EXPERIMENT No -1

Aim- To Verify Super Position Theorem

Apparatus Required:

Sl.No Particulars Rating / Range/ Type Quantity

1 Resistance 1.5 k 3
2 Ammeter 0-25 mA, MC 3
3 Voltmeter 0-60 V, MC 1
4 Digital Multi-meter 1
5 Patch Chords As per
required

THEORY

The Superposition Theorem states that if a network of linear

impedance's contains more than one Voltage Sources (generators), the
current which flows at any point, is the algebraic sum of all currents which
would flows at that point of each Voltage Source (generator) was
considered separately and all other generators were replaced bv their
internal impedance's.
This theorem is very useful in solving networks, where more than one
voltage or current source in present. It will be interesting to know that
the superposition theorem is applicable to the circuits containing resistors,
inductors, and capacitors. It is not applicable to the circuit containing active
devices such as diodes, transistors is because of the fact, that resistors,
inductors, inductors and capacitors are considered as linear and bilateral
proportional to the voltage drop across it. While a bilateral component is one
in which the current can flow in either direction. The active devices (i.e.
diode, transistors etc.) are neither linear nor bilateral devices.
The superposition theorem may be used to determine the current in a
component, which exists as a result of each of the sources. It is
important to note that while calculating the results for each source, the
other sources must be set to zero and replaced by their internal
resistance.
Let us consider the circuit as shown on the front panel of the kit.
The same circuit can be drawn as shown if fig. (1)

To determine the voltage drop and current across the resistor R2 using
superposition theorem following steps has to be follows.
1. First of all consider that each source are operating independently.
Fig. 2 (a) shows the equivalent circuit for V, source acting
independently (with other V2 as short circuit).
Fig. 2(b) also shows the equivalent circuit for V, source acting
independently with equivalent parallel resistor Rpl

Rpl=R2//R3=R2.R3/R2+R3..........................................(1)
From fig. 2 (a) it is clear that R2 & R 3 are in parallel and are in series
with resistor R, as given in fig. 2 (b). Now using voltage division rule, the
voltage drop across Rp, resistor (due to V, source).

Va= (Rpl / R1+ Rpl ) × V1…………………………………………………

(2)

2. With voltage V, acting independently (with other V, as short circuit) the

circuit is as shown in fig. -3. The equivalent parallel resistor Rp2 is given
by

Rp2=R1 // R2 = R1 + R2 /R1 + R2..........(3)

3. Using voltage division rule again, the voltage drop across Rp 2 (due
to V2 source) is given by

Vb = (Rp2 / R3 +Rp2 ) x V , ........(4)

4. Now add the individual voltage drop Va & Vb across R3 algebraically.
Since Va & Vb has same polarities therefore the total volta g e drop
across R 2
V=Va+ V b…………………………………………. (5)
& current through resistor
I = V / R2 ...............(6)
PROCEDURE
1. Study the circuit diagram provided on the front panel of the kit.
2. Note the values of all the resistors R 1, R, & IZ;.
3. Connect the Mili-ammeters in the circuit at their respective places.
4. Connect terminal A to 1 & B to 2. Let the voltage across R2 & current
trough R2 has to be determining by using this theorem as shown in fig 1.
5. Switch `ON' the power supply.
6. Keep the voltage source V, & V2 constant at desired voltage, note its
value. 7. Remove V2 (by connecting B to 1) only V, is
acting, find out the resistance RPM & voltage Va as per fig 2 (a), 2 (b)
8.Similarly remove V, (by connecting A to 2) only V2 is acting, find out
the resistance RPZ & voltage Vb as per fig 3 (a), 3 (b)
9.Total voltage across R2 is given by, V = Va + Vb & current
through R 2, I-V /R2.
10. Verify the theoretical and practical values of current and voltages.
11. Repeat the above procedure for different values of V, & V2

OBSERVATION TABLE
Sl. Active V1 & V2 V1 V2
sources both active only active only active
No
V1 V2 I1 I2 I3 I1’ I2’ I3’ I 1 ’’ I 2 ’’ I 3 ’’
1
2

‘
R1 ..................... R2 _ ...................... R3 = ...................

