately 1.2 volts,
which is just below the value required to turn each transistor fully-on. By biasing the
transistors just above cut-off, the value of the quiescent collector current, ICQ, should be zero.
Also, since both switching transistors are effectively connected in series across the supply,
the VCEQ volt drop across each transistor will be approximately one-half of Vcc. While the
resistive biasing of a Class AB amplifier works in theory, a transistors collector current is
very sensitive to changes in its base biasing voltage, VBE. Also, the cut-off point of the two
complimentary transistors may not be the same, so finding the correct resistor combination
within the voltage divider network may be troublesome. One way to overcome this is to use
an adjustable resistor to set the correct Q-point as shown.

Adjustable Amplifier Biasing

An adjustable resistor, or potentiometer can be used to bias both transistors onto the verge of
conduction. Then transistors TR1 and TR2 are biased via RB1-VR1-RB2 so that their outputs
are balanced and zero quiescent current flows into the load. The input signal which is applied
via capacitors C1 and C2 is superimposed onto the biasing voltages and applied to the bases
of both transistors. Note that both the signals applied to each base have the same frequency
and amplitude as they originated from VIN. The advantage of this adjustable biasing
arrangement is that the basic amplifier circuit does not require the use of complimentary
transistors with closely matched electrical characteristics or an exact resistor ratio within the
voltage divider network as the potentiometer can be adjusted to compensate. As resistors are
passive devices that convert electrical power into heat due to its power rating, the resistive
biasing of a Class AB amplifier, either fixed or adjustable, can be very sensitive to changes in
temperature. Any small changes in the operating temperature of the biasing resistors (or
transistors) may affect their value producing undesirable changes in the quiescent collector
current of each transistor. One way to overcome this temperature related problem is to
replace the resistors with diodes to use diode biasing.
Class AB Amplifier Diode Biasing

While the use of biasing resistors may not solve the temperature problem, one way to
compensate for any temperature related variation in the base-emitter voltage, (VBE) is to use a
pair of normal forward biased diodes within the amplifiers biasing arrangement as shown. A
small constant current flows through the series circuit of R1-D1-D2-R2, producing voltage
drops which are symmetrical either side of the input. With no input signal voltage applied,
the point between the two diodes is zero volts. As current flows through the chain, there is a
forward bias voltage drop of approximately 0.7V across the diodes which is applied to the
base-emitter junctions of the switching transistors. Therefore the voltage drop across the
diodes, biases the base of transistor TR1 to about 0.7 volts, and the base of transistor TR2 to
about –0.7 volts. Thus the two silicon diodes provide a constant voltage drop of
approximately 1.4 volts between the two bases biasing them above cut-off. As the
temperature of the circuit rises, so too does that of the diodes as they are located next to the
transistors. The voltage across the PN junction of the diode thus decreases diverting some of
the transistors base current stabilising the transistors collector current. If the electrical
characteristics of the diodes are closely matched to that of the transistors base-emitter
junction, the current flowing in the diodes and the current in the transistors will be the same
creating what is called a current mirror. The effect of this current mirror compensates for
variations in temperature producing the required Class AB operation thereby eliminating any
crossover distortion. In practice, diode biasing is easily accomplished in modern day
integrated circuit amplifiers as both the diode and switching transistor are fabricated onto the
same chip, such as in the popular LM386 audio power amplifier IC. This means that they
both have identical characteristics curves over a wide temperature change providing thermal
stabilisation of the quiescent current.
The biasing of a Class AB amplifier output stage is generally adjusted to suit a particular
amplifier application. The amplifiers quiescent current is adjusted to zero to minimise power
consumption, as in Class B operation, or adjusted for a very small quiescent current to flow
that minimises crossover distortion producing a true Class AB amplifier operation.
Class D power amplifier.

Class D power amplifier is a type of audio amplifier were the power handling devices are
operated as binary switches. Since the power handling devices (MOSFETS) works as perfect
binary switches, no time is wasted in between the transition of stages and no power is wasted
in the zero input condition. Class D power amplifiers are much power efficient when
compared to its predecessors like Class A, Class B and Class AB. Out of the list the most
efficient Class AB only have a maximum theoretical efficiency of 78.5%. In practical
scenario with real speakers as load, the efficiency of Class AB amplifiers can drop as low as
50%. At the same time a well designed Class D amplifier with real speakers as load will
never go below 90% in terms of efficiency. The theoretical efficiency of a Class D amplifier
is the ideal 100%.
An ideal binary switch will pass all current through it with no voltage across it when it
is ON. When it is OFF the entire voltage remains across it and no current will flow through it.
This means no power is wasted across the switching element which does the amplification,
and it accounts for the unbelievable efficiency of the Class D amplifier. Conversely, the class
AB amplifier will always have some current passing through and some voltage remaining
across the switching element.
Higher efficiency means low thermal dissipation and it means it dissipates less power when
compared to the predecessors (The Class A, Class B, Class AB and Class D). Since Class D
amplifiers are highly power efficient, they require a smaller heatsink and a smaller power
supply. Smaller heatsink and smaller power supply reduces the size and it is the main
advantage of a Class D amplifier. Class D amplifiers have become very popular in
applications like hand held audio devices, portable home theaters, mobile phones etc where
all in these cases output must be decent (in terms of power and fidelity) and the size must be
as small as possible. Class D is the only option for combining all these requirements together.
A typical Class D power amplifier consists of a sawtooth waveform generator, comparator
(based on an OPAMP), switching circuit, and a low pass filter. The block diagram of a Class
D amplifier is shown in the figure below.

