Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics

2.4. Buoyant Force and Center of Buoyancy

When an object is submerged in a fluid, the pressure acting on the object deeper in the fluid (i.e., in the
direction of gravity) will be larger than the pressure acting on the object shallower in the fluid. As a result,
there will be a net pressure force acting on the object. This net pressure force is known as the buoyant force.
To derive the value of the buoyant force, consider the vertical pressure forces acting on a narrow cylinder
with cross-sectional area dA within a fully-submerged object as shown in Figure 2.17.

Figure 2.17. Pressure forces on a thin cylinder of cross-sectional area dA and height l from
within a fully-submerged object.

The net pressure force in the vertical direction on the narrow cylinder, assuming an incompressible fluid, is,
dFp,net = (p + ⇢fluid gl)dA pdA = ⇢fluid gldA (acting opposite to gravity). (2.78)
The total net pressure force acting on the object is found by integrating these small bits of pressure force
over the entire cross-sectional area of the object,
ˆ ˆ
Fp,net = dFp,net = ⇢fluid gldA (acting opposite to gravity). (2.79)
A A
Since the density and gravity are assumed constant here, they may be pulled outside the integral,
ˆ
Fp,net = ⇢fluid g ldA (acting opposite to gravity), (2.80)
ˆA
= ⇢fluid g dV (acting opposite to gravity), (2.81)
V

Fp,net = FB = ⇢fluid gVsubmerged (acting opposite to gravity), (2.82)

object
where the integral is simply the volume of the submerged object. This net pressure force acting on the object
is referred to as the buoyant force.
Notes:
(1) Equation (2.82) states that the buoyant force is equal to the weight of the fluid that’s been displaced
by the submerged object. This relationship is also known as Archimede’s Principle.
(2) The same analysis can be used for partially submerged objects. In that case, the pressure acting
on the top of the object is atmospheric pressure while the pressure at the bottom is patm + ⇢fluid gl0 ,
where l0 is the length of the narrow cylinder that’s submerged in the fluid (Figure 2.18). After
integrating over the objects cross-sectional area (similar to Eq. (2.80), we would arrive at exactly
the same relation as in Eq. (2.82) except that the Vsubmerged object refers to just that volume that is
submerged in the fluid.

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 Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics

Figure 2.18. Pressure forces on a thin cylinder of cross-sectional area dA. The depth of
the cylinder below the free surface is l0 .

(3) There is no net pressure force on the object in the directions perpendicular to gravity since the
pressure only varies parallel to the gravitational vector.
The resultant buoyant force acts at the center of buoyancy. The center of buoyancy is found by equating the
moment caused by the resultant buoyant force acting at the center of buoyancy to the distributed moment
caused by the distributed pressure forces. Consider moments about the z axis in Figure 2.19.

Figure 2.19. Moments about the z axis due to the pressure forces acting on a thin cylinder
of cross-sectional area dA and height l from within a fully-submerged object.

ˆ
xCB î ⇥ ⇢gV ĵ = xî ⇥ ⇢gldAĵ , (2.83)
| {z } A | {z }
buoyant net pressure force
force on cylinder
ˆ
xCB ⇢gV k̂ = ⇢g k̂ xdV (dV = ldA), (2.84)
A
1
ˆ
xCB = xdV, (2.85)
V V
which is the center of displaced volume. Performing similar analyses about the x and y axes produces similar
results. Thus, the center of buoyancy is located at the center of the displaced volume. This is true for both
fully submerged and partially submerged objects.

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 Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics

2.5. Stable Orientation of a Submerged Object

Submerged objects will be in an equilibrium orientation when the forces acting on the object are such
that there is no net moment on the object. Considering only the object weight and a buoyant force, an
equilibrium orientation will only occur when the two forces are co-linear, as shown in Figure 2.20. Neither
object experiences a net moment.

Figure 2.20. The buoyant force, acting at the center of buoyancy, and weight, acting at
the center of gravity, for two fully-submerged objects in equilibrium. The object on the left
is stable, but the object on the right is unstable.