V 1 =Constant V 2 = Constant

RESULT

It is evident from the superposition theorem that the voltage or current.

present in a element is equal to the sum of voltages or currents,
which exist independently.
 EXPERIMENT No -2

Aim- To verify Thevinin’s Theorem

Apparatus Required:

Sl.No Particulars Rating / Range/ Type Quantity

1 Resistance 1.5 k 4
2 Resistance 2k 1
3 Ammeter 0-25 mA, MC 1
4 Voltmeter 0-60 V, MC 1
5 Digital Multi-meter 1
6 Patch Chords As per
required

THEORY

This theorem states that the current in any load impedance

connected to the two terminals of the network of many impedance and
generators is same as if this load impedance were connected to the
constant voltage generator connected in series with the impedance of the
network looking back into the load terminals with all generators
replaced by their internal impedance. The constant voltage generator
is called as Thevenin's equivalent voltage source (V TH) and its value is
equal to the open circuit voltage at the load terminals. Also the series
impedance is called as Thevenin's equivalent impedance (R TH).

That means am complex network can be replaced by a Series circuit

Consisting of’ an ideal voltage source and a resistance. Consider a box
containing a circuit connected to its terminal A & B as shoe n in fig. (a)
then according to Thevenin's Theorem, the entire circuit connected to A
& B can be replaced by a single voltage source V T,{ in series with a
single resistance Rill across the same terminal as shown in fig (b). the
term VTH is called the Thevinin’s voltage, it is open circuit voltage existing
between the terminal A & B.

Similarly the term RTH is called Thevenin's resistance, it is the resistance

of the circuit as seen back from the terminals A & B with all the sources
 removed by their internal resistance if any.

The following procedure is generally used for the application of thevenin's

theorem to the electrical circuit.
Step - 1

Consider the electrical circuit (fig 1) which is to be replaced by

thevenin's Circuit.

Step - 2
First of all, disconnect the load resistor RL from the terminals A & B, the
resulting circuit is shown in the fig. (2)
Step - 3
After removing RI, there is no current through R4 & therefore no voltage
drop across R4&Thus potential of points A & C are same. Similarly
potentials of points B & D are
same, so voltage measured between A & B (open circuit voltage Voc) is
equal to
ale measured between C & D i.e. across R2. This voltage is called as
thevenin’s voltage VTH
We see that R,, RZ & R3 are in series with voltage source. Therefore series
current I is given by

I=Vi/R, -+-R2+R3…………… (1)

Voltage Drop across R2; V R2 = I.R2

= Vi R2/R 1 +R2+R3 ...............................(2)

V oc =VTH = VR2 = Vi R2/ R1 + R2+ R3 .......................................(3)

Equation (1) shows current flowing through circuit & equation (3) shows

thevenin's voltage of circuit.

Step – 4
To Determine RTH replace voltage source by a short circuit as shown in
fig (3) find out the resistance RTH, when we loc from terminal A & B in
direction of arrow.

Therefore equivalent resistance

RTH =R4+[R2//(R1 + R3)]

RTH = R4+[R2 (R I + R3)] / R1+ R2 + R3 ....................(4)
Step - 5
Thus the circuit is replaced by thevenin's equivalent circuit with voltage
source VTH with thevenin's equivalent resistance R TH as shown in fig.
Step - 6
Now connect RL & Determine current through RL as shown in the Fig.

