UNDERSTANDING ENVIRONMENT

Project Assistance: Shriji Kurup

Illustrations: Mukesh Acharya, Mukesh Barad, Shailesh Bhalani, Mukesh Panchal,

Roopalika, Vijay Shrimali, Hemal Solanki and D.M. Thumber

Support Services: Sarala P. Menon, Kantilal B. Parmar

The material was reviewed by the following subject experts:

Seema Bhatt, Independent Biodiversity Consultant
Sumana Bhattacharya, Climate Change Consultant, Ministry of Environment and Forests
Ashoke Chatterjee, former Director and Distinguished Fellow, National Institute of Design
Nitya Ghotge, Director, ANTHRA
P. Gopinath, Associate Professor, Kerala Agricultural University
Darshini Mahadevia, Associate Professor, Centre for Environmental Planning and
Technology
M.K. Prasad, Member, Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad, and former Pro-Vice Chancellor,
University of Calicut
Shailaja R., Programme Coordinator, Centre for Environment Education
B.R. Sitaram, Director, Zeal Educational Services
Late R.C. Trivedi, former Chairman, Gujarat Pollution Control Board
Centre for Environment Education (CEE) is a national institute of excellence for Environ-
ment Education supported by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of
India, and affiliated to the Nehru Foundation for Development. The main objective of
CEE is to create environmental awareness among children, youth, decision makers and
the general community. CEE develops innovative programmes and materials and field-
tests them for their validity and effectiveness. The aim is to provide models that can be
easily replicated to suit local conditions.
UNDERSTANDING ENVIRONMENT

Editors

KIRAN B. CHHOKAR
MAMATA PANDYA
MEENA RAGHUNATHAN

CEE
Centre for Environment Education

Sage Publications
New Delhi l Thousand Oaks l London
Copyright © Centre for Environment Education, Ahmedabad, 2004

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Available.

In search of sustainable livelihood systems: managing resources and change/edited by Ruedi
Baumgartner and Ruedi Högger.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Rural development—India. 2. Sustainable development—India. 3. Natural Resources—
India—Management. I. Baumgartner, Ruedi, 1942–II. Högger, Ruedi, 1940–
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 CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES 7
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 8
PREFACE 11

1. UNDERSTANDING ENVIRONMENT 13
Kartikeya V. Sarabhai

2. ECOLOGY 18
Shivani Jain

3. BIODIVERSITY 47
Seema Bhatt

4. WATER 73
Avanish Kumar and Sarita Thakore

5. ENERGY 104
Kiran B. Chhokar

6. POLLUTION 136
Hema Jagadeesan

7. AGRICULTURE 153
Kalyani Kandula

8. THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 175

Vivek S. Khadpekar and Sunil Jacob

9. INDUSTRY 202
Meena Raghunathan
6 UNDERSTANDING ENVIRONMENT

10. CLIMATE CHANGE AND OZONE DEPLETION 215

Kiran B. Chhokar, Mamata Pandya and Meena Raghunathan

11. POPULATION, CONSUMPTION AND ENVIRONMENT 238

Kalyani Kandula

12. ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT: THE LINKS 263

Kalyani Kandula

13. CITIZEN ACTION 279

Kiran B. Chhokar, Mamata Pandya and Avanish Kumar

APPENDICES
1. ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS IN INDIA 298
2. INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AGREEMENTS 304

GLOSSARY 310

ABOUT THE EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS 321

INDEX 325
 LIST OF TABLES

2.1 Major types of ecosystems in the world 23

2.2 India’s biodiversity 27

4.1 Sectorwise present and future water requirements: 1990–2050 78

4.2 Specifications for drinking water quality 92

6.1 Decibel levels of common sounds and effects of prolonged exposure 145

7.1 Diversity of agricultural crops in India 165

7.2 Diversity of domestic livestock breeds in India 166
7.3 Paddy output from a half-acre plot 171

8.1 Slum population of selected million plus cities, 1991 and 2001 181
8.2 Level of air pollution in selected cities 185
8.3 Physical characteristics of municipal solid wastes in Indian cities 188
8.4 Indian cities: Waste generation per capita 188

