Al-Maaqal University

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

Mathematics

Date:
Time: 2h
By

Dr. Hawraa Sami

1- Conical Sections

1.1 Introduction

Conic sections get their name because they can be generated by intersecting a
plane with a cone. A cone has two identically shaped parts called nappes. One
nappe is what most people mean by “cone,” having the shape of a party hat. A
right circular cone can be generated by revolving a line passing through the origin
around the y-axis.

Conic sections are generated by the intersection of a plane with a cone (Figure1).
If the plane is parallel to the axis of revolution (the y-axis), then the conic section
is a hyperbola. If the plane is parallel to the generating line, the conic section is a
parabola. If the plane is perpendicular to the axis of revolution, the conic section
is a circle. If the plane intersects one nappe at an angle to the axis (other than
90°), then the conic section is an ellipse.

The four conic sections. Each conic is determined by the angle the plane makes
with the axis of the cone

1
1.2 Parabolas

A parabola is defined as a collection of points such that the distance to a fixed

point (the focus) and a fixed straight line (the directrix) are equal. The point
halfway between the focus and the directrix is called the vertex of the parabola.
The vertex of a parabola is the point where the parabola changes direction.
Given a parabola opening upward with vertex located at (h, k) and focus located
at (h, k+ p), where p is a constant, the equation for the parabola is given by

𝟏
𝒚= (𝒙 − 𝒉)𝟐 + 𝒌
𝟒𝒑

This is the standard form of a parabola.

We can also study the cases when the parabola opens down or to the left or the
right. The equation for each of these cases can also be written in standard form as
shown in the following graphs.

2
 Four parabolas, opening in various directions, along with their equations in
standard form.
Example 1:
Put the equation x2 – 4x – 8y + 12 = 0 into standard form and graph the resulting
parabola.
Solution:
8y = x2 – 4x + 12
8y = (x2 – 4x) + 12
8y = (x2 – 4x + 4) +12 – 4

3
 1
y = (x – 2)2 + 1
8
This equation is now in standard form.
Comparing this to Equation of parabola gives h=2, k=1, and p=2.
The parabola opens up, with vertex at (2, 1), focus at (2, 3), and directrix y=−1.
The graph of this parabola appears as follows.

Example 2
The equation of a parabola is 2 (y-3)2 + 24 = x. Find the length of the latus rectum,
focus, and vertex.
Solution:
To find: length of latus rectum, focus and vertex of a parabola
2(y-3)2 + 24 = x
1
On comparing it with the general equation of a parabola 𝑦 = (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + 𝑘,
4𝑝
we get
p = 0.125
(h, k) = (24, 3)
Length of latus rectum = 4p = 4(0.125) = 0.5
Focus= (24, k + p) = (24.125, 3)
Vertex = (24, 3)

4
Example 3:

The equation of a parabola is 5𝑥 2 − 40𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 84 = 0 Find the length of the

latus rectum, focus, vertex and graph the results.

Solution
5𝑥 2 − 40𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 84 = 0
𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 0.8𝑦 + 16.8 = 0
5𝑥 2 − 40𝑥 + 16 − 16 + 0.8𝑦 + 16.8 = 0
(𝑥 − 4)2 = −0.8𝑦 − 0.8
(𝑥 − 4)2 = −0.8(𝑦 + 1)
(h, k)= (4, -1)
p= -0.2
Length of latus rectum = 4p = 4(-0.2) = -0.8
Focus= (4, p + k) = (4, -1.2)
Vertex = (4, -1)

5
Example 4:

The equation of a parabola is 𝑦 2 − 18𝑦 − 5𝑥 + 41 = 0 Find the length of the

latus rectum, focus, vertex and graph the results.

Solution
𝑦 2 − 18𝑦 − 5𝑥 + 41 = 0
𝑦 2 − 18𝑦 + 81 − 81 − 5𝑥 + 41 = 0
(𝑦 − 9)2 − 81 − 5𝑥 + 41 = 0
(𝑦 − 9)2 − 5𝑥 − 40 = 0
(𝑦 − 9)2 = −5(𝑥 + 8)
In comparing with (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 4𝑝(𝑥 − ℎ)
4p=-5
P=-1.25
Length of latus rectum = 4p = 4(-1.25) = -5
Focus= (-8-1.25, 9)

Vertex= (h, k) = (-8, 9)

6
1.3 Ellipses
An ellipse is the set of all points for which the sum of their distances from two
fixed points (the foci) is constant.
Consider the ellipse with center (h, k), a horizontal major axis with length 2a,
and a vertical minor axis with length 2b. Then the equation of this ellipse in
standard form is
(𝒙 − 𝒉)𝟐 (𝒚 − 𝒌)𝟐
+ =𝟏
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
The foci are located at (h ± c, k), where c2 =a2−b2. The equations of the
directrices are x =h± a2/c. If the major axis is vertical, then the equation of the
ellipse becomes
(𝒙 − 𝒉)𝟐 (𝒚 − 𝒌)𝟐
+ =𝟏
𝒃𝟐 𝒂𝟐
The foci are located at (h, k±c), where c2 =a2−b2. The equations
of the directrices in this case are y=k±a2/c.

