Lesson

1 CE 322: Principles of Steel Design

Introduction
The structural design of buildings, whether of structural steel or reinforced concrete, requires the
determination of the overall proportions and dimensions of the supporting framework and the selection of
the cross sections of individual members. In most cases the functional design, including the establishment
of the number of stories and the floor plan, will have been done by an architect, and the structural
engineer must work within the constraints imposed by this design. Ideally, the engineer and architect will
collaborate throughout the design process to complete the project in an efficient manner. In effect,
however, the design can be summed up as follows: The architect decides how the building should look;
the engineer must make sure that it doesn’t fall down. Although this distinction is an oversimplification, it
affirms the first priority of the structural engineer: safety. Other important considerations include
serviceability (how well the structure performs in terms of appearance and deflection) and economy.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this lesson the student must be able to:
1. understand the stress and strain characteristics of steel;
2. familiarized the classifications of steel, designations of structural steel: and
3. familiarized various structural shapes

LESSON PROPER
Building Codes

Buildings must be designed and constructed according to the provisions of a building code, which is a
legal document containing requirements related to such things as structural safety, fire safety, plumbing,
ventilation, and accessibility to the physically disabled. Abuilding code has the force of law and is
administered by a governmental entity such as a city, a county, or, for some large metropolitan areas, a
consolidated government. Building codes do not give design procedures, but they do specify the design
requirements and constraints that must be satisfied. Of particular importance to the structural engineer is
the prescription of minimum live loads for buildings.

Design Specifications

In contrast to building codes, design specifications give more specific guidance for the design of structural
members and their connections. They present the guidelines and criteria that enable a structural engineer
to achieve the objectives mandated by a building code. Design specifications represent what is
considered to be good engineering practice based on the latest research. They are periodically revised
and updated by the issuance of supplements or completely new editions. As with model building codes,
design specifications are written in a legal format by non-profit organizations.

Structural Steel

The earliest use of iron, the chief component of steel, was for small tools, in approximately 4000 B.C.
(Murphy, 1957). This material was in the form of wrought iron, produced by heating ore in a charcoal fire.
In the latter part of the eighteenth century and in the early nineteenth century, cast iron and wrought iron
were used in various types of bridges. Steel, an alloy of primarily iron and carbon, with fewer impurities

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and less carbon than cast iron, was first used in heavy construction in the nineteenth century. With the
advent of the Bessemer converter in 1855, steel began to displace wrought iron and cast iron in
construction.

The characteristics of steel that are of the most interest to structural engineers can be examined by
plotting the results of a tensile test. If a test specimen is subjected to an axial load P, as shown in Figure
1.3a, the stress and strain can be computed as follows:

where

f = axial tensile stress

A = cross-sectional area
e = axial strain
L = length of specimen
ΔL = change in length

If the load is increased in increments from zero to the point of fracture, and stress and strain are
computed at each step, a stress–strain curve such as the one shown in Figure 1.3b can be plotted. This
curve is typical of a class of steel known as ductile, or mild, steel. The relationship between stress and
strain is linear up to the proportional limit; the material is said to follow Hooke’s law. A peak value, the
upper yield point, is quickly reached after that, followed by a leveling off at the lower yield point. The
stress then remains constant, even though the strain continues to increase. At this stage of loading, the
test specimen continues to elongate as long as the load is not removed, even though the load cannot be
increased. This constant stress region is called the yield plateau, or plastic range. At a strain of
approximately 12 times the strain at yield, strain hardening begins, and additional load (and stress) is
required to cause additional elongation (and strain). A maximum value of stress is reached, after which
the specimen begins to “neck down” as the stress decreases with increasing strain, and fracture occurs.
Although the cross section is reduced during loading (the Poisson effect), the original cross-sectional area
is used to compute all stresses. Stress computed in this way is known as engineering stress. If the
original length is used to compute the strain, it is called engineering strain.

Steel exhibiting the behavior shown in Figure 1.3b is called ductile because of its ability to undergo large
deformations before fracturing. Ductility can be measured by the elongation, defined as

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Where:

e = elongation (expressed as a percent)

Lf = length of the specimen at fracture
L0 = original length

The elastic limit of the material is a stress that lies between the proportional limit and the upper yield
point. Up to this stress, the specimen can be unloaded without permanent deformation; the unloading will
be along the linear portion of the diagram, the same path followed during loading. This part of the stress–
strain diagram is called the elastic range. Beyond the elastic limit, unloading will be along a straight line
parallel to the initial linear part of the loading path, and there will be a permanent strain. For example, if
the load is removed at point A in Figure 1.3b, the unloading will be along line AB, resulting in the
permanent strain OB.