9.1 Industrial contribution of pollution by subsector in India 204

10.1 Carbon emissions per year from burning fossil fuels 226

11.1 India’s population 243

11.2 Ecological footprints 255
11.3 Population share of Indian states/union territories, 2001 260

12.1 Per capita GDP of selected countries (2001) 264

 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

ILLUSTRATIONS

2.1 Ecology at various levels 19

2.2 The ecosystem as a dynamic network of
interactions between living and non-living components 22
2.3 India: Biogeographic zones 25
2.4 Energy flow 33
2.5 Food chains 35
2.6 Organisms at various trophic levels 36

3.1 Genetic diversity gives rise to several varieties of wheat 48

3.2 There are no cheetahs left in the wild in India today 54
3.3 Project Tiger has helped not only to protect the tiger, but numerous
other wild inhabitants of India’s tiger sanctuaries as well 63

4.1 Water cycle 74

5.1 Consumption of energy in development of human society 105

5.2 Energy ladder 109
5.3 Solar panel 123

6.1 Industrial effluents 142

6.2 Biohazard symbol 144

8.1 Thermal inversion 186

9.1 India’s ecomark 211

 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 9

10.1 The greenhouse effect 217

10.2 How ozone is destroyed 232

FIGURES

3.1 Causes and mechanics of the loss of biodiversity 55

4.1 Sector-wise utilization of total water resource in India (1997) 79

4.2 Increase in annual groundwater demand (cubic kilometres) 80
4.3 Rapid drop in groundwater in Ahmedabad between 1960 and 1995 81
4.4 Drinking water availability in rural areas 83
4.5 Drinking water availability in urban areas 83

5.1 India: Sources of commercial energy (1997–98) 111

5.2 India: Sectoral consumption of commercial energy (1999–2000) 125

8.1 India: Population distribution in rural areas, urban areas, 1951–2001 179
8.2 Total number of motor vehicles in India (1951–2001) 190
 PREFACE

The Supreme Court of India has ruled that a course on Environment be made compulsory
at the undergraduate level. Some universities have already initiated such a course; many
others introduced it in the academic year beginning 2004, and still others will follow
soon after. The basic purpose of the course is to create environmentally and socially
aware and responsible citizens.
The United Nations has declared the decade beginning 2005 as the Decade for Edu-
cation for Sustainable Development (ESD). ESD is seen as a process that develops vision,
builds capacity, and empowers people to make changes within their societies. The goal
is to create citizens who can actively participate in creating a sustainable world for them-
selves and for future generations.
This book tries to address both these situations.
To live sustainably, people need to:

Understand how the Earth’s natural systems work.

Access information about the state of the planet.
Aquire tools and skills for wise, efficient and productive environmental management.
Be committed to use the Earth’s resources sensitively and share its bounty equitably.

The different components of the book address these needs. The book introduces readers
to some of the key scientific concepts and issues related to environment. It also sensitizes
them to environmental issues and concerns. Environmental issues make better sense
when one can understand them in the context of one’s own cognitive sphere. The chapters
in this book provide several examples and a fair amount of data. We hope this will help
contextualize the information. We hope readers will also try to think about, or make an
effort to find out about, similar or related examples from their own region, state, district
or neighbourhood to better understand the issues.
The book contains several ‘boxes’ of information. The boxed items in the text have
been introduced to serve two functions—to expand on ideas mentioned in the text and
to present related examples. They are also intended to provide a stimulus to readers to
explore on their own and find out more about the topic. The book also contains several
12 UNDERSTANDING ENVIRONMENT

case studies. These highlight examples of individual and collective actions by citizens
that have ‘made a difference’.
At the end of each chapter are three sections for self-learning and evaluation: Questions,
Exercises, and Discuss. The first section includes a list of questions, some of which are
intended to get readers to review the key ideas introduced in the chapter and to test
comprehension. Others are more open-ended and have been framed to encourage ana-
lytical and critical thinking. The exercises require reading and analysis of information,
or gathering information through library research, field visits, surveys or interviews.
The section Discuss requires students to reflect on statements and think critically; in
some cases to think about the pros and cons of an issue and take a position. We hope that
readers will enjoy the exercises and find the questions challenging but not daunting!
We also hope that the book generates enough interest in the readers so that they follow
environmental debates in the media, and that it creates enough concern so that they
question their own behaviour from time to time, out of a concern for the environment.
Our attempt has been to provide current data and information. But the rapidity of
economic, political, social, and technological change and the constant flow of new research
findings make the goal of providing up-to-date information elusive. We are aware that
by the time the book is printed, some of the information will have changed. By the time
the book reaches the readers, some more information and analysis might no longer be
current. We are confident, however, that the ‘information age’ readers will seek out and
keep abreast with the latest information and interpretation.
All the chapters were reviewed by subject experts to ensure accuracy of information
and quality. However, some errors might still remain for which the editors take full re-
sponsibility. We hope that our readers will bring these to our attention so that we can
correct them in future editions.