7
Example 1:
Write the equation of the ellipse shown

Solution:
The coordinates of the vertices that lie on the major axis are (–7, 0) and (7, 0), so
the length of the major axis is 14.
2a = 14 Length of the major axis
a=7 Divide both sides of the equation by 2.
a2 = 49 Calculate a2.
The foci are (–6, 0) and (6, 0), so c is 6.
c2 = a2 – b2 Relationship among a, b, and c.
36 = 49 – b2.

8
b2 =13
𝐱𝟐 𝐲𝟐
+ =𝟏
𝟒𝟗 𝟏𝟑

Example 2:
Find the standard form of the equation for an ellipse centered at (-2, 1), a vertex
at (-2, 4) and passing through the point (0, 1).
Solution:
The center at (-2, 1) and vertex at (-2, 4) means the major axis is vertical since
the x-values are the same.
The ellipse equation has the standard form
(𝒚 − 𝒌)𝟐 (𝒙 − 𝒉)𝟐
+ =𝟏
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
The value of a = 4-1=3. Substituting a = 3, h = -2, and k = 1 gives
(𝒚 − 𝟏)𝟐 (𝒙 + 𝟐)𝟐
+ =𝟏
𝟑𝟐 𝒃𝟐
Solving for b gives b=2.
The equation of the ellipse in standard form is
(𝒚 − 𝟏)𝟐 (𝒙 + 𝟐)𝟐
+ =𝟏
𝟑𝟐 𝟐𝟐

Example 3:
Find the standard form of the equation for an ellipse, where the Foci (8, 2) and (-
2, 2), major axis length 12.
Solution:
Center in between the two foci = (3, 2)
h=3
k=2
v1= (9, 2)
v2= (-3, 2)

9
a=6
c=5
b2= 36-25= 11
(𝐱 − 𝟑)𝟐 (𝐲 − 𝟐)𝟐
+ =𝟏
𝟑𝟔 𝟏𝟏

Example 4:
Put the equation 9x2+4y2−36x+24y+36=0 into standard form and graph the
resulting ellipse.
Solution:
9𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 − 36𝑥 + 24𝑦 = −36
(9𝑥 2 − 36𝑥) + (4𝑦 2 + 24𝑦) = −36
9(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥) + 4(𝑦 2 + 6𝑦) = −36
9(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 − 4) + 4(𝑦 2 + 6𝑦 + 9 − 9) = −36
9(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4) − 36 + 4(𝑦 2 + 6𝑦 + 9) − 36 = −36
9(𝑥 − 2)2 + 4(𝑦 + 3)2 = 36
9(𝑥 − 2)2 4(𝑦 + 3)2
+ =1
36 36

(𝑥 − 2)2 (𝑦 + 3)2
+ =1
4 9
Comparing this to standard equation
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 (𝑦 − 𝑘)2
+ =1
𝑎2 𝑏2
h=2, k =−3, a=3, and b=2. This is a vertical ellipse with center at (2, −3), major
axis 6, and minor axis 4. The graph of this ellipse appears as follows.

10
Example 5:
Put the equation 4𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 24𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 21 = 0 into standard form and graph
the resulting.
Solution
4𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 24𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 21 = 0

4(𝑥 2 + 6𝑥) + (𝑦 2 − 2𝑦) = −21

4(𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9 − 9) + (𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 + 1 − 1) = −21

4(𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9) − 36 + (𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 + 1) − 1 = −21

4(𝑥 + 3)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 = 16

(𝑥 + 3)2 (𝑦 − 1)2
+ =1
4 16

(h, k)= (-3, 1)

a=4

b=2

𝑐 = √𝑎 2 − 𝑏 2
c=3.46
e= c/a = 0.866
Length of latus rectum = 2b2/a =1
Focus 1= (-3, 4.46)

11
Focus 2= (-3, -2.46)
Vertex 1= (-3, 5)
Vertex 2 = (-3,-3)
Directrix 1 = k+ a/e = 1+4/0.866 = 5.62
Directrix 2= k- a/e = 1- 4/0.866 =-3.62

Example 6:
Find the equation of ellipse with foci at (2, 3) and (2, 5) and vertex (2, 2) and
(2, 6)
Solution
(𝑥 − 2)2 (𝑦 − 4)2
+ =1
4 3

12
Example 7:
Eccentricity e of an ellipse is the ratio c/a where c is the distance of a focus from
the center and a is the distance of a vertex from the center. Write an equation for
an ellipse with eccentricity 0.8 and foci at (-4, 0) and (4, 0).
Solution
e= 0.8 = c/a
From foci c=4
a= 5
b2 = 25-16 = 9
b=3
h=0
k=0
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1
25 9

Example 8:
Determine the eccentricity of the ellipse described by the equation
(𝑥 − 3)2 (𝑦 + 2)2
+ =1
16 25
Solution:
From the equation we see that a=5 and b=4.
The value of c can be calculated using the equation a2 =b2+c2 for an ellipse.
Substituting the values of a and b and solving for c gives c=3.
Therefore the eccentricity of the ellipse is
e= c/a = 3/5 =0.6.

