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A/D Conversion Time

 The process of A/D conversion requires a
small but finite interval of time that must be
taken into consideration when assessing the
accuracy of the results.

 The conversion time, also called settling time,

depends on
 the design of the converter
 the method used for conversion

 the speed of the components used in the electronic

design
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Aperture Time
 Aperture Time is the duration of the time window
which is associated with any error in the digital
output due to changes in the input during this
time.
 During the aperture time ΔTa , the input signal
changes by ΔV, where:

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Typical Aperture Times

 Sampling at or above the Nyquist frequency
will yield the correct frequency components in
a signal.
 However, to also obtain accurate amplitude
resolution, we must have an A/D converter
with a sufficiently small aperture time.
 It is often in the nanosecond range for 10- and
12-bit resolution.
 But how to calculate a suitable aperture time?

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Aperture Time Calculation

1 Let’s assume a sinusoidal: 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡

2 The time rate of change of the signal: 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡

3 With the maximum value of: 𝐴

4 The input voltage variation during

an aperture time ΔTa is: ∆𝑉 𝐴𝜔∆𝑇

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Aperture Time Calculation


5 To eliminate uncertainty in the value of the digital
output, ΔV must be less than the analog
quantization size:
2𝐴 total voltage range
∆𝑉
𝑁 number of output states

2𝐴
6 The limit of this constraint: ∆𝑉
𝑁

7 The required aperture time, if a ∆𝑉 2

sample and hold amplifier is not ∆𝑇
𝐴𝜔 𝑁𝜔
being used, is:
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Aperture Time: Example

 Converting a signal using 10-bit resolution,
which provides 210 (1024) output states.

 If the signal were speech (from a microphone)

with a bandwidth of 10 kHz, ΔTa would have to
be less than:

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Aperture Time: Example

 This is a very short required aperture time

compared to the required minimum sample
period given by 1/(210kHz)=50 s
 Even for this low-resolution converter, the
required aperture time (32 nsec) is much
smaller than the required sample period
(50,000 nsec).
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58 A/D Converters
Types and Design

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A/D Converter Design Types

 A/D converters are designed based on a
number of different principles:

A/D conversion methods

Single-slope
Flash or
Successive and dual- Switched
parallel Delta sigma
approximation slope capacitor
encoding
integration

The most often used methods

in commercial designs

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A/D Converters Comparing

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Successive Approximation Method

 The successive approximation A/D converter

is very widely used because it is relatively fast
and cheap.

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Successive Approximation Method

 When the start signal is applied, the sample

and hold (S&H) amplifier latches the analog
input.

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Successive Approximation Method

 Then the control unit begins an iterative process,

where the digital value is approximated, converted
to an analog value with the D/A converter, and
compared to the analog input with the comparator.

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Successive Approximation Method

 When the D/A output equals the analog input, the

end signal is set by the control unit, and the
correct digital output is available at the output.

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Successive Approximation Method

 If n is the resolution of the A/D converter, it takes n

steps to complete the conversion.

 The input is compared to combinations of binary

fractions (1/2, 1/4, 1/8, . . . , 1/2n) of the full-scale
(FS) value of the A/D converter.

 The control unit first turns on the MSB of the

register, leaving all lesser bits at 0, and the
comparator tests the DAC output against the
analog input.

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Successive Approximation Method

 If the analog input exceeds the DAC output, the

MSB is left on (high); otherwise, it is reset to 0.

 This procedure is then applied to the next lesser

significant bit and the comparison is made again.

 After n comparisons have occurred, the converter

is down to the least significant bit (LSB).

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Example of Successive Approximation Method

 The MSB is 1/2 FS, which in this case is greater than the signal;
therefore, the MSB is turned off.
 The second bit is 1/4 FS and is less than the signal, so it is left on.
 The third bit gives 1/4+1/8 of FS, which is still less than the analog
signal, so the third bit is left on.
 The fourth provides 1/4+1/8+1/16 of FS and is greater than the
signal, so the fourth bit is turned off and the conversion is complete.
 The digital result is 0110.
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Successive Approximation Method

 The output of the DAC then represents the

best digital approximation to the analog input.

 When the process terminates, the control unit

sets the end signal signifying the end of the
conversion

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Successive Approximation Method

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A/D Conversion Time

 An n-bit successive approximation A/D
converter has a conversion time of nΔT, where
ΔT is the cycle time for the D/A converter and
control unit.

 Typical conversion times for 8-, 10-, and 12-bit

successive approximation A/D converters
range from 1 to 100 s.

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Class Discussion

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Flash A/D Converter

 The fastest type of A/D A 2-bit converter
converter is known as a having a
resolution of 4
flash converter. output states
 It consists of a bank of
input comparators acting
in parallel to identify the
signal level.
 The output of the latches
is in a coded form easily
converted to the required
binary output with
combinational logic.

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Flash A/D Converter

2.5
4

L
3
0
H 1
2
1
H 0
1
1

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Flash A/D Converter

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Logic Code Converter

 The voltage range is set by the Vmin and Vmax supply

voltages (0 V and 4 V in this example).
 For the 2-bit converter, the relationships between the
code bits Gi and the binary bits Bi are

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Adding More Resolution to Flash A/D Converter

 Adding more resolution is a simple matter of

adding more resistors, comparators, and
latches.
 The combinational logic code converter would
also be different.
 Unlike with the successive approximation
converter, adding resolution does not increase
the conversion time.

