Data Mining:

Concepts and Techniques

(3rd ed.)

— Chapter 4 —

Jiawei Han, Micheline Kamber, and Jian Pei

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign &
Simon Fraser University
©2011 Han, Kamber & Pei. All rights reserved.

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Chapter 4: Data Warehousing and On-line Analytical
Processing

■ Data Warehouse: Basic Concepts

■ Data Warehouse Modeling: Data Cube and OLAP
■ Data Warehouse Design and Usage
■ Data Warehouse Implementation
■ Data Generalization by Attribute-Oriented
Induction
■ Summary

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 What is a Data Warehouse?
■ Defined in many different ways, but not rigorously.
■ A decision support database that is maintained separately from
the organization’s operational database
■ Support information processing by providing a solid platform of
consolidated, historical data for analysis.
■ “A data warehouse is a subject-oriented, integrated, time-variant,
and nonvolatile collection of data in support of management’s
decision-making process.”—W. H. Inmon
■ Data warehousing:
■ The process of constructing and using data warehouses

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 Data Warehouse—Subject-Oriented

■ Organized around major subjects, such as customer,

product, sales
■ Focusing on the modeling and analysis of data for
decision makers, not on daily operations or transaction
processing
■ Provide a simple and concise view around particular
subject issues by excluding data that are not useful in
the decision support process

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 Data Warehouse—Integrated

■ Constructed by integrating multiple, heterogeneous data

sources
■ relational databases, flat files, on-line transaction

records
■ Data cleaning and data integration techniques are
applied.
■ Ensure consistency in naming conventions, encoding

structures, attribute measures, etc. among different

data sources
■ E.g., Hotel price: currency, tax, breakfast covered, etc.
■ When data is moved to the warehouse, it is
converted.

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 Data Warehouse—Time Variant

■ The time horizon for the data warehouse is significantly

longer than that of operational systems
■ Operational database: current value data
■ Data warehouse data: provide information from a
historical perspective (e.g., past 5-10 years)
■ Every key structure in the data warehouse
■ Contains an element of time, explicitly or implicitly
■ But the key of operational data may or may not
contain “time element”

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 Data Warehouse—Nonvolatile

■ A physically separate store of data transformed from the

operational environment
■ Operational update of data does not occur in the data
warehouse environment
■ Does not require transaction processing, recovery,
and concurrency control mechanisms
■ Requires only two operations in data accessing:
■ initial loading of data and access of data

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OLTP vs. OLAP

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 Why a Separate Data Warehouse?
■ High performance for both systems
■ DBMS— tuned for OLTP: access methods, indexing, concurrency
control, recovery
■ Warehouse—tuned for OLAP: complex OLAP queries,
multidimensional view, consolidation
■ Different functions and different data:
■ missing data: Decision support requires historical data which
operational DBs do not typically maintain
■ data consolidation: DS requires consolidation (aggregation,
summarization) of data from heterogeneous sources
■ data quality: different sources typically use inconsistent data
representations, codes and formats which have to be reconciled
■ Note: There are more and more systems which perform OLAP
analysis directly on relational databases
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Data Warehouse: A Multi-Tiered Architecture

Monitor
& OLAP Server
Other Metadata
Integrato
sources r
Analysis
Operational Extract Query
DBs Transform Data Serv Reports
Load e
Refresh
Warehous Data
e mining

Data Marts

Data Sources Data Storage OLAP Engine Front-End Tools

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 Three Data Warehouse Models
■ Enterprise warehouse
■ collects all of the information about subjects spanning

the entire organization

■ Data Mart
■ a subset of corporate-wide data that is of value to a

specific groups of users. Its scope is confined to

specific, selected groups, such as marketing data mart
■ Independent vs. dependent (directly from warehouse) data mart
■ Virtual warehouse
■ A set of views over operational databases

■ Only some of the possible summary views may be

materialized
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 Extraction, Transformation, and Loading (ETL)
■ Data extraction
■ get data from multiple, heterogeneous, and external
sources
■ Data cleaning
■ detect errors in the data and rectify them when possible