13
1.4 Hyperbolas

A hyperbola is the set of all points where the difference between their distances
from two fixed points (the foci) is constant.

Consider the hyperbola with center (h, k), a horizontal major axis, and a vertical
minor axis. Then the equation of this ellipse is

(𝐱 − 𝐡)𝟐 (𝐲 − 𝐤)𝟐
− =𝟏
𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟐

The foci are located at (h±c, k), where c2 =a2+b2. The equations of the asymptotes
are given by y=k±b/a (x−h). The equations of the directrices are

𝐚𝟐 𝐚𝟐
𝐱=𝐤± =𝐡±
√(𝐚𝟐 + 𝐛 𝟐 𝐜

If the major axis is vertical, then the equation of the hyperbola becomes

(𝐲 − 𝐤)𝟐 (𝐱 − 𝐲)𝟐
− =𝟏
𝐚𝟐 𝐛𝟐
The foci are located at (h, k±c), where c2 =a2+b2. The equations of the asymptotes
are given by y=k±a/b(x−h). The equations of the directrices are
𝐚𝟐 𝐚𝟐
𝐲=𝐤± =𝐤±
√(𝐚𝟐 + 𝐛 𝟐 𝐜

14
Example 1:
Write the equation of the hyperbola.

c2 = a2 + b2 Relationship among a, b, and c.

102 = 82 + b2 Substitute c = 10 and a = 8.

b2 =36

𝐱𝟐 𝐲𝟐
− =𝟏
𝟔𝟒 𝟑𝟔

Example 2:
Put the equation 4𝑥 2 − 9𝑦 2 + 36 = 0 into standard form and graph the resulting
hyperbola. What are the equations of the asymptotes?
𝟒𝐱 𝟐 − 𝟗𝐲 𝟐 + 𝟑𝟔 = 𝟎
𝒚𝟐 𝒙𝟐
− =𝟏
𝟒 𝟗
a=2
b=3
c= 3.6
a/e= 1.1
Vertex 1= (h, k+a) = (0, 2)
Vertex 2= (h, k-a) = (0, -2)
Focus 1 = (0, k+c) =(0, 3.6)
Focus 2= (0, -3.6)

15
Directrices = 𝑘 ± 𝑎/𝑒
direct.1= (0, 1.1)
direct.2 = (0, -1.1)
Asymptotes given by the equations y= (2/3) x. The graph of this hyperbola
appears in the following figure.

Example 3:
Put the equation 9x2−16y2+36x+32y−124=0 into standard form and graph the
resulting hyperbola. What are the equations of the asymptotes?

Solution:

9𝑥 2 − 16𝑦 2 + 36𝑥 + 32𝑦 = 124

(9𝑥 2 + 36𝑥) − (16𝑦 2 − 32𝑦) = 124

9(𝑥 2 + 4𝑥) − 16(𝑦 2 − 2𝑦) = 124

9(𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4 − 4) − 16(𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 + 1 − 1) = 124

9(𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4) − 36 − 16(𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 + 1) + 16 = 124

9(𝑥 + 2)2 − 16(𝑦 − 1)2 = 144

16
9(𝑥 + 2)2 16(𝑦 − 1)2
− =1
144 144

(𝑥 + 2)2 (𝑦 − 1)2
− =1
16 9
Comparing this to standard equation gives h=−2, k =1, a=4, and b=3. This is a
horizontal hyperbola with center at (−2, 1)
Vertex 1= (h + a, k) = (2, 1)
Vertex 2= (h - a, k) = (-6, 1)
Focus 1 = (2+4, 1)
Focus 2= (-6- 4, 1)
To find the directrices

𝑐 = √𝑎 2 + 𝑏 2
Directrices = 𝑘 ± 𝑎/𝑒
C=5
a/e= 3.2
direct.1= (-2+ 3.2, 1)
direct.2 = (-2- 3.2, 1)
Asymptotes given by the equations y=1±3/4(x+2). The graph of this hyperbola
appears in the following figure.

17
Example 4:
Find the standard form of the equation for a hyperbola with vertices at (-6, 0) and
(6,0) and asymptote y= 4/3 x.
Solution:
Since the vertices lie on the x-axis with a midpoint at the origin, the hyperbola is
horizontal with an equation of the form
𝑥2 𝑦2
− =1
𝑎2 𝑏 2
The value of a is the distance from the center to a vertex. The distance from (6,
0) to (0,0) is 6, so a = 6.
The asymptotes follow the form
𝑏
𝑦=± 𝑥
𝑎
4
From 𝑦 = ± 𝑥
3