The object on the left is in a stable equilibrium while the object on the right is in an unstable equilibrium.
The reason for the di↵erence is that if each object is rotated slightly, the object on the left will experience a
moment that restores it back to its original configuration. However, a small perturbation to the right-hand
object will result in a moment that will cause the object to move away from its initial configuration.
The stability of partially submerged objects is a particularly important topic when considering the design
of ships. The Swedish ship Vasa is a famous example of a ship that was unstable and “turtled” shortly
after setting sail for the first time. Unfortunately, stability analysis of partially submerged objects can be
complicated since the submerged volume and center of buoyancy changes as the orientation of the object
rotates. For example, consider the stability of the simple shape shown in Figure 2.21 (CG is the center of
gravity and CB is the center of buoyancy). The initial configuration of the object (on the left) appears to be

Figure 2.21. The center of buoyancy and center of gravity for a partially-submerged object.
The center of buoyancy changes location as the submerged volume changes.

in unstable equilibrium with the center of gravity above the center of buoyancy. However, when the object
is tilted (on the right), the center of buoyancy shifts to one side such that it acts to restore the object to its
initial configuration. Hence, the object is actually initially in stable equilibrium.

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 Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics statics_02

A tank is divided by a wall into two independent chambers. The left chamber is filled to a depth of HL=6m
with water (rH20=1000 kg/m3) and the right side if filled to a depth of HR=5m with an unknown fluid. A
wooden cube (SGwood=0.6) with a length of L=0.20m on each side floats half submerged in the unknown
fluid. Air (rair=1.2 kg/m3) fills the remainder of the container above each fluid. The right container has a
pipe that is vented to the atmosphere while the left container is sealed from the atmosphere. A manometer
using mercury as the gage fluid (SGHg=13.6) connects the two chambers and indicates that h=0.150 m.
a. Determine the density of the unknown fluid.
b. Determine the magnitude of the force (per unit depth into the page) acting on the dividing wall due
to the unknown fluid.
c. Determine the magnitude of the force (per unit depth into the page) acting on the dividing wall due
to the water.

mercury (SGHg=13.6)

h
vent to the atmosphere (patm = 101 kPa (abs))
wooden cube (SGwood=0.6)
of length L on a side
air air
L
½L

HL water
unknown fluid HR

dividing wall

SOLUTION:

Balance forces on the wooden cube.

å ( )
Fy = 0 = rfluid g 12 L L2 - r wood gL3 (1)
\ rfluid = 2 r wood = 2SGwood r H 2O (2)
Using the given data:
SGwood = 0.6
rH2O = 1000 kg/m3
Þ rfluid = 1200 kg/m3

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 Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics statics_02

Now determine the force acting on the wall due to the unknown fluid.
y=HR

Fp , R = ò
y =0
("##
patm + rfluid gy ) dy (1)
$##% !
(3)
= p ( abs ) = dA

\ Fp , R = patm H R + 12 rfluid gH R2 (4)

Using the given data:
patm = 101 kPa (abs)
HR = 5m
rfluid = 1200 kg/m3
g = 9.81 m/s2
Þ Fp,R = 506 kN/m

Now find the pressure force due to the water.

y=HL

Fp , L = ò ("#
y =0
p + r gy ) dy (1)
L
#$## %!
H2O
= dA
(5)
= p ( abs )

\ Fp , L = pL H L + 12 r H 2O gH L2 (6)
where pL is the (absolute) pressure acting on the free surface of the water. This pressure may be found
using the manometer.
mercury (SGHg=13.6)
pL = patm + r Hg gh = patm + SGHg r H O gh (7)
2

Substitute Eqn. (7) into Eqn. (6). h

(
\ Fp , L = patm + SGHg r H O gh H L +
2
) 1
2
rH 2O gH L2 (8)
Using the given data:
patm = 101 kPa (abs) pL patm
SGHg = 13.6
rH2O = 1000 kg/m3
g = 9.81 m/s2
h = 0.150 m
HL = 6m
Þ Fp,L = 903 kN/m

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Solution: We will apply the hydrostatics equations to this system.

Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics buoyancy_10

Governing Equations: Fbuoy = ρ⋅ g⋅ Vd (Buoyant force is equal to weight of displaced fluid)

A hydrometer is a specific gravity indicator, the value being indicate by the level at which the free
Assumptions: (1) Static fluid
surface intersects the stem when floating in a liquid. The 1.0 mark is the level when in distilled
(2) Incompressible fluid
water. For the unit shown, the immersed volume in distilled water is 15 cm3. The stem is 6 mm in
diameter. Find the distance, h, from the 1.0 mark to the surface when the hydrometer is placed in a
nitric acid solution of of
specific gravity 1.5. ΣF = 0 −M⋅ g + F
Taking a free body diagram the hydrometer: z buoy = 0

Fbuoy
Solving for the mass of the hydrometer: M= = ρ⋅ V d
g

When immersed in water: M = ρw⋅ Vw When immersed in nitric acid: M = ρn⋅ Vn

SOLUTION:
Since the hydrometer is in equilibrium, its weight and the buoyant force should equal each other. When submerged
in distilled water,
Since the mass of the hydrometer is the same)in "both cases: +ρw ⋅ V w = ρn⋅ V n
! = #!"# $%$%&',!"# = #!"# $ℎ ' => ℎ = *
$ ", (1)
,!"# - % $
where A is the hydrometer’s cross-sectional area. The height h is the location where the mark is made for distilled
π 2
the hydrometer is in the nitric acid: Vn = Vw − ⋅ d ⋅ h ρn = SG⋅ ρw
Whenwater.
4
When submerged in nitric acid,
π 2
Therefore:! ρ= '⋅ ρ(ℎ
) " + +
w⋅#V!.#
w = &
$SG
* w⋅ +VΔℎ)
w − 4=> ⋅ d ℎ⋅ h+ ΔℎSolving
= for$the =
,!'#& - % $ "
height h: $ .
/0!'#& ,!"# - % $ "
(2)
Combining Eqs. (1) and (2),
+ π 2 + π 2
Vw-$%−$" +⋅ dΔℎ⋅ h= /0!'#V
Vw = SG,⋅ !"# & ,w
⋅ ( 1-−
!"# %
,
$ " ) = −SG⋅ ⋅ d ⋅ h
$ SG (3)
4 + + 4
Δℎ = $ " − $ ", (4)
/0!'#& ,!"# - % $ ,!"# - % $
3
SG − 1 + 4 - 1 − 1/, 3 1.5 − 1 4 10⋅ mm
h = Vw⋅ Δℎ = ,!"#
⋅ -$$" /0!'# h = 15⋅ cm h = 177⋅ mm (5)
SG 2 1.5 2 cm
,!"#π π ( 6⋅ mm)
% &
⋅ d()*+,!"#
-2 1
Δℎ = $ " - − 1/, (6)
,!"# - % $ /0!'#&
2()*+,!"# 1
Δℎ = $ " -/0 − 1/. (7)
%
$ !'#&

Using the given data,

Vdisp,H2O = 15 cm3,
d = 0.6 cm,
SGHNO3 = 1.5,
=> Dh = -17.7 cm.
The hydrometer moves upward a distance of 17.7 cm from where the distilled water mark is located.

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 Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics buoyancy_08

A uniform block of steel (with a specific gravity of 7.85) will “float” at a mercury-water interface as shown
in the figure. What is the ratio of the distances a and b?

water
steel block a
b
mercury

SOLUTION:

Balance forces in the vertical direction,

∑ FV = 0 = −Wblock + FB,Hg + FB,H 2O = − ρblockVblock g + ρ HgVblock, g + ρ H 2OVblock, g ,
in Hg in H 2O
(1)

where the buoyant forces are equal to the weights of the displaced fluids.