■ Data transformation
■ convert data from legacy or host format to warehouse
format
■ Load
■ sort, summarize, consolidate, compute views, check
integrity, and build indicies and partitions
■ Refresh
■ propagate the updates from the data sources to the

warehouse
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 Metadata Repository
■ Meta data is the data defining warehouse objects. It stores:
■ Description of the structure of the data warehouse
■ schema, view, dimensions, hierarchies, derived data defn, data
mart locations and contents
■ Operational meta-data
■ data lineage (history of migrated data and transformation path),
currency of data (active, archived, or purged), monitoring
information (warehouse usage statistics, error reports, audit trails)
■ The algorithms used for summarization
■ The mapping from operational environment to the data warehouse
■ Data related to system performance
■ warehouse schema, view and derived data definitions

■ Business data
■ business terms and definitions, ownership of data, charging policies
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Chapter 4: Data Warehousing and On-line Analytical
Processing

■ Data Warehouse: Basic Concepts

■ Data Warehouse Modeling: Data Cube and OLAP
■ Data Warehouse Design and Usage
■ Data Warehouse Implementation
■ Data Generalization by Attribute-Oriented
Induction
■ Summary

14
 From Tables and Spreadsheets to
Data Cubes
■ A data warehouse is based on a multidimensional data model
which views data in the form of a data cube
■ A data cube, such as sales, allows data to be modeled and viewed in
multiple dimensions
■ Dimension tables, such as item (item_name, brand, type), or
time(day, week, month, quarter, year)
■ Fact table contains measures (such as dollars_sold) and keys
to each of the related dimension tables
■ In data warehousing literature, an n-D base cube is called a base
cuboid. The top most 0-D cuboid, which holds the highest-level of
summarization, is called the apex cuboid. The lattice of cuboids
forms a data cube.
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 Cube: A Lattice of Cuboids

all
0-D (apex) cuboid

time item location supplier

1-D cuboids

time,location item,location location,supplier

time,item 2-D cuboids
time,supplier item,supplier

time,location,supplier
3-D cuboids
time,item,location
time,item,supplier item,location,supplier

4-D (base) cuboid

time, item, location, supplier

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 Conceptual Modeling of Data Warehouses

■ Modeling data warehouses: dimensions & measures

■ Star schema: A fact table in the middle connected to a
set of dimension tables
■ Snowflake schema: A refinement of star schema
where some dimensional hierarchy is normalized into a
set of smaller dimension tables, forming a shape
similar to snowflake
■ Fact constellations: Multiple fact tables share
dimension tables, viewed as a collection of stars,
therefore called galaxy schema or fact constellation

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 Example of Star Schema
time
time_key item
day item_key
day_of_the_week Sales Fact Table item_name
month brand
quarter time_key type
year supplier_type
item_key
branch_key
branch location
branch_key location_key
location_key street
branch_name units_sold
branch_type city
dollars_sold state_or_province
country

Measures avg_sales

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 Example of Snowflake Schema
time
time_key item
day item_key supplier
day_of_the_week Sales Fact Table item_name supplier_key
month brand supplier_type
quarter time_key type
year item_key supplier_key

branch_key
branch location
location_key
branch_key location_key
units_sold street
branch_name
city_key
branch_type
dollars_sold city
city_key
city
Measures avg_sales state_or_province
country

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 Example of Fact Constellation
time
time_key item Shipping Fact Table
day item_key
day_of_the_week Sales Fact Table item_name time_key
month brand
quarter time_key type item_key
year supplier_type shipper_key
item_key
branch_key from_location

branch location_key location to_location

branch_key location_key dollars_cost
branch_name
units_sold
street
branch_type dollars_sold city units_shipped
province_or_state
avg_sales country shipper
Measures shipper_key
shipper_name
location_key
shipper_type 20
 A Concept Hierarchy:
Dimension (location)

all all

region Europe ... North_America

country Germany ... Spain Canada ... Mexico

city Frankfurt ... Vancouver ... Toronto

office L. Chan ... M. Wind

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 A Sample Data Cube

Total annual sales

Date of TVs in U.S.A.
1Qtr 2Qtr 3Qtr 4Qtr sum
TV
PC U.S.A
VCR

Country
sum
Canada

Mexico

sum

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 Cuboids Corresponding to the Cube

all
0-D (apex) cuboid
product date country
1-D cuboids

product,date product,country date, country

2-D cuboids

3-D (base) cuboid

product, date, country

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 Typical OLAP Operations
■ Roll up (drill-up): summarize data
■ by climbing up hierarchy or by dimension reduction
■ Drill down (roll down): reverse of roll-up
■ from higher level summary to lower level summary or
detailed data, or introducing new dimensions
■ Slice and dice: project and select
■ Pivot (rotate):
■ reorient the cube, visualization, 3D to series of 2D planes
■ Other operations
■ drill across: involving (across) more than one fact table
■ drill through: through the bottom level of the cube to its
back-end relational tables (using SQL)