I= VTH / RTH + RL …………………….. (5)

PROCEDURE

1. Study the circuit provided on the front panel of the kit.

2. Keep Vi constant (Say Vi = 12 V) disconnect R L from the
terminals A & B u ins Patch Chords.
3. Note the value of R I, R2,R3. Determine following terms.

a)Series Current

I= Vi /R1+R2+R3.........................(l)

I=……………mA

(b) Thevenin's Voltage

 VTH =VR2 =Voc=I R2

VTH= (Vi R2 / R 1 + R 2 + R 3 ) R2 . .(3)

VTH = .................V
4. - Now replace a voltage source by short circuit as shown in fin 3
determine

R TH = R 4 + [R2 // (R1 + R 3 )]

5. Draw the thevenin's circuit as shown in fig

6. Now connect R L find down the current flowing through R L

I = VTH /R TH + RL ........................................... (5)

7. Repeat the above step for different value of

voltage Vi

OBSERVATIONS

S.No VS VTH RL RTH IL= VTH /RTH

+RL
1
2

R1=.....................R2=............R3=………….. R4=…………….
............................
Vi - Constant (say 12 V)
(a) Series Current I

Theoretical
1=Vi/R1+R2+R3............................(1)
=.......................mA

Practically, I = ..........................mA

(b) Thevenin's Voltage VTH

Theoretical = VTH= (I) R2

=…………….V

Practically VTH=.........................V

(c) Thevenin's Resistance R TH

Theoretical

R TH =R4+R2 (Rl+R3)/R,

+R2+R3=………………….

Practically R TH = ....................

(d) Current flowing through RL,

RL=…………….

Theoretical
IL= VTH /R TH +RL
 =…………..mA

CONCLUSION

Any complex electrical circuit can be replaced by a netork having single

voltage source VTH & single resistance R TH called as Thevinin’s equivalent
circuit.

EXPERIMENT No -3

Aim- To determine Voltage - Current characteristics of Incandescent

lamp.

REQUREMENTS
(1) Ammeter (0-2A) - 1
nos. (2) Voltmeter (0-
300V) - I nos. (3) Lamp,
Wire

THEORY
The purpose of these experiments is to study the effect of
temperature resistance. Since the temperature is direct)}
proportional to the voltage applied across the resistance of the
material k increases. Most conductors (pure metals) show these
characteristics. For a moderate range of lamp, the change in
resistance is usually proportional to the change in temperature to the
resistance at some definite temp. adapted as standard, is termed as
the temperature coefficient of resistance (alpha).

Assuming that the resistance of conductor at a standard temp to (0 °C)

be Ro and a temp T 1 be R1,R0 and R1 are related as follows.
 R1= R0 +α 0 (T1-T0)R0

CIRCUIT DIGRAM

PROCEDURE

1. Connect the ckt. As shown in fig (I)

2. Adjust the voltage for 100 volts take down the ammeter and
voltmeter readings.
3. Vary the voltage in steps of 20 V and take down the readings of
voltmeter and ammeter. It is important to NN ait for a few
minutes after charging the voltage.
4. Go up to 220 V.

OBSERVATION TABLE
V (VOLTS __ I (AMP) R = V/I (Ohm)
RESULT

A curve is obtained between current & voltage.

The static resistance Rs.......................................= Ohm.
The dynamic resistance R...................................= Ohm.

EXPERIMENT No-4

Aim- To measure current, power, voltage and power factor of series RLC
circuit.
.

APPARATUS
Rheostat -1
Inductors (Choke coil-1)
Capacitor - I
Ammeter- I (0-2A)
Voltmeter - 3 (0-300V)

THEORY
LetVR = IR = Voltage drop across R - In phase with I
VL = L.XL = Voltage across I. - leading I by π /2
VC = L.Xc = Voltage across C - lagging I by π /2
In voltage triangle of fig (b) OA represents VR AB and AC
represents inductive and capacitive drops respectively. It will be
seen that VL and VC are 180 ° out of phase with each other i.e. they
are in direct opposition to each other.