Re-writing in terms of the lengths a and b and the block’s cross-sectional area Ablock,
− ρblock Ablock ( a + b ) + ρ Hg Ablock b + ρ H 2O Ablock a = 0 , (2)
− ρsteel ( a + b ) + ρ Hgb + ρ H 2O a = 0 , (3)
⎛a ⎞ a
− ρ H 2O SGsteelb ⎜ + 1⎟ + ρ H 2O SGHg + ρ H 2Ob = 0 , (4)
⎝b ⎠ b
⎛a ⎞ a
−SGsteel ⎜ + 1⎟ + SGHg + = 0 , (5)
⎝b ⎠ b
a SGHg − SGsteel
= . (6)
b SGsteel − 1

Using the given data,

SGHg = 13.6
SGsteel = 7.85
Þ a/b = 0.83

Note that we could also solve this problem by balancing the block’s weight with the pressure forces acting
on the top and bottom block surfaces.
∑ FV = 0 = −Wblock + Fp,H O + Fp,Hg = − ρblock Ablock ( a + b ) g − ρ H O g ( H − a ) Ablock + ( ρ H O gH + ρ Hg gb ) Ablock ,
2 2 2
(7)
where H is the depth of the water-mercury interface. Simplifying this equation gives,
− ρblock ( a + b ) − ρ H 2O ( H − a ) + ρ H 2O H + ρ Hgb = 0 , (8)
− ρblock ( a + b ) + ρ H 2O a + ρ Hgb = 0 , (9)
which is exactly the same as Eq. (3).

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 Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics buoyancy_04

Archimedes principle states that the buoyant force acting on a submerged object is equal to the weight of
the fluid displaced by that object. Is this true for compressible fluids?

SOLUTION:
Consider an arbitrary object immersed in a compressible fluid as shown in the figure below.

z
p2dA

dA g

p1dA
Determine the net pressure force acting on a parallelpiped of the material with a differential cross-sectional
area,
dFP = ( p1 - p2 ) dA , (1)
where,
z=z1

p1 = pz=0 +
z=0
∫ ρ g dz , (2)

and,
z=z2

p2 = pz=0 + ∫
z=0
ρ g dz , (3)

where r is the density of the fluid (not the object).

Equation (1) becomes,

⎛ z=z1 z=z2 ⎞
dFP = ⎜ pz=0 +
⎜⎝ z=0
∫
ρ g dz − pz=0 −
z=0
⎟⎠ ∫
ρ g dz ⎟ dA , (4)

z = z1

dFP = dA ò
z = z2
r gdz . (5)

The net pressure force acting over the entire object, i.e., the buoyant force, is,
z = z1

ò
FP = dFP =
A
òò
A z = z2
r gdzdA . (6)

Assuming that the gravitational acceleration is constant (usually a good assumption),

z=z1

FP = g ∫∫
A z=z2
ρ dzdA , (7)

Note that the integrals in the previous equation give the mass of the fluid displaced by the object, i.e.,
z=z1

M fluid displaced =
by object
∫∫
A z=z2
ρ dzdA . (8)

Thus, just as with the incompressible case, the buoyant force in a compressible fluid is equal to the weight
of the fluid displaced by the object,
Fp = Mfluid displaced g . (9)
by object

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Video solution: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zFZCbszq0U4

Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics statics_20

Consider an ice cube with initial volume Vice,0 floating in a cup of water of
initial volume Vwater,0. The specific gravity of ice is SGice. Show
mathematically that, as the ice cube melts, the water level in the cup
remains unchanged.

SOLUTION:
If a mass of ice, Dmice, melts (Dmice < 0), it will correspond to an equal increase in water, Dmwater, i.e.,
Δm = −Δmice . (1)
! water
Expressed in terms of volumes,
ρ ΔV = − ρ ice ΔVice = −SGice ρ water ΔVice , (2)
! water water
ΔV = −SGice ΔVice . (3)
! water

The volume of water displaced by the ice is found by equating the weight of the displaced water to
the weight of the ice (Archimedes Law),
ρ V g = ρ iceVice g = SGice ρ waterVice g , (4)
! water water,disp
V = SGiceVice . (5)
! water,disp
Thus, if a volume of ice melts, DVice, then the amount of water displaced, in order to balance the new
ice weight, is,
ΔV = SGice ΔVice . (6)
! water,disp
Note that if the ice melts (DVice < 0) , less water needs to be displaced to support the (smaller) ice
weight (DVwater,disp < 0).