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Multiplexed A/D Converter

 Several analog signals can be digitized by a single
A/D converter if the analog signals are multiplexed at
the input to the A/D converter.
 An analog multiplexer simply switches among several
analog inputs using transistors or relays and control
signals.
 This can significantly reduce the cost of a system’s
design.

https://www.analog.com/en/analog-dialogue/articles/demystifying-data-acquisition-systems.html

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Selecting an A/D Converter

Input
Output Conversion
Cost voltage
resolution time
range

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79 Digital-to-Analog Conversion

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Need for Digital-to-Analog Conversion

 Often, we need to reverse the process of A/D

conversion by changing a digital value to an
analog voltage.

 This is called digital-to-analog (D/A) conversion.

 A D/A converter allows a computer or other digital

device to interface with external analog circuits
and devices.

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Resistor Ladder Network D/A

 The simplest type of D/A converter is a resistor ladder
network connected to an inverting summation op-amp
circuit.
 This particular converter is a 4-bit R-2R resistor ladder
network, which requires only two precision resistance
values (R and 2R).

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Resistor Ladder Network D/A

 The digital input to this 4-bit DAC is a 4-bit binary
number represented by bits b0, b1, b2, and b3,
where b0 is the LSB and b3 is the MSB.
 Each bit in the circuit controls a switch between
ground and the inverting input of the op-amp.
tutorials.ws/opamp/opamp_8.html
https://www.electronics-

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Resistor Ladder Network D/A Analysis

 We can analyze the four different input combinations 0001,

0010, 0100, and 1000 and apply the principle of
superposition for an arbitrary 4-bit binary number.
 If the binary number is 0001, the b0 switch is connected to the
op-amp, and the other bit switches are grounded.

𝑅 1
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛
2𝑅 2

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Resistor Ladder Network D/A Analysis

 0001  0100

 0010  1000

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Resistor Ladder Network D/A Analysis

 The output for any combination of bits

comprising the input binary number can now
be found using the principle of superposition:

 If Vs is 10V, the output

ranges from 0 to (-15/16)
10 V for the 4-bit binary
input, which has 16 values
ranging from 0000 (0) to
1111 (15).

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Negative Output Issue

 A negative reference voltage Vs can be used to
produce a positive output voltage range.

 Either case yields a unipolar output, which is

either positive or negative but not both.

 A bipolar output, which ranges over negative and

positive values, can be produced by replacing all
ground references in the circuit with a reference
voltage whose sign is opposite to Vs.

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Class Discussion

??

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Threaded Design Example

 DC motor power-op-amp speed controller—
D/A converter interface

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Threaded Design Example

https://reviseomatic.org/rOmV4/rOmV4/page/136/PIC16F88

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ADC/DAC in Mechatronic Control Systems

 An analog voltage signal from a sensor (e.g., a

thermocouple) is converted to a digital value, the
computer uses this value in a control algorithm, and the
computer outputs an analog signal to an actuator (e.g.,
an electric motor) to cause some change in the system
being controlled.

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Class Discussion 8.6

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Class Discussion 8.7

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93 Virtual Instrumentation, DAQ, & Control

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What is a Virtual Instrument

 It consists of a PC equipped with DAQ
hardware and software to perform the
functions of traditional instruments.

Virtual Instrument

PC DAQ Hardware Software

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Why Virtual Instruments?

 Stand-alone traditional instruments such as oscilloscopes and
waveform generators are very powerful, but they can be very
expensive and sometimes limiting.
 The user generally cannot extend or customize the
instrument’s functionality.
 The knobs and buttons on the instrument, the built-in circuitry,
and the functions available to the user are all specific to the
instrument.

https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/test-methods/signal-generators/what-is-a-signal-generator.php

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Virtual Instrument
 Virtual instrumentation provides an alternative.
 Software is the most important component of a
virtual instrument.
 Itcan be used to create custom applications by
designing and integrating the routines that a
particular process requires.
 The software also allows one to create an
appropriate user interface that best suits the
purpose of the application and the users who will
interact with it.
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The LabVIEW
 The Laboratory Virtual Instrument Engineering
Workbench (LabVIEW) is a software from
National Instruments.

 It is an example of an easy-to-use application

development environment designed specifically
for creating virtual instruments.

 LabVIEW offers powerful features that make

connecting to a wide variety of hardware and
other software easy.

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Graphical Programming Environment

 One of the most powerful features of LabVIEW

is its graphical programming environment.

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Graphical User Interface (GUI)

 Custom GUIs can be designed to allow a user to

do all the following on the PC screen:
 Operate the instrumentation program
 Control selected hardware
 Analyze acquired data
 Display results graphically

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Front Panel and Block Diagram

https://www.ni.com

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Virtual Front Panels

 One can customize virtual front panels with knobs,
buttons, dials, and graphs to emulate control panels of
traditional instruments, create custom test panels, or
visually represent the control and operation of
processes.

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Model-based Control System Design

 LabVIEW, in addition to its virtual instrumentation

and data acquisition capabilities, provides many
tools for model-based control system design.

https://zone.ni.com/reference/en-XX/help/372458D-01/lvsysidconcepts/model-based_cd/

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Model-based Control System Design Tools

 Tools are available for

 Characterizing (modeling) a system through data
acquisition of test data (a process called system
identification)
 Designing a controller for a system
 Simulating how the system will respond to various
control inputs
 Embedding the controller into hardware to
perform real-time control.

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104 DAQ Module Example

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USB 6009

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USB 6009 Pin Assignment

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USB 6009 Signal Description

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Eastern Mediterranean University

Thank you!
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