4 b
=
3 6
b=8
The equation of the hyperbola in standard form is
𝑥2 𝑦2
− =1
62 82

Example 5:
Find the standard form of the equation for a hyperbola with vertices at (0, 9) and
(0,-9) and passing through the point (8, 15).
Solution:
Since the vertices lie on the y-axis with a midpoint at the origin, the hyperbola is
vertical with an equation of the form
𝑦2 𝑥2
− =1
𝑎2 𝑏 2
The value of a is the distance from the center to a vertex. The distance from (0,

18
9) to (0, 0) is 9, so a = 9.
Substituting a = 9 and the point (8, 15) gives
152 82
− 2=1
92 𝑏
b= 6
The standard equation for the hyperbola is
𝑦2 𝑥2
− =1
92 62

Example 6
The eccentricity e of a hyperbola is the ratio c/a, where c is the distance of a focus
from the center and a is the distance of a vertex from the center. Find the
eccentricity of
𝑥2 𝑦2
− =1
9 16
a=3
b=4
c2=a2+b2
c=5
e=c/a
e=5/3
Example 7
Put the equation x2 − 4y2 = 36 into standard form and graph the resulting
hyperbola. Then, find the equation of the ellipse with vertices are the foci of
hyperbola and e=0.5.
Solution:
𝑥2 𝑦2
− =1
36 9
a=6
b=3

19
To find the equation of the ellipse

𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1
45 33.6

Example 7
Find a Cartesian equation for the hyperbola centered at the origin that has a focus
at (3, 0) and the line x = 1 as the corresponding directrix.

Solution:
We first use the dimensions shown in Figure to find the hyperbola’s eccentricity.
The focus is (see Figure) (c, 0) = (3, 0), so c = 3.
Again from Figure, the directrix is the line x = a/e = 1, so a = e.
When combined with the equation e = c/a that defines eccentricity, these results

20
give
𝑐 3
𝑒= =
𝑎 𝑒
𝑒2 = 3
𝑒 = √3

Knowing e, we can now derive the equation we want from the equation

PF = e×PD.

In the coordinates of Figure, we have

𝑃𝐹 = 𝑒 × 𝑃𝐷

√(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 = √3 |𝑥 − 1|

𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 + 𝑦 2 = 3(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1)

2𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 6

𝑥2 𝑦2
− =1
3 6

21
1.5 Polar Equations of Conic Sections

In the preceding sections, we defined each conic in a different way, but each
involved the distance between a point on the curve and the focus. In the previous
section, the parabola was defined using the focus and a line called the directrix.
It turns out that all conic sections (circles, ellipses, hyperbolas, and parabolas)
can be defined using a single relationship.

A conic section can be defined by placing a fixed point at the origin, F(0,0), called
the focus, and drawing a line L called the directrix at x= ±p or y= ±p . The conic
section is the set of all points Q(x,y), for which the ratio of the distance from Q
to F to the distance from Q to the directrix is some positive constant e, called the
eccentricity. In other words,
𝒅(𝑸𝑭)
𝒆=
𝒅(𝑸𝑳)

To create a general equation for a conic section using the definition above, we
will use polar coordinates. Represent Q(x,y), in polar coordinates so Q(r cos(θ),
r sin(θ)). For now, we’ll focus on the case of a horizontal directrix at y= −p, as in
the picture above on the left.
The distance from the focus to the point Q in polar is just r.
The distance from the point Q to the directrix y= −p is
r sin (θ) =− p

22
p+ r sin (θ)
The ratio of these should be the constant eccentricity e, so
𝑟
𝑒=
𝑝 + 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑒𝑝
𝑟=
1 + 𝑒 sin 𝜃
The polar equation of a conic section with focal parameter p is given by

For the directrix is the line x = ±p

𝑒𝑝
𝑟=
1 ± 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
For the directrix is the line y = ±p
𝑒𝑝
𝑟=
1 ± 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Example1
Find an equation for the hyperbola with eccentricity 3/2 and directrix x = 2.
Solution:
We use Equation with p = 2 and e = 3/2:
3
( )×2 3
𝑟= 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑟=
3 1 + 1.5 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
1 + ( ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
2
Example 2
Identify and create a graph of the conic section described by the equation

3
𝑟=
1 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Solution

The constant term in the denominator is 1, so the eccentricity of the conic is 2.

e˃1, then this is a hyperbola.

The focal parameter p can be calculated by using the equation ep=3. Since e=2,
this gives p= 3/2. The cosine function appears in the denominator, so the

23
hyperbola is horizontal. Pick a few values for θ and create a table of values. Then
we can graph the hyperbola.