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Fig. 3.10 Typical OLAP
Operations

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Example

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Example

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ETL vs ELT

Used in Power BI
or Data
Warehouse
Solutions

Used in cloud
technologies.
E.g. Data Lakes

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29
30
Example Database

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 References (I)
■ S. Agarwal, R. Agrawal, P. M. Deshpande, A. Gupta, J. F. Naughton, R. Ramakrishnan, and S.
Sarawagi. On the computation of multidimensional aggregates. VLDB’96
■ D. Agrawal, A. E. Abbadi, A. Singh, and T. Yurek. Efficient view maintenance in data
warehouses. SIGMOD’97
■ R. Agrawal, A. Gupta, and S. Sarawagi. Modeling multidimensional databases. ICDE’97
■ S. Chaudhuri and U. Dayal. An overview of data warehousing and OLAP technology. ACM
SIGMOD Record, 26:65-74, 1997
■ E. F. Codd, S. B. Codd, and C. T. Salley. Beyond decision support. Computer World, 27, July
1993.
■ J. Gray, et al. Data cube: A relational aggregation operator generalizing group-by, cross-tab
and sub-totals. Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery, 1:29-54, 1997.
■ A. Gupta and I. S. Mumick. Materialized Views: Techniques, Implementations, and
Applications. MIT Press, 1999.
■ J. Han. Towards on-line analytical mining in large databases. ACM SIGMOD Record, 27:97-107,
1998.
■ V. Harinarayan, A. Rajaraman, and J. D. Ullman. Implementing data cubes efficiently.
SIGMOD’96
■ J. Hellerstein, P. Haas, and H. Wang. Online aggregation. SIGMOD'97
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 References (II)
■ C. Imhoff, N. Galemmo, and J. G. Geiger. Mastering Data Warehouse Design: Relational and
Dimensional Techniques. John Wiley, 2003
■ W. H. Inmon. Building the Data Warehouse. John Wiley, 1996
■ R. Kimball and M. Ross. The Data Warehouse Toolkit: The Complete Guide to Dimensional
Modeling. 2ed. John Wiley, 2002
■ P. O’Neil and G. Graefe. Multi-table joins through bitmapped join indices. SIGMOD Record, 24:8–
11, Sept. 1995.
■ P. O'Neil and D. Quass. Improved query performance with variant indexes. SIGMOD'97
■ Microsoft. OLEDB for OLAP programmer's reference version 1.0. In
http://www.microsoft.com/data/oledb/olap, 1998
■ S. Sarawagi and M. Stonebraker. Efficient organization of large multidimensional arrays. ICDE'94
■ A. Shoshani. OLAP and statistical databases: Similarities and differences. PODS’00.
■ D. Srivastava, S. Dar, H. V. Jagadish, and A. V. Levy. Answering queries with aggregation using
views. VLDB'96
■ P. Valduriez. Join indices. ACM Trans. Database Systems, 12:218-246, 1987.
■ J. Widom. Research problems in data warehousing. CIKM’95
■ K. Wu, E. Otoo, and A. Shoshani, Optimal Bitmap Indices with Efficient Compression, ACM Trans.
on Database Systems (TODS), 31(1): 1-38, 2006

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Surplus Slides

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 Compression of Bitmap Indices
■ Bitmap indexes must be compressed to reduce I/O costs
and minimize CPU usage—majority of the bits are 0’s
■ Two compression schemes:
■ Byte-aligned Bitmap Code (BBC)
■ Word-Aligned Hybrid (WAH) code
■ Time and space required to operate on compressed
bitmap is proportional to the total size of the bitmap
■ Optimal on attributes of low cardinality as well as those of
high cardinality.
■ WAH out performs BBC by about a factor of two
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