Subtracting BP (AC) from AB, we get the net reactive of AD = I (XL -

X c)
The applied voltage V is represented h_v OD and is the vector sum of OA
and AD
OD = √ OA2 + AD2 or V =√ (IR)2 + (1XL - IXc)2= I[√R2+(XL - Xc)2]

The term I=V/√R2(XL + Xc)2 is known as the impedance

of the circuit. Obviously,
(Impedance) 2 = (resistance) 2 , + (net reactance) 2
When X is the net resistance Phase angle is given by tan  = (XL. -
Xc)/R = X/R
= net
Reactance /Resistance

Power factor is tan = R/Z = R /√R2(XL + Xc)2 = R/ √R2 +X2

Then Power = P = VI

cos 
CIRCUIT

DIAGRAMS

CALCULATI0N
Z = √R2 + (XL- XC) 2

Current I = VR /R Amp.
Now, inductive reactance, XL= VL/I

And, captive reactance, XC = V C /I

Z =√ R2 + (XL- XC) 2

Then Power = VI Cos 

PROCEDURE
1. Make a connation to obtain the desired l,-GR series cii,
2. Set the rheostat to maximum value I.e. for R = 100 ohms.
3. Adjust the autotransformer till a suitable voltage is applied.
4. Take the reading of ammeter.
5. Take other readings by varying the supply voltage.

OBSERVATION TABLE
Sl. Volt meter readings P.F=R/Z P
No VR VL VC V I VR /I VL /I VC /I = Cos  = VI
Cos 
1

RESULT
We found the current is………………
Voltage VR=………………………….
VL=……………………….
VC=………………………..
Power=……………………

PRECAUTION
1. Connection should be tight and clean.
2. The meter should be of proper
range.
3. Before connecting the meters in the circuit check their zero –
setting
4. While varying the value of R, note that current in circuit
shouldn't exceed the safe limit
 EXPERIMENT No-5

Aim- To verify Kirchhoff’s laws

A) Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)
B) Kirchhoff’s voltage law(KVL)

Apparatus required:

S.NO. Name of instrument Range Quantity

1 Voltmeter 0-15V 1
2 Ammeter 0-50mA 1
3 Resistance 1k to 10k 4

Circuit diagram:

A) KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW:

THEORY: -
In many circuits, in which various components are either in series
or in parallel or in sc ties parallel. For example, a circuit with two or more
batteries connected in its different branches. Another example is an
unbalanced bridge circuit. Here rules of series & parallel circuits are not
applicable. Such circuits can be easily solved with the help of Kirchhoff’s
law which are as follows.

1. Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)

2. Kirchhoff’s voltage law(KVL)

It states that in any network of conductors, the algebraic sum of currents

meeting at a point (or junction) is zero.
In other words, the total current leaving a junction is equal to the total
current entering that junction.

I2
I1

I3 I5

I4

Mathematically in fig 1, I1 + I4 = I2 + I3 + I5
Consider, in case of 5 currents meeting at junction A of the network
shown in fig1. All the current entering the junction would be taken as +ve
where as those leaving it would be taken as –ve.
According to above conversion, h & 14 would be taken as +ve, where
as I2, I3 &I5 would be taken as –ve using KCL, we get
I1 + (-I2) + (-I3) + I4 + (-I5) = 0

OR I1 -I2 –I3 +I4 –I5 =0

I = 0 (at a junction)

I1 + I4 = I2 + I3 + I5
i.e. Incoming current = Outgoing current
 OR

I in = I out
(at a junction)

PROCEDURE: -
1) Select any point on the kit (For example point B).
2) Connect A-7 with patch cords.
3) Short the points marked with the currents Ia, with patch cords &
connect ammeter in h
4) Switch on the power supply.
5) Measure the current h & note down the reading.
6) Now remove the patch cord from I3 & connect in place of h. Measure
the current I3 & note down.
7) With the procedure as above measure the currents I2.
8) Now with the noted values of h, IZ & I verify Kirchhoff’s current law
at point 9). Now open the contact A – 1 & connect to C – 1 repeat
steps (3) to step (8) for their respective currents & verify KCL at point
C.