Figure 1.4 shows an idealized version of this stress–strain curve. The proportional limit, elastic limit, and
the upper and lower yield points are all very close to one another and are treated as a single point called
the yield point, defined by the stress Fy. The other point of interest to the structural engineer is the
maximum value of stress that can be attained, called the ultimate tensile strength, Fu. The shape of this
curve is typical of mild structural steels, which are different from one another primarily in the values of Fy
and Fu. The ratio of stress to strain within the elastic range, denoted E and called Young’s modulus, or
modulus of elasticity, is the same for all structural steels.

Concepts in Structural Steel Design

The design of a structural member entails the selection of a cross section that will safely and
economically resist the applied loads. Economy usually means minimum weight—that is, the minimum
amount of steel. This amount corresponds to the cross section with the smallest weight per foot, which is
the one with the smallest cross-sectional area. Although other considerations, such as ease of
construction, may ultimately affect the choice of member size, the process begins with the selection of the
lightest cross-sectional shape that will do the job. Having established this objective, the engineer must
decide how to do it safely, which is where different approaches to design come into play. The
fundamental requirement of structural design is that the required strength not exceed the available
strength; that is,

required strength ≤ available strength

In allowable strength design (ASD), a member is selected that has cross-sectional properties such as
area and moment of inertia that are large enough to prevent the maximum applied axial force, shear, or
bending moment from exceeding an allowable, or permissible, value. This allowable value is obtained by
dividing the nominal, or theoretical, strength by a factor of safety. This can be expressed as

required strength ≤ allowable strength

where

nominal strength
Allowable strength =
safety factor

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Strength can be an axial force strength (as in tension or compression members), a flexural strength
(moment strength), or a shear strength. If stresses are used instead of forces or moments, the
relationship becomes Maximum applied stress ≤ allowable stress.

Activity 1

Instruction: Provide a separate sheet for your answers using this format. (A4 bond paper with 1cm
borderline in all sides)

Name :_________________________Course & Year: BSCE III Date of Submission: _____________

Answer the following questions;

1. What are the types of Structural Steel?

2. Identify the (American Society for Testing and Materials) ASTM Designations of Structural Steel.

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3. Identify the Properties of Steel with their specification.
4. Draw the different Steel Sections with their corresponding properties.

Lesson
Analysis and Design of Members for Bending

Introduction

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this lesson the student must be able to solve problems and design structural members
subjected to bending stresses.

LESSON PROPER
BENDING STRESSES

If a beam is subjected to a bending moment, the stress maybe computed using the
MC
flexural formula f b= . When the stresses are within the limit of the material, the procedure is
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called elastic design or allowable stress design (ASD).

MC
f b=
I

where:

f b = extreme fiber stress (computed)

M = bending moment at the section under consideration

I = moment of inertia of the cross section with respect to the neutral axis.

c = distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fiber

I/c = S; knowing as the section modulus

F b = allowable bending stress

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 MC
f b= ;
I

M
f b= < Fb
S

It should be remembered that this formula is limited to stress situations below the elastic limit
because it is based on the usual elastic assumptions, that a plane section before bending
remains a plane section after bending, and the stress is proportional to the strain.

Allowable bending stresses for I-shaped members and channels bending about the
strong axis.

For Compact Section bending about strong axis.

F b=0.66 F y

A compact section is one that satisfy the following conditions:

1. Its flanges must be continuously connected to the web,

2. The section must have the following flange width-thickness ratio of its compression
elements.
b f 170
≤
2t f √ F y

3. The section must have the following depth to web thickness ratio.
d 1680
≤
tw √ F y

4. The laterally unsupported length of the compression flange Lb does not exceed the
value of Lc . Where Lc is the smaller value of L1 or L2.

200 bf
L1 =
√F y
137900
L2 =
Fyd
bf t f

When Lb < Lc it is a compact section, Use F b=0.66 F y

Note: For beams having full lateral supports Lb=0

For member with compact section as defined by (NSCP) (excluding hybrid beams and
members with yield points greater than 448 MPa) symmetrical about and loaded in the
plane of their minor axis, the allowable stress is F b=0.66 F y .