Example 3
For each of the following conics with focus at the origin, identify the shape, the
directrix, and the eccentricity.
8
𝑟=
1 − 2 sin(𝜃)
6
𝑟=
3 − 2 cos(𝜃)

Solution
𝟖
𝒓=
𝟏 − 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽)

24
This equation is already in standard form
𝑒𝑝
𝑟=
1 ± 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
For a conic with horizontal directrix at y=−p. The eccentricity is the coefficient
of sin (θ ) , so e = 2.
Since e = 2 > 1, the shape will be a hyperbola.
Looking at the numerator, ep = 8, and substituting e = 2 gives p = 4.
The directrix is y= − 4.
𝟔
𝒓=
𝟑 − 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜽)
This equation is not in standard form, since the constant in the denominator is not
1. To put it into standard form, we can multiply the numerator and denominator
by 1/3.
1
6
𝑟= ×3
3 − 2 cos(𝜃) 1
3
2
𝑟=
2
1 − cos(𝜃)
3
This is the standard form for a conic with vertical directrix x =−p. The eccentricity
is the coefficient on cos (θ), so e =3/2.
Since 0 < e < 1, the shape is an ellipse.
Looking at the numerator, ep = 2, so 2/3 p=2, p=3. The directrix is x = −3.

Example 4
𝟔
Sketch a graph of 𝒓 = and write its Cartesian equation.
𝟑−𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜽)

Solution
This is in standard form, and we can identify that e = 0.5, so the shape is an ellipse.
From the numerator, ep = 3, so 0.5p = 3 , giving p = 6. The directrix is y = −6.

25
Plotting these points and remembering the origin is one of the foci gives an idea
of the shape, which we could sketch in. To get a better understanding of the
shape, we could use these features to find more
The vertices are at (0, -2) and (0, 6), so the center must be halfway between, at
−2+6
(0, ) = (0, 2). Since the vertices are a distance a from the center, a = 6 – 2 =
2

4
One focus is at (0, 0), a distance of 2 from the center, so c = 2, and the other focus
must be 2 above the center, at (0, 4).
We can now solve for b: b2=a2-c2, so b2=42-22=10, hence b = ± 10. The minor axis
endpoints would be at(−√10, 2) and (−√10, 2)
We can now use the center, a, and b to write the Cartesian equation for this curve:
𝑥 2 (𝑦 − 2)2
+ =1
10 16

26
2. Parametric Equations

2.1 Introduction

In this section we examine parametric equations and their graphs. In the two-
dimensional coordinate system, parametric equations are useful for describing
curves that are not necessarily functions. The parameter is an independent
variable that both x and y depend on, and as the parameter increases, the values
of x and y trace out a path along a plane curve. For example, if the parameter is t
(a common choice), then t might represent time. Then x and y are defined as
functions of time, and (x (t), y (t)) can describe the position in the plane of a given
object as it moves along a curved path.

2.2 Parametric Equations and Their Graphs

If x and y are continuous functions of ton an interval I, then the equations x = x(t)
and y= y(t) are called parametric equations and t is called the parameter. The set
of points (x, y) obtained as t varies over the interval I is called the graph of the
parametric equations. The graph of parametric equations is called a parametric
curve or plane curve, and is denoted by C.

Example1

Sketch the curve described by the following parametric equations:

𝑎. 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑡 − 1, 𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑡 + 4, −3≤𝑡 ≤2

𝑏. 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 − 3, 𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑡 + 1 −2≤𝑡 ≤3

𝑐. 𝑥(𝑡) = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡, 𝑦(𝑡) = 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡, 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋

Solution:

a. To create a graph of this curve, first set up a table of values. Since the

independent variable in both x(t) and y(t) is t, let t appear in the first column. Then
x(t) and y(t) will appear in the second and third columns of the table.

27
 t X(t) Y(t)
-3 -4 -2
-2 -3 0
-1 -2 2
0 -1 4
1 0 6
2 1 8
The graph of these points appears in Figure. The arrows on the graph indicate the
orientation of the graph, that is, the direction that a point moves on the graph as t
varies from −3 to 2.

b. To create a graph of this curve, again set up a table of values.

t X(t) Y(t)
-2 1 -3
-1 -2 -1
0 -3 1
1 -2 3
2 1 5
3 6 7

28
The graph of this plane curve appears in the following graph.

c. In this case, use multiples of π/6 fort and create another table of values:

29
The graph of this plane curve appears in the following graph.

Example 2
Sketch the parametric curve for the following set of parametric equations. Clearly
indicate direction of motion. x=5cos (3t), y=2sin (3t), 0≤t≤2π
Solution:

t x y

0 5 0

π/2 0 -2

π -5 0

3π/2 0 2

2π 5 0

30
2.3 Eliminating the Parameter

To better understand the graph of a curve represented parametrically, it is useful

to rewrite the two equations as a single equation relating the variables x and y.
Then we can apply any previous knowledge of equations of curves in the plane
to identify the curve.
Example 1
The position P(x, y) of a particle moving in the xy-plane is given by the equations
and parameter interval
𝑥 = √𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑡, 𝑡≥0
Identify the path traced by the particle and describe the motion.
Solution:
We try to identify the path by eliminating t between the equations and y
= t, which might produce a re-cognizable algebraic relation between x and y. We
find that
( √𝑡 ) 2 = 𝑥 2
𝑦 = 𝑥2
Thus, the particle’s position coordinates satisfy the equation y = x2, so the particle
moves along the parabola y = x2.
The particle starts at (0, 0) when t = 0 and rises into the first quadrant as t
increases (Figure). The parameter interval is and there is no terminal
point.