OBSERVATIONS: -

I1 = __________ I2 = __________

I3 = __________ I4 = __________

I5 = __________

Incoming Current = Outgoing Current

RESULT: -The current approaching to the junction is equal to currents

leaving from the junction. So KCL is verified.

B) TO STUDY KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW (KVL)

THEORY: - It states that the algebraic sum of all IR drops & emf in any
closed network is zero.
  IR +  EMF = 0 (round a loop)
While applying the above law’s for circuits calculations, errors can occur
unless proper algebraic signs are given both to IR drops & battery EMF’s.

PROCEDURE: -

1) Note down the various currents i.e. I1, I2, I3, I4, I5 as above.
2) Calculate I1R1, I2R2, I3R3, I4R4 &I5R5 i.e.VR1, VR2, VR3 & VR5
3) Select any desired loop say loop (I), apply KVL as per given in
observation table and verify the result.
4) Repeat step (3) for different loops.

OBSERVATION TABLE: -

I1 = __________ I2 = __________

I3 = __________ I4 = __________

I5 = __________

V1 – I1R1 – I2R2 = 0

V1 = I1R1 + I2R2

Voltage supplied = Voltage drop

RESULT: -Similarly voltage supplied to desired loop equals to voltage drop

by same loop as KVL is verified.
 EXPERIMENT No -6

Aim: -To calculate efficiency of a single phase transformer by direct loading.

Apparatus Requirement:-
1. Single phase transformer
2. Single phase variac
3. Voltmeter
4. Ammeter
5. Wattmeter
6. Lamp load(Resistive load)

Theory:-

Voltage regulation of transformer is defined as the change in terminal

voltage expressed as percentage of full load rated voltage when is decreased
from full-load to no load with constant power factor at constant primary
voltage.
Voltage Regulation = (E2 – V2)/E2
E2 =Secondary terminal voltage at no load or induced emf at no load.
V2 = Secondary terminal voltage at any load.
The approximate equivalent circuit of transformer with resistance and
reactance referred to the secondary has been shown in fig.
 Efficiency: Efficiency is defined as the ratio of output power to input power
is known as efficiency of transformer.

η=

η= =

The losses occurring in a transformer under loaded condition can be divided

into two categories:
1. Iron losses that occur in the magnetic core. These include hysteresis and
eddy current loss.
2. Copper loss occurring in the primary and secondary winding.
The η of a transformer is made higher than of rotating machinery,
because there are no friction and windage losses.

Circuit Diagram:-

Observation Table:-

S.N. Wattmeter I/P Voltmeter Ammeter O/P Power I /P

η = /P
O
reading Power reading (V 2 ) reading ( I 2 ) V 2 I 2 cos φ

Calculations:-

Voltage Regulator = p.u.

 η = = (V2 I2 Cosθ2) / (V2 I2 Cosθ2 + losses) =

η= p.u.

Results:

Precaution:
1. During Short circuit the supply voltage should be applied through a Variac
(auto transformer) and increase very slowly from its low value, so that rated
current flows through the secondary. The measured current should not exceed
rated value otherwise it would damage windings.
2. The short circuiting copper wire should be of a large cross-section than
that used in transformer winding and all connections must be clean and tight.
3. The open circuit test must be performed at rated voltage and frequency.
4. For measuring power at no load a wattmeter of very low ampere rating and
low factor should be used.

EXPERIMENT No-7

Aim: To perform Ratio test and Polarity Test of a single phase transformer.

Apparatus Required:

S.No. Instruments N Type Range

230/230V
1 Transformer 1 Single phase, 50Hz
3KVA
2 Voltmeter 3 Moving (i). 0 to 300V
(ii). 0 to 300V
 (iii). 0 to
6000V
Single phase
3 1 0-270V
Variac

(A) Ratio Test:

Theory:

For a transformer the e.m.f. equation is E= 4.44φ m f N.

φ m - Useful flux in the core, f - Frequency of supply, N - Number of

turn in winding.