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 d 170
≤
2t f √ F y

d 1680
<
tw √ F y

Non-Compact Sections

In a non-compact section, the yield stress can be reached in some but not all the
compression elements before buckling occurs.

Partially Compact bending about strong axis

For members meeting the requirements of compact sections bending about the strong
axis except that their flanges are non-compact (excluding built-up members with yield points
greater than 448 MPa) the allowable stress is:

[
F b=F y 0.79−0.000762
bf
2t f
√F y ]
170 bf 250
< < ( partially compact )
√F y 2 tf √F y
The section is partially compact.

For built up member meeting the requirements of compact section bending about the
strong axis except that their flanges are non-compact and their webs are compact or
non-compact (excluding hybrid girders and members with yield points greater than 448
MPa) the allowable stress is.

[
F b=F y 0.79−0.000762
bf
2t f √ ]
Fy
Kc

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where:

4.05 h
K c= if >70 , otherwise K c =1.0

( )
h
0.46
tw
tw

For members with a non-compact section bending about the strong axis, but not
included in the previous equations and loaded through the shear center and braced
laterally in the region of compression stress at intervals of not exceeding:

200 b f
S=
√Fy
The allowable bending stress is F b=0.60 F y

Allowable bending stress for i-shape members, solid bars and Rectangular Plates which
is bending about its weak axis.

Members with Compact Section, bending about its weak axis

For doubly symmetrical I and H-shape members with compact flanges, continuously
connected to the web and bent about their weak axis (except members with yield points greater

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than 448 MPa) solid round and square bars, and solid rectangular sections bent about their
weaker axis, the allowable stress is:

F b=0.75 F y

b f 170
< (compact section)
2t f √ F y

Members with Non-Compact Section, bending about its weak axis.

For members not meeting the requirements for compact section and not covered for
box-type and tubular flexural member, bent about their minor axis, the allowable stress is:

F b=0.60 F y

Partially Compact, bending about its weak axis.

For Doubly symmetrical I and H-shaped members bent about their weak axis (except
members with yield points greater than 448 MPa) with non-compact flanges continuously
connected to the web maybe designed on the basis of an allowable stress of:

[
F b=F y 1.075−0.0019
bf
2t f
√F y ]
170 bf 250
< < ( partially compact )
√F y 2 tf √F y
Members with Compact or Non-Compact Sections With Unbraced Length greater than Lc :
( Lb > Lc )
Allowable bending stress is F b=0.60 F y

Where Lc is the smaller value of L1 or L2

200 bf
L1 = Lu=the bigger value of L1∧L2
√F y
137900
L2 = Lb=unbraced length
Fyd
bf t f

For flexural member with compact or non-compact sections, and with unbraced lengths
Lb greater than Lc and unbraced length Lb less than Lu the allowable bending stress is
F b=0.60 F y

When Lb > Lc

Lb < Lu

For such members with an axis of symmetry in and loaded in the plane or their web, the
allowable bending stress in compression is the larger value of equation… is applicable
only to sections with a compression flange that is solid and approximately rectangular in
cross section and that has an area not less than the tension flange.

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When Lb > Lc and Lb < Lu Use the following relation.

Case 1.
√ 703270 C b L
Fy
< <
rt √
3516330 C b
Fy

Allowable bending stress is larger of equation case 1 and 2… but ¿ 0.60 F y.

[ ]
2
2 F y ( L/r t )
F b=F y −
3 10.55 x 106 C b

82740 Cb
F b=
Ld
bf t f

For such members with an axis of symmetry in and loaded in the plane or their web, the
allowable bending stress in compression is the larger value of equation… is applicable
only to sections with a compression flange that is solid and approximately rectangular in
cross section and that has an area not less than the tension flange.

When Lb > Lc and Lb > Lu Use the following relation.

L
Case 2. >
rt Fy √
3516330 C b

Allowable bending stress is larger value of equation… but ¿ 0.60 F y.

1172100C b
F b=
()
2
L
rt

82740 Cb
F b=
Ld
bf t f

Note: Equation… shall not apply to hybrid girders.