31
Example 2

Eliminate the parameter for each of the plane curves described by the following
parametric equations and describe the resulting graph.

𝑎. 𝑥(𝑡) = √2𝑡 + 4, 𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑡 + 1, −2≤𝑡 ≤6

𝑏. 𝑥(𝑡) = 4 cos 𝑡 , 𝑦(𝑡) = 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡, 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋

Solution
a. To eliminate the parameter, we can solve either of the equations for t. For

example, solving the first equation for t gives

𝑥 = √2𝑡 + 4
𝑥 2 = 2𝑡 + 4
𝑥 2 − 4 = 2𝑡
𝑥2 − 4
𝑡=
2
Note that when we square both sides it is important to observe that 𝑥 ≥ 0.
𝑥 2 −4
Substituting 𝑡 = this into y(t) yields.
2

𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑡 + 1
𝑥2 − 4
𝑦 = 2( )+1
2
𝑦 = 𝑥2 − 3
This is the equation of a parabola opening upward. There is, however, a domain
because of the limits on the parameter t.
When t= -2,

𝑥 = √2(−2) + 4 = 0
When t=6

𝑥 = √2(6) + 4 = 4
The graph of this plane curve follows.

32
b. Sometimes it is necessary to be a bit creative in eliminating the parameter.

The parametric equations for this example are

x(t)=4cost and y(t)=3sint.

Solving either equation for t directly is not advisable because sine and cosine
are not one-to-one functions.
However, dividing the first equation by 4 and the second equation by 3 (and
suppressing the t) gives us cost = x/4 and sint = y/3.
Now use the Pythagorean identity cos2t+sin2t =1 and replace the expressions
for sint and cost with the equivalent expressions in terms of x and y. This gives
𝑥 𝑦
( )2 + ( )2 = 1
4 3
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =2
16 9

This is the equation of a horizontal ellipse centered at the origin, with semi-major
axis 4 and semi-minor axis 3 as shown in the following graph.

33
Example 3

Find two different pairs of parametric equations to represent the graph of

y=2x2−3.

Solution:
First, it is always possible to parameterize a curve by defining x(t)=t, then
replacing x with t in the equation for y(t). This gives the parameterization

x(t)=t,

y(t)=2t2−3.

Second parameterization:
𝑡 = 2𝑥 2

𝑡
𝑥(𝑡) = √
2

Y(t)=t-3

3. Polar Coordinates
3.1 Defining Polar Coordinates

To find the coordinates of a point in the polar coordinate system, consider Figure.
The point P has Cartesian coordinates (x, y). The line segment connecting the
origin to the point P measures the distance from the origin to P and has length r.
The angle between the positive x-axis and the line segment has measure θ. This
observation suggests a natural correspondence between the coordinate pair (x, y)
and the values r and θ. This correspondence is the basis of the polar coordinate
system. Note that every point in the Cartesian plane has two values (hence the
term ordered pair) associated with it. In the polar coordinate system, each point
also two values associated with it: r and θ.

34
Given a point P in the plane with Cartesian coordinates (x, y) and polar
coordinates (r, θ), the following conversion formulas hold true:

x = r cos (θ) and y = r sin (θ),

r2 = x2+y2 and tan (θ) = y/x.
These formulas can be used to convert from rectangular to polar or from polar to
rectangular coordinates.

Example 1
Convert each of the following points into polar coordinates.
a.(1, 1) b. (−3, 4) c.(0, 3) d. (5√3, −5)
Convert each of the following points into rectangular coordinates.
e. (3, π/3) f. (2, 3π/2) g. (6, −5π/6)
Solution:
a. Use x =1 and y=1
𝑦
𝑟2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑥
1
𝑟 2 = 12 + 12 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
1
𝜋
𝑟 = √2 𝜃=
4
Therefore this point can be represented as (2, π/4) in polar coordinates.
b. Use x =−3 and y=4
𝑦
𝑟2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑥

35
 4
𝑟 2 = −32 + 42 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = −
3
𝑟=5 𝜃 = 2.21
Therefore this point can be represented as (5, 2.21) in polar coordinates.
c. Use x =0 and y=3
𝑦
𝑟2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑥
𝑟=3 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 3/0
Direct application of the second equation leads to division by zero. Graphing the
point (0, 3) on the rectangular coordinate system reveals that the point is located
on the positive y-axis. The angle between the positive x- axis and the positive y-
axis is π/2. Therefore this point can be represented as (3, π/2) in polar coordinates.
d. Use 𝒙 = 𝟓√𝟑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒚 = −𝟓
𝑦
𝑟2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑥
−5
𝑟 2 = (5√3)2 + −52 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
5 √3
𝑟 = 10 𝜃 = −𝜋/6
Therefore this point can be represented as (10, − π/6) in polar coordinates.

e. Use r =3 and θ = π/3

𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 = 3 cos ( ) 𝑦 = 3sin( )
3 3
3 3 √3
𝑥= 𝑦=
2 2