E1 - Induced voltage in primary winding, E2 - Corresponding voltage induced

in secondary winding, E1 = 4.44 φ m f N1, E2 = 4.44 φ m f N2
Transformation Ratio:
It is the ratio of secondary induced voltage to primary induced voltage. Then
E2 N 2
Transformation Ratio = E1 = N 1

At no load V2 = E2 with Ie neglected V1 = E1

V2 N2
so that V 1 = N 1 is Transformation Ratio.
Procedure:
1. Make the connections of transformers, apparatus and supply as shown
in fig-1.
2. By auto- transformer apply rated voltage and take the readings of
voltmeter V 1 and V 2 .
3. Take different sets of readings by reducing the voltage applied
through auto- transformer.

Calculations:
V2
Take the average value of V 1 . And finally the average value is
approximately equal to the transformation ratio of transformer.
 Discussions:
Prove that transformation ratio is nearly equal to ratio of turns in
N2
windings i.e. Transformation Ratio= N 1 .
(B) Polarity Test:
This test is performed to check the polarity of transformer windings.
Theory:
Polarity ends of the two windings of a transformer are those ends that
acquire simultaneously positive and negative. Polarity of emf induced in
them.
To determine the polarity of a transformer, the two windings of
transformer are connected in series and one voltmeter is connected across,
series connected two windings. Transformer is excited by voltage source.
The two types of polarity exist additive polarity and subtractive polarity.

In case of additive polarity as shown in figure (2a) V 3 will be(V 1 +V 2 ),

summation of V 1 and V 2 .

In case of subtractive polarity as shown in figure (2b) V 3 will be

difference of V 1 and V 2 .

Procedure:

1. Connect the Apparatus as shown in fig.(2).

2. Note down the readings of V 1 ,V 2 and V 3 .

3. If V 3 = V 1 -V 2 then polarity is additive and if V 3 =V 1 -V 2 then polarity is

subtractive.
Circuit diagram:

Figure – 1 Ratio Test

Figure 2(a) Polarity Test

Figure - 2(b) Polarity Test

Observation Table: (For Ratio Test)

S.No. Primary Secondary Transformation Ratio

applied Terminal voltage V2
voltage V 1 V2 V1
1
2
 3

Observation Table: (For Polarity Test)

SET -1
V1= V2= V3=

SET –2
V1= V2= V3=

Result:
1) The transformation Ratio =
2) The polarities of windings have been tested
 EXPERIMENT NO - 8

AIM: To plot the VI characteristics of a semiconductor diode.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: A/D lab kit, Si/ Ge Diode (IN4007),

Resistance, Multi meters, Patch cords.
THEORY: When external voltage is placed across the diode with the same
polarity as the built-in potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an
insulator, preventing any significant electric current flow. This is the reverse
bias phenomenon.
However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the built-in
potential, recombination can once again proceed, resulting in substantial
electric current through the p-n junction. For silicon diodes, the built-in
potential is approximately 0.6 V. Thus, if an external current is passed
through the diode, about 0.6 V will be developed across the diode such that
the P-doped region is positive with respect to the N-doped region and the
diode is said to be "turned on" as it has a forward bias.

Fig.1 Semiconductor Diode

 Fig.1 Diode in forward bias condition

Fig.2 Diode in reverse bias condition

 Fig.3. VI Characteristics of Si Diode
The voltage- current curve is exponential. In a normal Si/Ge diode at
rated currents, the arbitrary "cut-in" voltage is defined as 0.6 to 0.7/0.2 to 0.3
volts.
At forward bias, where only a small forward current (in the mA range) is
conducted. At reverse biases more positive than the PIV, has only a very
small reverse saturation current. In the reverse bias region for a normal P-N
rectifier diode, the current through the device is very low (in the µA range)
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram of fig. 1 through

connecting wires.
2. Increase the applied voltage of Battery and take the readings of
voltmeter.
3. Continuously increase the value of Battery and take readings.
 4. Draw the graph on graph paper.
5. Plot the graph evaluate static & Dynamic Resistance.
6. Connect the circuit as shown in fig. 2 & repeat procedure steps. (ii),
(iii) & (iv) and draw graph & evaluate Reverse Resistance.