Where:

L = distance between cross section braced against twist or lateral displacements of the
compression flange, in mm. For cantilevers braced against twist only at the support, L may
conservatively be taken as the actual length

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r t = radius of gyration of a section comprising the compression flange plus 1/3 of the
compression web area, taken about an axis in the plane of the web, in mm.

b f = width compression flange in mm.

t f = thickness of compression flange in mm.

C b=1.75+1.05
M1
M2
+0.3
M2 ( )
M1 2
but not more than2.3

M 1 = smaller bending moment at the ends of the unbraced length taken about the strong axis of
the beam

M 2 = larger bending moment at the ends of the unbraced length taken about the strong axis of
the beam

M1
= ratio of ends moments
M2

M1
= is positive when M 1 and M 2 have the same sign (reverse curvature bending)
M2

M1
= is negative when they are of opposite signs (single curvature bending).
M2

Other Values of C b

1. When the bending moment at any point within unbraced length is larger than at both
ends of this length C b = 1.0
2. For simply supported beams. C b = 1.0
3. For Cantilever beams. C b = 1.0

Values of C b: For Laterally Unbraced Beams

No bracings: C b = 1.0

Braced at L/2: C b = 1.75

Braced at every L/4: C b = 1.75

Braced at every L/3: C b = 1.75 and C b = 1.0 (at middle thirds)

SUMMARY

Allowable bending stress for laterally unbraced beams

1. When unbraced length Lb < Lc

F b=0.66 F y

2. When unbraced length Lb > Lc but Lb < Lu

F b=0.60 F y

3. When unbraced length Lb > Lc and Lb > Lu

F b <0.60 F y

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Check whether:

A.
√ 703270 C b L
Fy
< <
rt √
3516330 C b
Fy

Use bigger value of “ F b” from (a) or (b) but ¿ 0.60 F y

[ ]
2
2 F y ( L/r t )
( a ) F b=F y −
3 10.55 x 106 C b

82740 C b
( b ) F b=
Ld
bf t f

B.
√ 703270C b L
Fy
< >
rt Fy√
3516330 C b

Use bigger value of “ F b” from (a) or (b) but ¿ 0.60 F y

1172100 C b
( a ) F b=
()
2
L
rt

82740 C b
( b ) F b=
Ld
bf t f

Computation of radius of gyration r t

Properties of W 12 x 14

d = 302.514 mm

b f = 100.787 mm

t f = 5.69 mm

t w = 5.029 mm

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 1
x= ( 145.567 )
3

x=48.522

Area of shaded portion:

A=100.787 ( 5.69 ) +48.522(5.029)

A=817.50
3 3
5.69(100.787) 48.522(5.029)
I= +
12 12

I =485964.4

rt =
√ I
A

rt =
√ 485964.4
817.50

r t =24.38

Illustration Problem

1. A simply supported beam having a span of 6meters is laterally supported in its full length. The
beam used is a wide flange section W 33 x 240 , A36 steel with Fy = 248 MPa. Compute the safe
unifomly distributed load that the beam could carry.

Properties of W 33 x 240

Wt = 3.51 KN/m tw = 21.08 mm

A = 45548 mm2 Ix = 5660.75 x 10⁶ mm⁴
d = 850.9 mm Iy = 388.34 x 10⁶ mm⁴
bf = 402.97 mm Sx = 13322.68 x 103 mm3
tf = 33.56 mm Sy = 1933.67 x 103 mm3

SOLUTION:

Check for compactness

b f 170 402.97 170

< = <
2t f √ F y 2(35.56) √ 248

5.67 < 10.79

d 1680 850.9 1680

< = <
tw √ F y 21.08 √ 248

40.37 < 106.68

Therefore the section is Compact

Use Fb = 0.66Fy

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Fb = 0.66 (248)

Fb = 163.68 MPa

MC M
F b= or F b=
I Sx

M
163.68=
13322.68 x 10

M = 2181 KN.m

wL
M=
8

w ( 6) 2
2181=
8

w = 484.67 KN/m

Safe uniform load it could carry:

wt = 484.67 – 3.51

wt = 481.16 KN/m

2. A simply supported beam having a span of 9.0 meters is supported only at both ends. The beam
used is a wide flange section W 33 x 240 , A242 steel with Fy = 345 MPa. Compute the safe
unifomly distributed load that the beam could carry.