A LAST WORD
The test of how relevant or useful this book is lies in using it. We look forward to sug-
gestions from readers, what they think about this book, and what additional information
and features they would like to see in this book in the future. Please send us this infor-
mation at [email protected] or write to us at Higher Education Programme,
Centre for Environment Education, Thaltej Tekra, Ahmedabad 380 054.

Teachers’ guide

To help teachers use this textbook more effectively, notes, suggestions and support
material, including teachers’ guides for some of the chapters, are available from
the Higher Education Programme, Centre for Environment Education, Thaltej Tekra,
Ahmedabad 380 054.
 CHAPTER 1

UNDERSTANDING ENVIRONMENT
KARTIKEYA V. SARABHAI

Academic disciplines are created to help us understand the universe better. While nature
can be understood using the disciplines, it is not ‘divided’ into disciplines. For instance,
a certain phenomenon may be referred to as a chemical change while another as a physical
one. But these categories are only perceptions.
‘Environmental Studies’ is about the environment. Not the environment from the point
of view of any one particular discipline, but a study and understanding of the interlink-
ages—the complex ways in which one phenomenon, one action, is connected to another;
how the same thing can be understood from different perspectives, perspectives often
rooted in different disciplines.

KALEIDOSCOPE IN REAL LIFE

Vavania is a village near Kachchh that was severely affected by an earthquake in 2001.
The Centre for Environment Education got involved in the rehabilitation activities in
this village. The first task was to rebuild the houses, the school and the health centre.
The next task was that of providing the village with a water system. It was here that we
realized the multidisciplinary nature of the problem at hand.
To study water in the village, we had to first understand the pattern of rainfall and total
water availability. This required knowledge of meteorology. Indeed, to understand the
phenomenon of rain itself one needs some grounding in Physics. Then, to understand
groundwater one needs to study hydrology. To understand soil types and the permeability
of water, we need geology. The quality of water requires an understanding of chemistry.
To study lakes, life forms in them and their impact on the water and its quality requires
one to garner knowledge of biology and ecology. Water and its use are integral to society
14 KARTIKEYA V. SARABHAI

and cultures for which one must have at least background knowledge of cultural anthro-
pology, sociology and political science. Finally, to evaluate various alternatives for a
new infrastructure, an understanding of economics is essential.

A SENSE OF PLACE

I first used the word ‘environment’ in the urban context. The organization had been
studying the responses of people living in the old walled city of Ahmedabad and com-
paring them with the responses of people who had moved to the newer housing societies
which were coming up in the western part of the city. While the new houses and the
amenities they provided were much better in terms of infrastructure, the people felt that
something was missing, but it was difficult to articulate what that something was. The
old Pols, as the narrow streets in the old city are called, had a friendliness, a feeling of
community, a sense of neighbourhood that seemed to have disappeared in the new
residential areas. We realized that the built environment had changed the social one, but
it was difficult to understand all the dynamics of this relationship.
Our survey led us to an even more challenging task. We had asked the people in the
mid-1970s what they would like to see in their city in the year 2000, at the time a far-off
date. One answer which was repeated many times was that it was possible for a woman
to travel alone late at night in the city, and that this security should be maintained in the
city of the future. We had before us the plans for the city. The plans of the Urban Develop-
ment Authority spoke of infrastructure, building bye-laws and zoning of urban use, but
nowhere did it make a link to human or societal security. And yet we realized that these
were interconnected. The fact that so many metropolitan areas were de-humanized had
a lot to do with the environment they had created. These issues required skill and under-
standing from a variety of disciplines to even start appreciating the linkages and defining
the problem.