OBSERVATIONS TABLE:

For forward bias:

S.No. Vf (volt) If (mA)

For reverse bias:

S.No. Vr (volt) Ir (µA)

RESULT: Characteristics of semiconductor diode is studied and ploted.
The following parameters of the given semiconductor diode is found to be-

Cut-in Voltage = Vγ =…………..V

Reverse Resistance, Rr = Vr/Ir = QC/RC = ……….....Ω
Static Resistance, Rdc = V/I = ON/OM =…………... Ω
Dynamic Resistance, Rac = ∆Vf/∆If = AB/CD = …………. Ω

CONCLUSION:

The PN Junction diode has non-linear characteristics.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Ensure connection is correct.

2. Avoid loose connection.
3. Slowly increase the input voltage.
4. Centre knob of multi meter should be properly adjusted for measuring
Current & voltage.
5. Switch ON the instrument while performing the experiment only.

EXPERIMENT NO - 9
AIM: To plot the VI characteristics of a light emitting semiconductor
diode

APPARATUS REQUIRED: A/D lab kit, LED Si/ Ge Diode (IN4007),

Resistance, Multi meters, Patch cords.
THEORY: When external voltage is placed across the LED with the same
polarity as the built-in potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an
insulator, preventing any significant electric current flow. This is the reverse
bias phenomenon.
However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the built-in
potential, recombination can once again proceed, resulting in substantial
electric current through the p-n junction. For silicon diodes, the built-in
potential is approximately 0.6 V. Thus, if an external current is passed
through the diode, about 0.6 V will be developed across the diode such that
the P-doped region is positive with respect to the N-doped region and the
diode is said to be "turned on" as it has a forward bias.

Fig.1 Semiconductor light emitting Diode

Fig.1 LED in forward bias condition

Fig.2 LED in reverse bias condition

Fig.3. VI Characteristics of LED

 The voltage- current curve is exponential. In a normal Si/Ge LED at
rated currents, the arbitrary "cut-in" voltage is defined as 0.6 to 0.7/0.2 to 0.3
volts.
At forward bias, where only a small forward current (in the mA range) is
conducted. At reverse biases more positive than the PIV, has only a very
small reverse saturation current. In the reverse bias region for a normal P-N
rectifier diode, the current through the device is very low (in the µA range)
PROCEDURE:

7. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram of fig. 1 through

connecting wires.
8. Increase the applied voltage of Battery and take the readings of
voltmeter.
9. Continuously increase the value of Battery and take readings.
10.Draw the graph on graph paper.
11.Plot the graph evaluate static & Dynamic Resistance.
12.Connect the circuit as shown in fig. 2 & repeat procedure steps. (ii),
(iii) & (iv) and draw graph & evaluate Reverse Resistance.

OBSERVATIONS TABLE:

For forward bias:

S.No. Vf (volt) If (mA)

For reverse bias:

S.No. Vr (volt) Ir (µA)

RESULT: Characteristics of light emiting diode is studied and ploted. The

following parameters of the given LED is found to be-

Cut-in Voltage = Vγ =…………..V

Reverse Resistance, Rr = Vr/Ir = QC/RC = ……….....Ω
Static Resistance, Rdc = V/I = ON/OM =…………... Ω
Dynamic Resistance, Rac = ∆Vf/∆If = AB/CD = …………. Ω

CONCLUSION:

The LED has non-linear characteristics.

PRECAUTIONS:

6. Ensure connection is correct.

7. Avoid loose connection.
8. Slowly increase the input voltage.
9. Centre knob of multi meter should be properly adjusted for measuring
Current & voltage.
10.Switch ON the instrument while performing the experiment only.