Thus, the sum of the volume of water added due to melting and the change in displaced water volume
due to a change in the weight of the ice is,
ΔV + ΔVwater,disp = −SGice ΔVice + SGice ΔVice = 0 . (7)
! water
The increase in water volume is exactly balanced by a decrease in the displaced water volume, which
means that the water level height won’t change!

This fact has important implications regarding the rise in sea level due to melting ice. Melting free-
floating ice, e.g., icebergs, won’t result in an increase in sea level. However, ice that was originally
supported by land, e.g., glaciers, will contribute to an increase in sea levels.

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 Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics statics_19

Consider the system shown below. A wooden sphere of radius R and specific gravity SGwood is half
submerged in an unknown liquid, referred to as liquid A. Liquid A, which has a depth HA, is separated
from a pool of water, which has a depth HH2O, by a hinged gate tilted at an angle q with respect to the
horizontal. The gate has a width b into the page.

R
g hinge
q R

HA
HH20
water liquid A

a. What is the density of liquid A, rA, in terms of the specific gravity of the wooden sphere (SGwood) and
the density of water (rH20)?
b. What is the pressure force liquid A exerts on the inclined gate in terms of (a subset of) rA, HA, g, b, and
q? Write this force as a vector.
c. Assuming the gate has negligible mass and the angle q is 90° so the gate is vertical (figure shown
below), at what height HH20 will the gate just start to rotate about its hinge? Write this height in terms
of (a subset of) rA, rH20, HA, g, and b.

HA
HH20

SOLUTION:

The density of liquid A may be found by balancing the weight of the wooden sphere with the buoyant force
acting on it,
FW = FB ⇒ ρwood 43 π R 3g = ρ A 12 43 π R 3 g ⇒ ρ A = 2 ρwood , (1)

half of the
sphere is
submerged

ρ A = 2SGwood ρH20 . (2)

The force that liquid A exerts on the gate may be found by integrating pressure forces along the length of
the gate, x
FA on gate = ∫ − p dA , q (3)
A
y
where,
HA dy
p = ρ A gy (gage pressure), (4)
dA = bdy î − bdxĵ , dx (5)
L
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 Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics statics_19

so that,
⎛ y=H A ⎞
( )
x=L

FA on gate = ∫ − ( ρ A gy ) bdy î − bdxĵ = ρ A gb ⎜ − î ∫ y dy + ĵ ∫ y dx ⎟ . (6)

A ⎝ y=0 x=0 ⎠
Note that,
y = x tan θ and H A = L tan θ , (7)
so that Eq. (6) becomes,
⎛ y=H A x=H A tanθ
⎞
FA on gate = ρ A gb ⎜ − î ∫ y dy + ĵ ∫ x tan θ dx ⎟ , (8)
⎝ y=0 x=0 ⎠
H A2
FA on gate = − 12 ρ A gbH A2 î + 12 ρ A gb ĵ . (9)
tan θ

Another approach to calculating the force on the gate is to balance forces on the triangular block of liquid
shown in the figure below.

x
q
weight
y
HA
Fgate on A

y=H A

∑ F = 0 = ∫ − ( ρ gy )( dybî ) +ρ
A g LH bĵ +
  A
1
2 A Fgate on A ,

(10)

y=0
 weight of fluid block force gate
exerts on block
pressure force on side of fluid block

H A2
Fgate on A = 12 ρ A gbH A2 î − 12 ρ A g
bĵ , (11)
tan θ
where Eq. (7) has been used. Note that since FA on gate = -Fgate on A, the final result is the same as what was
found in Eq. (9)!

For the specific case when q = 90° (figure shown below), the moments about the hinge are,
hinge x
y

HA
y’
HH2O

y′ =H H20 y=H A

∑ M hinge,z = 0 = − ∫ ⎡⎣ y′ + ( H A − H H2O ) ⎤⎦ ( ρH20 gy′ ) ( bdy′ ) + ∫ y ( ρ gy )(bdy ) ,