SOLUTION:

Lb = 9.0 meters (unbraced length)

200 bf
L1 = = 200 ¿ ¿ = 4339 mm
√F y
137900 137900
L2 =
Fyd = 345(850.9) = 6731 mm
bf t f 402.97(35.56)

Lc = 4339 mm
Lu = 6731 mm

When unbraced length Lb > Lc and Lb > Lu

Use the relation:

A.
√ 703270 C b L
Fy
< <
rt Fy √
3516330 C b

Use bigger value of “ F b” from (a) or (b) but ¿ 0.60 F y

[ ]
2
2 F y ( L/r t )
( a ) F b=F y −
3 10.55 x 106 C b

13
 82740 C b
( b ) F b=
Ld
bf t f

B.
√ 703270C b L
Fy
< >
rt Fy √
3516330 C b

1172100 C b
( a ) F b=
()
2
L
rt

82740 C b
( b ) F b=
Ld
bf t f

Cb = 1.0 (simply supported beam)

1
x= ( 381.89 )
3

x=127.29 mm

Area of shaded portion:

A=402.97 (33.56)+ 127.29(21.08)

A=16,206.95mm2
3 3
33.56(402.97) 127.29(21.08)
I= +
12 12

I =183 x 106 mm4

rt =
√ 183 x 10
16,206.95

r t =106.26

L 9000
rt
=
106.26

L
= 84.69
rt

√ 703270 C b L
Fy
< <
rt Fy √
3516330 Cb

√ 703270 (1)
345
<84.69<
√
3516330(1)
F y 345

But: 45.15 < 84.69 < 100.96

Use bigger value of “ F b” from (a) or (b) but ¿ 0.60 F y

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 [ ]
2
2 F y ( L/r t )
( a ) F b=F y −
3 10.55 x 106 C b

[ ]
2
2 345 ( 84.69 )
F b=345 −
3 10.55 x 106 (1)

Fb = 149.08 MPa

82740 C b
( b ) F b=
Ld
bf t f

82740(1)
F b=
9000 ¿ ¿ ¿
Fb = 154.82 MPa

Fb = 0.66 Fy

Fb = 0.66 (345) = 227.7 MPa

Therefore use Fb = 154.82 MPa

M
F b=
Sx

M
154.82=
13322.68 x 10

M = 2062 KN.m

wL
M=
8

w ( 9)
2062=
8

w = 203.65 KN/m

Safe uniform load it could carry:

wt = 203.65 – 3.51

wt = 200.14 KN/m

ASSESSMENT

Instruction: Analyse and solve the problem carefully.

1. A built-up wide flange section with values; bf = 450mm, tf = 20mm, tw = 20mm and d = 540mm is
used as a beam in a simple span of 6.0 meters loaded as shown in the figure. The beam is
laterally supported in its full length. Using A 36 steel, Fy = 248 Mpa..

a. Check whether the section is compact, partially compact or non- compact section.
b. Considering the weight of the section, compute the maximum moment due to the loads
applied on the beam.
c. Compute the resisting moment capacity of the beam.

60 KN 30 KN

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Figure:

2m 2m 2m

2. A Wide Flange section is used as a beam that is supported at both ends only. A 36 steel is used
with Fy = 248 Mpa. E = 200,000 Mpa. Compute the allowable bending stress if the beam has a
span of 6 meters.

Properties of the Section:

A = 24709 mm2 tf = 21.72 mm
d = 840.74 mm Sx = 5883 x 103 mm3
bf = 292.35 mm Ix = 2792.9 x 106 mm4
tw = 14.73 mm

3. Design a steel beam for a span of 7.0 meters that carries a uniform load of 50 KN/m and a
concentrated load of 25KN at the mid span.

REFERENCES

1. Segui, William (2012). Structural Steel Design. Cencage Learning Asia Pte Ltd. 4th
Edition
2. Besavilla, Venancio, Jr. (2007). Simplified Steel Design. VIB Publisher, Cebu City
3. Padilla, Perfecto, Jr. (2003). Structural Design and Construction. Philippines
4. Parker, H. & Ambre, J. (1983). Simplified Design of Structural Steel, 5th Edition. John
Willy & Sons Inc. Canada
5. Gillesania, Diego, (2006). Fundamentals of Structural Steel Design with Theory of
structure, Philippines

Prepared by:

ENGR. SUSANA C. ALA

Dean, College of Engineering
Subject Instructor

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