3 3√3
Therefore this point can be represented as ( , ) in rectangular coordinates
2 2

f. Use r =2 and θ = 3π/2

𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
3𝜋 3𝜋
𝑥 = 2 cos ( ) 𝑦 = 2sin( )
2 2
𝑥=0 𝑦 = −2

36
Therefore this point can be represented as (0, −2) in rectangular coordinates.
g. Use r =6 and θ = −5π/6

𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
5𝜋 5𝜋
𝑥 = 6 cos (− ) 𝑦 = 6sin(− )
6 6
𝑥 = −3√3 𝑦 = −3
Therefore this point can be represented as (−3√3, −3)in rectangular coordinates

Example 2
Plot each of the following points on the polar plane.
a. (2, π/4)
b. (−3, 2π/3)
c. (4, 5π/4)
Solution:
The three points are plotted in the following figure.

Example 3
Find a polar equation for the circle x2 + (y - 3)2 = 9
Solution:
We apply the equations relating polar and Cartesian coordinates:
x2 + ( y - 3)2 = 9

37
x2 + y2 - 6y + 9 = 9
x2 + y2 - 6y = 0
x2 + y2 = r2, y = r sin𝜃
r2 – 6 r sin𝜃 = 0
r = 6 sin 𝜃

3.2 Polar Curves

In the rectangular coordinate system, we can graph a function y= f(x) and create a
curve in the Cartesian plane. In a similar, we can graph a curve that is generated
by a function r = f(θ).

To plotting a curve in polar coordinates should be:

1. Create a table with two columns. The first column is for θ, and the second
column is for r.
2. Create a list of values for θ.

3. Calculate the corresponding r values for each θ.

4. Plot each ordered pair (r, θ) on the coordinate axes.

5. Connect the points and look for a pattern.

6.

Example 1
Graph the curve defined by the function r = 4 sin(θ). Identify the curve and
rewrite the equation in rectangular coordinates.

38
Solution:

Because the function is a multiple of a sine function, it is periodic with period

2π, so use values for θ between 0 and 2π. The result of steps 1–3 appear in the
following table.

This is the graph of a circle. The equation r =4sinθ can be converted into
rectangular coordinates by first multiplying both sides by r. This gives the
equation r2 =4 r sin (θ). Next use the facts that r2 = x2+y2 and y=r sin (θ). This

39
gives 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4𝑦.
To put this equation into standard form:

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 = 0

𝑥 2 + (𝑦 2 − 4𝑦) = 0

𝑥 2 + (𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + 4) = 0 + 4

𝑥 2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 = 4.

This is the equation of a circle with radius 2 and center (0, 2) in the rectangular
coordinate system.
Example 2
Transforming Polar Equations to Rectangular Coordinates. Rewrite each of the
following equations in rectangular coordinates and identify the graph.
a. θ = π/3

b. r = 3

c. r = 6 cos θ – 8 sin θ

Solution:
a. Take the tangent of both sides. This gives:

𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜋/3) = 3.
𝑦
𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑥
𝑦 = 3𝑥.
This is the equation of a straight line passing through the origin with slope 3.

b. First, square both sides of the equation. r2 =9

𝑥2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 9,
Which is the equation of a circle centered at the origin with radius 3.

c. Multiply both sides of the equation by r

𝑟 2 = 6𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 8𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.

40
𝑟 2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.
This gives

𝑟 2 = 6(𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) − 8(𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 6𝑥 − 8𝑦.
To put this equation into standard form, first move the variables from the right-
hand side of the equation to the left-hand side, then complete the square.

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 6𝑥 − 8𝑦 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 𝑦 2 + 8𝑦 = 0
(𝑥 2 − 6𝑥) + (𝑦 2 + 8𝑦) = 0

(𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9) + (𝑦 2 + 8𝑦 + 16) = 9 + 16

(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 + 4)2 = 25

This is the equation of a circle with center at (3, −4) and radius 5. Notice that
the circle passes through the origin since the center is 5 units away.

We have now seen several examples of drawing graphs of curves defined by

polar equations. A summary of some common curves is given in the tables below.
In each equation, a and b are arbitrary constants.

41
42
3.3 Symmetry in Polar Coordinates

Consider a curve generated by the function r = f(θ) in polar coordinates.

i. The curve is symmetric about the polar axis if for every point (r, θ) on the

graph, the point (r, −θ) is also on the graph. Similarly, the equation r = f(θ) is
unchanged by replacing θ with −θ.

ii. The curve is symmetric about the pole if for every point (r, θ) on the graph,

the point (r, π+θ) is also on the graph. Similarly, the equation r = f(θ) is unchanged
when replacing r with −r, or θ with π+θ.

iii. The curve is symmetric about the vertical line θ = π 2 if for every point (r,

θ) on the graph, the point (r, π−θ) is also on the graph. Similarly, the equation r =
f(θ) is unchanged when θ is replaced by π−θ.

The following table shows examples of each type of symmetry.

43
Example 1

Find the symmetry of the rose defined by the equation 𝑟 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜃) and create
a graph.