TOWARDS UNDERSTANDING THE ENVIRONMENT

The term ‘Environment Studies’ takes on an even deeper meaning in the Indian context.
Concern for the environment was put on the world political map largely as a result of
the UN Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm in 1972. The only
Head of Government, besides the host country, to attend the conference was Indira
Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India. And it was here that she made the statement
 UNDERSTANDING ENVIRONMENT 15

that one could not think of the environment without also looking at issues of poverty;
that environmental issues and developmental ones were two sides of the same coin. It
was indeed human ‘developmental’ activity that had had a very substantial impact on
the natural environment. And in turn, the rapid decline in the natural resource base was
affecting the quality of human life in several parts of the globe, especially the lives of the
poor and the marginalized.
It took two decades for the world to recognize this relationship. This came in the form
of the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil, in 1992. The conference was one of the largest gatherings ever of Heads of State
and Government, a far cry from Stockholm 20 years before. The study of the environ-
ment now required an understanding of development issues, further expanding the inter-
disciplinary nature of the subject. But most importantly, Rio drew attention to two major
and global crises. One was the realization that human activity was leading to the rapid
extinction of species. The other was that industrial activity was directly responsible for
global warming and the thinning of the ozone layer that provided a shield from ultraviolet
radiation.
The complex link between human activities and the loss of biodiversity was rapidly
coming to light. Loss of habitats and poaching of wildlife were the more obvious reasons.
But more complex and unsuspected links are being thrown up as scientists go deeper
into the subject. The recent rapid decline of species of vultures in South Asia could be
the result of the impact of a veterinary drug given to cattle which is eventually passed
on to vultures when they feed on the carcasses of these animals. The study required a
number of disciplines to establish this relationship.
Similarly, while atmospheric science and chemistry may seem distantly related subjects,
it was the study of CFCs and their impact on ozone that finally led to an understanding
of the ozone ‘hole’, and the Montreal Protocol (a commitment by governments to phase
out the use of CFCs), which has been one of the success stories of a global response to a
global problem. The more complex issues relating to climate change are still to achieve
such success.

ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT

But moving from a sectoral approach to one which is interdisciplinary is not easy. Govern-
ments and the division of work within them and the ways in which ministries are formed
and work divided, essentially reflect the thinking of the period before environmental
understanding had reached current levels. So one may find an ironical situation wherein
the Ministry of Power subsidizes electricity, making it cheaper to withdraw groundwater.
The water then seems to be plentiful and cheap, leading to the plantation of more water
16 KARTIKEYA V. SARABHAI

consumptive commercial crops. Very soon groundwater levels fall so low that even with
cheap electricity this type of agriculture cannot be sustained. Usually there is not enough
water left even to go back to growing traditional crops.
There are numerous examples of how the policies of different departments of the gov-
ernment led to contradictory or counter productive results (unintended or unanticipated)
in the real environment. For instance, an initiative to plant a tree called Prosopis juliflora
on the border of the Rann of Kachchh to prevent the spread of the desert proved counter
productive as the tree spread so rapidly that it wiped out the native species of grass on
which the livestock economy of the region depended.
As we recognize the relationship between environment and development, we realize
that the path we are following is neither desirable nor sustainable. We need to move
towards what is being called ‘sustainable development’; development that leads to a
better life for all, now and in the future. For that to happen, much more public awareness
and, in particular, awareness among decision-makers, is required. Environmental studies
forms the backbone of this understanding. It is the younger generation, which is on the
threshold of assuming critical roles and responsibilities, to whom we can look at to spread
this understanding to a wider audience and apply it in all spheres of life.

I QUESTIONS

1. List all the subjects that you are studying. How is each of these connected
with the environment? Is there any subject which is not in any way connected
with the environment?
2. One of the development goals of the Government of India is education for
all, especially education for women. Many suggest that women’s education
depends on several factors such as the status of women in society; poverty;
availability of water, firewood and fodder; and toilets for girl students in
schools. Do you agree? If so, what are the links? Describe each relationship
in about a paragraph.
3. Given below is a partial list of India’s national development goals. Which
do you think should be the main ministry of the Government of India
responsible for each? Which two other ministries should be involved?

Development goals Lead ministry Other ministries (any two)

Poverty removal
Food sufficiency
Drinking water
Sanitation
 UNDERSTANDING ENVIRONMENT 17

Development goals Lead ministry Other ministries (any two)

Education for all
Primary health care for all
Containing population growth
Public transport

Now do a search in the library or on the Internet to find out which ministries
are actually involved.

II EXERCISES

1. You may have come across a few unfamiliar terms in this chapter. List them.
These terms are used and explained in different parts of this book. Find
these terms and what they mean.
2. ‘Increase in fuel prices leads to better health.’ The diagram below explains
how.

Increase in
bus fares

Increase in Explore options, Better health

petrol/diesel prices e.g., walking, cycling

Reduce use of
personal vehicles

Read the statements given below and draw diagrams to illustrate the con-
nections. There should be at least two links between the two ends.