EXPERIMENT NO-10

AIM: To plot static characteristic of transistor for CE configuration.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: A/D lab kit, BJT (BC547), two resistance,

three multi meters & patch cords.

THEORY: A BJT consists of three differently doped semiconductor

regions, the emitter region, the base region and the collector region. These
regions are, respectively, p type, n type and p type in a PNP, and n type, p
type and n type in a NPN transistor. Each semiconductor region is connected
to a terminal, appropriately labeled: emitter (E), base (B) and collector
(C).
A common-emitter amplifier is one of three basic single-stage
bipolar-junction-transistor (BJT) amplifier topologies, typically used as a
voltage amplifier. In this circuit the base terminal of the transistor serves as
the input, the collector is the output, and the emitter is common to both,
hence its name.
 Fig 1.CE configuration

The diagram opposite is a schematic representation of an npn

transistor connected to two voltage sources. To make the transistor conduct
appreciable current (on the order of 1 µA) from C to E, VBE must be above a
minimum value sometimes referred to as the cut-in voltage. The cut-in
voltage is usually about 0.7V for silicon BJTs, but can be different
depending on the current level selected for the application and the type of
transistor. This applied voltage causes the lower p-n junction to 'turn-on'
allowing a flow of electrons from the emitter into the base. Because of the
electric field existing between collector and emitter (caused by VCE), the
majority of these electron cross the upper p-n junction into the collector to
form the collector current, IC. The remainder of the electrons are recombine
with holes, the majority carriers in the emitter, making a current through the
base connection to form the emitter current, IE. As shown in the diagram, the
emitter current, IE, is the total transistor current which is the sum of the other
terminal currents. That is:

In the diagram, the arrows representing current point in the direction of the
electric or conventional current—the flow of electrons is in the opposite
direction of the arrows since electrons carry negative electric charge. The
ratio of the collector current to the base current is called the DC current gain.

βdc = IC/IB
For practical devices the level of β typically extends from 50 to 400 is most
in the range.
For ac situation where the point of operation moves on the characteristic
curve, an ac current gain is defined by

βac = ∆IC/∆IB VCE = constant

PROCEDURE:
Input characteristic of transistor:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure 6.1
2. Note down the voltage (VBE) reading and current (IB) reading with the
help of digital multi meter keeping VCE constant.
3. Increase VBE voltage in steps of 0.1V from zero and note down V BE
and IB.
4. Repeat the same procedure for different constant voltage VCE.
5. Plot graph between IB (Y-axis) V& VBE (X-axis) for constant VCE.
OBSERVATION:
VCE= VCE=
2V 6V
S. VBE(volt
No. ) IB (µA) IB (µA)
 Fig.2 Input characteristic of CE Configuration\
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the fig 1.
2. Increase the output voltage (VCE) in steps of 1V from zero and note
down the voltage (VCE) and IC readings with the help of digital Multi
meter, keeping constant IB current
3. Repeat the above procedure for different value of IB.
4. Plot graph between IC & VCE for constant IB
OBSERVATION:
IB =
IB= 10µA 20µA
VCE(volt
S. No. ) IC (mA) IC (mA)
 Fig. Output characteristics of CE configuration
RESULT:
The characteristics of CE configuration is verified & the values of different
parameters for CE are found to be-

Ri =….…….Ω
Ro =………. Ω
βdc = Ic/IB =……….
βac = ∆Ic/∆IB = ………...

CONCLUSION:

The CE configuration provides moderate input and output impedance.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Ensure connection is correct.

2. Avoid loose connection.
3. Slowly increase the input voltage.
4. Centre knob of multi meter should be properly adjusted for measuring
Current & voltage.
5. Switch ON the instrument while performing the experiment only.

APPLICATION:

It is used as a high gain amplifier.

VIVA QUESTION:

1. States and defines different types of region in a transistor.

2. Transistor can be made by using two diodes. True or false justify your
answer.
3. What do you mean by base width modulation?
4. Transistor is linear or nonlinear. Give the answer with proper reasons.