A (12)
y′ =0 y=0

⎛ y=H H2O y=H A

⎞
0 = gb ⎜ − ρH20 ∫ ⎡⎣ y′ 2 + ( H A − H H2O ) y′ ⎤⎦ dy′ + ρ A ∫ y 2 dy ⎟ , (13)
⎝ y′ =0 y=0 ⎠
ρH20 ⎡⎣ 13 H H2O
3
+ 12 ( H A − H H20 ) H H2O
2
⎤⎦ = 13 ρ A H A3 , (14)

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 Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics statics_19

3 2
⎛ H H20 ⎞ 3 ⎡ ⎛ H H20 ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ H H20 ⎞ ρA
⎜⎝ H ⎟⎠ + 2 ⎢1− ⎜⎝ H ⎟⎠ ⎥ ⎜⎝ H ⎟⎠ = ρ , (15)
A ⎣ A ⎦ A H20
3 2 3
⎛ H H20 ⎞ 3 ⎛ H H20 ⎞ 3 ⎛ H H20 ⎞ ρA
⎜⎝ H ⎟⎠ + 2 ⎜⎝ H ⎟⎠ − 2 ⎜⎝ H ⎟⎠ = ρ , (16)
A A A H20
3 2
⎛ H H20 ⎞ ⎛ H H20 ⎞ ⎛ ρA ⎞
⎜⎝ H ⎟⎠ − 3 ⎜⎝ H ⎟⎠ + 2 ⎜⎝ ρ ⎟⎠ = 0 . (17)
A A H20

This equation could be solved numerically for HH20/HA given a value for rA/rH20. The following plot shows
example solutions.

An alternate approach for deriving Eq. (17) is to sum moments about the hinge, but make note of the fact
that the center of pressure on each wall is one-third of the liquid depth from the bottom of the wall,
(
∑ M hinge,z = 0 = − ⎡⎣( H A − H H2O ) + 23 H H2O ⎤⎦ 12 ρH2O gbH H2O
2
) ( )
+ ( 23 H A ) 12 ρ A gbH A2 , (18)
1
2 ρH2O H 2
H2O H A − ρH2O H
1
6
3
H2O = ρA H ,
1
3
3
A (19)
2 3
⎛H ⎞ ⎛H ⎞ ⎛ ρ ⎞
3 ⎜ H2O ⎟ − ⎜ H2O ⎟ = 2 ⎜ A ⎟ , (20)
⎝ HA ⎠ ⎝ HA ⎠ ⎝ ρH2O ⎠
3 2
⎛ H H2O ⎞ ⎛ H H2O ⎞ ⎛ ρA ⎞
⎜⎝ H ⎟⎠ − 3 ⎜⎝ H ⎟⎠ + 2 ⎜⎝ ρ ⎟⎠ = 0 , (21)
A A H2O

which is the same as Eq. (17).

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 Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics statics_03

James Bond is trapped on a small raft in a steep walled pit filled with water as shown in the figure. Both
the raft and pit have square cross-sections with a side length of l=3 ft for the raft and L=4 ft for the pit. In
the raft there is a steel anchor (SGA=7.85) with a volume of VA=1 ft3. In the current configuration, the
distance from the floor of the raft to the top of the pit is H=7.5 ft. Unfortunately, Bond can only reach a
distance of R=7 ft from the floor of the raft. In order for Bond to escape, would it be helpful for him to toss
the anchor overboard? Justify your answer with calculations. (Hint: The mass of water is conserved in
this problem.)

James Bond
H R anchor with volume VA and
specific gravity, SGA

water

SOLUTION:

Consider the cases when the anchor is in the raft and out of the raft as shown in the figures below.

H H + DH
h h + Dh

D l l
D + DD

L L

(a) (b)

First consider the change in the position of the raft floor relative to the free surface of the water.

Case (a): (m+ 

m )g =
raft+Bond
 anchor
ρ H O gl 2 h
2 
(1)
weight of raft & contents weight of displaced water

Case (b): (m

)g
raft+Bond
= ρ H O gl 2 ( h + Δh )
2

(2)
weight of raft & contents weight of displaced water

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 Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics statics_03

Subtract Eqn. (2) from Eqn. (1) and simplify.