Solution:
Suppose the point (r, θ) is on the graph of 𝑟 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜃).

i. To test for symmetry about the polar axis, first try replacing θ with −θ. This

gives = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛(2(−𝜃)) = −3𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜃) .Since this changes the original equation,

this test is not satisfied. However, returning to the original equation and replacing
r with −r and θ with π−θ yields

−𝑟 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛(2(𝜋 − 𝜃))

−𝑟 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋 − 2𝜃)

−𝑟 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛(−2𝜃)

−𝑟 = −3𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃.

Multiplying both sides of this equation by −1 gives 𝑟 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃, which is the

original equation. This demonstrates that the graph is symmetric with respect to
the polar axis.

ii. To test for symmetry with respect to the pole, first replace r with −r, which

yields −𝑟 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜃). Multiplying both sides by −1 gives 𝑟 = −3𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜃),

which does not agree with the original equation. Therefore the equation does not
pass the test for this symmetry. However, returning to the original equation and
replacing θ with θ+π gives

𝑟 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛(2(𝜃 + 𝜋))

= 3𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜃 + 2𝜋)

= 3(𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋)

44
= 3𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃.

Since this agrees with the original equation, the graph is symmetric about the
pole.

iii. To test for symmetry with respect to the vertical line θ = π/2, first replace both

r with −r and θ with −θ.

−𝑟 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛(2(−𝜃))

−𝑟 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛(−2𝜃)

−𝑟 = −3𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃.

Multiplying both sides of this equation by −1 gives 𝑟 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃, which is the

original equation. Therefore the graph is symmetric about the vertical line θ = π/2.
This graph has symmetry with respect to the polar axis, the origin, and the vertical
line going through the pole. To graph the function, tabulate values of θ between 0
and π/2 and then reflect the resulting graph.

This gives one petal of the rose, as shown in the following graph.

45
Reflecting this image into the other three quadrants gives the entire graph as
shown.

46
3.4 Areas in Polar Coordinates
In this section we are going to look at areas enclosed by polar curves. The region
in figure below is bounded by the rays 𝜃 = 𝛼 and 𝜃 = 𝛽 and the curve 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃).

The formula for finding the shaded area in the sketch above is:
𝜷
𝟏
𝑨 = ∫ 𝒓𝟐 𝒅𝜽
𝜶 𝟐

Example 1
Determine the shaded area of the curve 𝑟 = sin 2𝜃

Solution
𝛽
1 2
𝐴=∫ 𝑟 𝑑𝜃
𝛼 2
𝜋
21
𝐴=∫ (𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃)2 𝑑𝜃
0 2

47
 𝜋
21 1
𝐴=∫ ∗ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃)𝑑𝜃
0 2 2

1 sin4θ π/2
A = (θ − )|0
4 4
π
A=
8
Example 2
Determine the area of the inner loop of 𝑟 = 2 + 4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Solution:
For this problem we’ll also need to know the values of θ where the curve goes
through the origin. We can get these by setting the equation equal to zero and
solving.
0 = 2 + 4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = −
2
2𝜋 4𝜋
𝜃= ,
3 3
4𝜋
3 1
𝐴=∫ (2 + 4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 2
3
4𝜋
3
1
𝐴= ∫ (4 + 16𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 16𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃)𝑑𝜃
2
2𝜋
3

48
 4𝜋
3

𝐴 = ∫ 2 + 8cosθ + 4(1 + cos(2θ))dθ

2𝜋
3
4𝜋
3

𝐴 = ∫ 6 + 8cosθ + 4cos(2θ)dθ
2𝜋
3
4𝜋
3
𝐴 = |(6𝜃 + 8𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜃))|2𝜋
3

=4𝜋 − 6√3 = 2.174

Example 3
Find the area of the region that lies inside the circle r = 1 and outside the cardioid
r = 1 - cos θ.

Solution:
We sketch the region to determine its boundaries and find the limits of integration
(Figure). The outer curve is r2 = 1, the inner curve is r1 = 1 - cos θ, and θ runs
from – π/2 to π/2. The area is:

49
Example 4

Determine the area that lies inside 𝑟 = 3 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 and outside 𝑟 = 2

Solution

To determine this area, we’ll need to know the values of θ for which the two
curves intersect. We can determine these points by setting the two equations and
solving.
3 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 2
1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = −
2
7𝜋 11𝜋
𝜃= ,
6 6

50
Note as well here that we also acknowledged that another representation for the
11𝜋
angle is− 𝜋6. This is important for this problem. In order to use the formula
6
above the area must be enclosed as we increase from the smaller to larger angle.
7𝜋 11𝜋
So, if we use to we will not enclose the shaded area, instead we will
6 6
enclose the bottom most of the three regions. However, if we use the angles − 𝜋6
7𝜋
to we will enclose the area that we’re after.
6

Example 5
Determine the area of the region outside 𝑟 = 3 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 and inside 𝑟 = 2

51
Solution
7𝜋 11𝜋
So, this is the region that we get by using the limits to . The area for this
6 6
region is:

52