Sawtooth waveform generator.

The sawtooth waveform generator generates a high frequency sawtooth waveform for
sampling the input audio signal. The frequency of the sawtooth waveform is usually selected
10 times the maximum frequency of interest in the input audio signal.
Comparator.
The main job of the comparator is to digitize the input audio signal by mixing it with the
chopping sawtooth waveform. The result of this mixing will be a digital copy of the analog
input signal. The low frequency components of the digital signal will represent the input
audio signal and the high frequency components of the digital signal are of no interest. Input
and output waveforms of the comparator are shown in the figure below.

Switching circuit.
Even though the output of the comparator is a digital representation of the input audio signal,
it doesn’t have the power to drive the load (speaker). The task of the switching circuit is to
provide enough current and voltage gain which is essential for an amplifier. The switching
circuit is generally designed around MOSFETs. Input and output waveforms of the switching
circuit are shown in the figure below.

Low pass filter.

The task of the low pass filter is to filter out useful low frequency components from the
output of the switching circuit. The output of the low pass filter will be a scaled replica of the
input audio signal. Negative feedback loops are often included in between the low pass filter
output and the comparators audio input in order to fight the errors.
Advantages of Class D amplifier.
 Low heat dissipation.
 Reduced size and weight.
 High power conversion efficiency. Almost all power drawn is supplied to the load.
Disadvantages of Class D amplifier.
 Requires a very clean and stable power supply.
 The high frequency response is dependent on the loudspeaker impedance.
 QUESTION BANK
 Short answer questions

UNIT-IV
1) Find efficiency of class-A power amplifier
2) What are the requirements of push pull power amplifiers
3) What are the advantages of push pull power amplifiers
4) Define conversion efficiency. & collector efficiency of power amplifier
5) Why a voltage amplifier cannot be used at radio frequencies
6) Why class AB is preferred over class B amplifier
7) What is crossover distortion? How it can be eliminated
8) Why the power transistor provided with heat sinks
9) Explain similarities between Class B &Clas AB power amplifier
10) Why a voltage amplifier cannot be power amplifier.
11) How are amplifiers classified based on the biasing condition.
12) In class A, VCEmax=25 Volts, VCEmin=5Volts. Find overall efficiency of series
feed load and also transformer coupled load.
13) For a power amplifier D2=.1, D3=0.05, D4=0.02, I1=2A, RL=15Ω, find distortion,
fundamental component of power, total output power.
14) What is tuned amplifier, what is the class of tuned amplifier?

 Long answer questions.

UNIT-IV

1) Draw the circuit of transformer coupled Class-A power amplifier & explain its
operation & efficiency.
2) Explain with circuit operation of class-B push- pull audio power amplifier
3) Draw the circuit of tuned classC, power amplifier and explain its operation with wave
form, derive the expression for its output power and collector circuit efficiency.
4) Draw the schematic of two transistor class B, push pull amplifier and show that
Pcmax=.4Pmax.
5) Explain the performance of Class D power amplifier with neat circuit diagram.
6) For class B push pull providing 25Volts peak signal to 8Ω load and power supply
Vcc=25volts find input power , output power and circuit efficiency.
7) Distinguish between Class A, B,C,AB power amplifiers.
8) Describe the operation of class B, transformer less amplifier circuit.
 UNIT WISE ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
UNIT-IV

1. What is crossover distortion in power amplifier.

2. Explain class-D operation in power amplifier.
3. Find efficiency. Of transformer coupled class-A power amplifier.
4. Define conversion efficiency & collector efficiency of power amplifier.
5. State advantages of class-c amp. Over class-B amp.
6. In class- A power amp. Vce (max)=15V, Vce (min)=1V, find overall efficiency for
i) series fed load ii) transformer coupled
7. State advantages of complementary push-pull amplifier.
8. Draw circuit of class-B push pull power amp. & find its efficiency.
9. Explain the performance of class D power amplifier.
10. Draw the circuit of Class-c power amplifier & explain its operation & derive its
collector efficiency.