( mraft+Bond + manchor ) g - ( mraft+Bond ) g = r H 2O gl 2 h - r H 2O gl 2 ( h + Dh ) (3)
manchor = - r H 2O l Dh2
(4)
manchor
Dh = - (5)
r H 2O l 2
SGanchorVanchor
\ Dh = - (6)
l2
Note that since Vanchor > 0, Dh < 0 and thus the raft moves up relative to the free surface. However, the free
surface will also move so we still don’t yet know whether Bond moves up or down relative to the surface of
the pit.

We must now consider the movement of the free surface of the water.
Case (a): VH O = L2 D
 − 2
l h (7)
2
volume of H 2O in pit volume of raft in H 2O

Case (b):
2 
( 
) (
VH O = L2 D + ΔD − l 2 h + Δh − Vanchor ) (8)
volume of H 2O in pit volume of raft in H 2O

Since the volume of water is conserved, Eqns. (7) and (8) must be equal.
L2 ( D + DD ) - l 2 ( h + Dh ) - Vanchor = L2 D - l 2 h (9)
L DD - l Dh - Vanchor = 0
2 2

l 2 Dh + Vanchor
\ DD = (10)
L2
(1 - SGanchor )Vanchor
\ DD = (where Eqn. (6) has been utilized) (11)
L2
Note that since SGanchor > 1, DD < 0, i.e. the free surface moves downward.

Combine the expressions for Dh and DD to determine the movement of the raft bottom relative to the pit
walls.
D + H - h = ( D + DD ) + ( H + DH ) - ( h + Dh ) (12)
DH = -DD + Dh (13)
(1 - SGanchor )Vanchor SGanchorVanchor
DH = - - (14)
L2 l2
Vanchor é æ L2 ö ù
\ DH = ê SGanchor ç1 - 2 ÷ - 1ú (15)
L2 ë è l ø û

Use the given data to determine DH.

Vanchor = 1 ft3
L = 4 ft
SGanchor = 7.85
l = 3 ft
Þ DH = -0.44 ft (The raft moves closer to the top of the pit.)

Recall that H = 7.5 ft and Bond can only reach R = 7 ft. After tossing the anchor overboard, the bottom of
the raft is H + DH = 7.06 ft > R = 7 ft. Hence, Bond still can’t reach the top of the pit.
Goodbye, Mr. Bond.

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Video solution: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w5pVYc30GQA

Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics statics_17

A cylindrical log of radius R and length L rests against the top of a dam. The water is level with the top of
the log and the center of the log is level with the top of the dam. You may assume that the contact point
with the dam is frictionless. Obtain expressions for
a. the mass of the log, and
b. the contact force between the log and dam.
Express your answers in terms of (a subset of) rH2O, g, L, and R.

gravity, g

SOLUTION:
The mass of the log, m, may be found by performing a force balance in the vertical direction,
∑ Fy = 0 = mg + FP,y , (1)
where g is the acceleration due to gravity. Note that the point of contact with the dam is assumed to be
frictionless.

R q Fw
y

mg

The net vertical pressure force, FP,y, is found by integrating the vertical component of the pressure force
around the log,
θ =2 π θ =2 π
FP,y = ∫ psin θ dA = ∫ ρ gy sin θ Rdθ ( L ) ,
 (2)
θ =π 2 θ =π 2

  
=p =dA
θ =2 π θ =2 π
FP,y = ∫ ρ g ( R − Rsin θ ) sin θ R dθ ( L ) = ρ gR 2 L ∫ (1− sin θ ) sin θ dθ , (3)
θ =π 2
 θ =π
=y 2

θ =2 π
FP,y = ρ gR 2 L ∫ (sinθ − sin θ ) dθ , (4)
2

θ =π 2

where r is the density of the water. Evaluating the integral in Eq. (4) gives,
{ 2
θ =2 π
2
}
FP,y = ρ gR 2 L − cosθ θ =π − ⎡⎣ 12 θ − 14 sin ( 2θ ) ⎤⎦θ =π = ρ gR 2 L ⎡⎣ −1− 12 ( 2π − π2 ) ⎤⎦ ,
θ =2 π
(5)

FP,y = − (1+ 34π ) ρ gR 2 L . (6)

Substituting into Eq. (1) and solving for m gives,

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Video solution: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w5pVYc30GQA

Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics statics_17

⎛ 3π ⎞
m = ⎜ 1+ ⎟ ρR L .
2
(7)
⎝ 4 ⎠
An alternate, easier method for determining the vertical pressure force acting on the log is to note that the
vertical surface forces acting along a horizontal plane at the bottom of the log is,
∑ Fy = 0 =  ρ g ( 2R ) ( 2RL ) −mg − ρ gL 3 ( 4R 2 − π R 2 ) = 4 ρ gLR 2 − mg − ρ gL 43 ( 4R 2 − π R 2 ) , (8)
   4 
log weight
pressure force weight of water
at bottom

mg = ρ gLR 2 ⎡⎣ 4 − 43 ( 4 − π ) ⎤⎦ = ρ gLR 2 [ 4 − 3 + 43 π ] , (9)

⎛ 3π ⎞
m = ρ R 2 L ⎜ 1+ ⎟, (10)
⎝ 4 ⎠
which is the same result found in Eq. (7).

y R q Fw

mH2Og
mg

An even easier method is to use a buoyant force, although one must recognize the appropriate volume to
use to determine the displaced volume. A vertical force balance for the log gives,
F
∑ Fy = 0 = −mg + FB Þ m = gB , (11)

where FB is the buoyant force, which is the weight of the displaced fluid. Note that in this case, the
displaced volume of fluid is the volume of the log, plus the volume above the right, upper quadrant of the
log as shown in the figure below,
FB = ρ gVdisplaced = ρ g ( 43 π R 2 + R 2 ) L = ρ gR 2 L ( 34π + 1) , (12)
Combining Eqs. (11) and (12) gives the mass of the log,
m = ρ R 2 L ( 34π + 1) , (13)
which is exactly the same result as found in the previous two methods.

y
R

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Video solution: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w5pVYc30GQA

Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics statics_17

Now consider a horizontal force balance for the log.

∑ Fx = 0 = −Fw + FP,x , (14)
where Fw is the horizontal force exerted by the wall on the wall and FP,x is the horizontal component of the
net pressure force acting on the log due to the water. The net horizontal pressure force is given by,
θ =2 π θ =2 π θ =2 π ⎡ ⎤
FP,x = ∫ − p cosθ dA = ∫ ( − ρ gy ) cosθ ( Rdθ L ) = ∫ ⎢ − ρ g ( R − Rsin θ ) ⎥ cosθ ( Rdθ L ) , (15)

   
   θ =π ⎢  ⎥
θ =π 2 θ =π 2 =p =dA 2 ⎣ =y ⎦
θ =2 π θ =2 π
FP,x == − ρ gR 2 L ∫ (1− sinθ ) cosθ dθ = − ρ gR L ∫ ( cosθ − sinθ cosθ ) dθ . (16)
2

θ =π 2 θ =π 2

Evaluate the integrals in Eq. (16),

FP,x = − ρ gR 2 L ⎡⎢sin θ θ =π − 12 sin 2 θ θ =π ⎤⎥ = − ρ gR 2 L ⎡⎢sin θ θ =π − 12 sin 2 θ θ =π ⎤⎥ ,
θ =2 π θ =2 π θ =2 π θ =2 π
(17)
⎣ 2 2 ⎦ ⎣ 2 2 ⎦

FP,x = − ρ gR 2 L [ −1+ 12 ] = 12 ρ gR 2 L . (18)

Substitute into Eq. (14) and solve for the wall force.
Fw = 12 ρ gR 2 L . (19)

Another, much simpler method for finding the wall force is to note that the horizontal pressure force acting
on the log will simply be the pressure force acting on the horizontally projected area.
y=R y=R y=R

FP,x = ∫ p dA = ∫ (
ρ gy ) dyL
 = ρ gL ∫ y dy = 12 ρ gR 2 L , (20)
y=0 y=0 =p =dA y=0

which is precisely the same result found in Eq. (18). Note that the horizontal pressure force is only
evaluated from y = 0 to y = R since on the bottom half of the log, the pressure forces from either side of the
log cancel each other out.

y R q Fw

mg

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