1. Move to a ‘modern’ residential complex leads to unhappy family elders.

2. Road building leads to spread of malaria.
3. Large-scale afforestation (planting of trees) leads to a decrease in the number
of children who drop out of school.
4. Rainwater harvesting leads to an improvement in the health of women.
 CHAPTER 2

ECOLOGY
SHIVANI JAIN

The word ‘ecology’ is derived from the Greek words oikos, meaning household, and
logos, meaning study. Literally, then, ecology is the study of ‘life at home’. In other words,
ecology is the study of the interconnections and interdependence of plants, animals and
their environment. The essence of ecology lies in the study of the togetherness of every-
thing—plants, animals, micro-organisms and their environment—because, in nature,
everything is connected.
There are intricate connections between the various components of nature. For instance,
green plants take nutrients and water from the soil. Their leaves, fruits and other parts
may then be eaten by a bird or a deer. When these die, a part of their dead remains are
eaten up by bacteria, fungi, etc., while the remainder is broken down into smaller mol-
ecules like nitrogen, carbon, sulphur, etc. (decomposition), and goes back to the soil,
thus connecting them all.
A large number of such connections exist in nature, and hence the essence of ecology
lies in a holistic approach to the subject. However, in order to understand the ‘whole’
and all the connections, let us try to understand the ‘parts’ or the components.

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION IN NATURE

Perhaps the best way to understand ecology is to look at it from the point of view of the
levels (hierarchy) of organization that ecology focuses on. These levels are: organisms
(individuals), species, populations, communities and ecosystems. Interaction with the
physical environment (energy and matter) at each level produces characteristic functional
systems. This hierarchical theory of levels of organization provides a convenient frame-
work for dealing with complex situations, because each of these levels has some special
features, and hence the study of ecology in parts, at these levels, becomes easier. Let us
understand these levels one by one.
 ECOLOGY 19

Illustration 2.1 Ecology can be studied at various levels

20 SHIVANI JAIN

ORGANISMS
An organism is any form of life. A wide range and variety of organisms is present on the
earth—from the single-celled amoeba to huge sharks, from microscopic blue-green algae
to massive banyan trees.

SPECIES
Groups of organisms that resemble one another in appearance, behaviour, chemistry and
genetic structure form a species. Organisms of the same species can breed with one another
and produce fertile offspring under natural conditions. For instance, all human beings
(Homo sapiens) resemble one another in their body structure, body systems, and they all
have similar genetic structure. They are thus grouped together under the species sapiens.

POPULATION
A population is a group of individuals of the same species occupying a given area at a given
time. For example, the Asiatic lions in the Gir National Park, Gujarat, make a population.

COMMUNITIES
Populations of various species occupying a particular area and interacting with each other
make up a community. For instance, when we say ‘the community of the Gir National
Park’, we refer to the lion population, the deer population, the cattle population, the grass
population and populations of all kinds of life forms present there. Thus, a community
comprises several species interacting with each other.

ECOSYSTEMS
An ecosystem is a community of organisms involved in a dynamic network of biological,
chemical and physical interactions between themselves and with the non-living compon-
ents. Such interactions sustain the system and allow it to respond to changing conditions.
Thus, an ecosystem includes the community, the non-living components and their inter-
actions. The Gir ecosystem will thus include the various life forms found in the park (the
community) and also the non-living components of the park, like the soil, rocks, water,
etc., and even the solar energy that is captured by the plants.
The sum total of all the ecosystems on planet Earth is called the biosphere, which
includes all the earth’s living organisms interacting with the physical environment as a
whole to maintain a steady-state ecosystem.
 ECOLOGY 21

It is clear from the foregoing description that an organism forms the basic level for
studying ecology. The study of ecology at the organism level is called autecology. When
studied at a system level (ecosystem, community, etc.), it is called synecology. While
autecology allows detailed study of an individual organism, its behaviour, ecology, etc.,
synecology becomes significant for finding solutions to the environmental problems
emerging today. It allows us to study the system in its totality and hence understand the
interconnections.
There are several examples where efforts to improve environmental quality have failed
because the problem has not been approached in a holistic manner. To understand these
complexities, it is necessary to understand what makes an ecosystem and how the differ-
ent components are interconnected.

COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

There are two ‘parts’ to every ecosystem: the living (biotic) components like plants and
animals; and the non-living (abiotic) components like water, air, nutrients and solar
energy. Let us analyse them one by one.

LIVING COMPONENTS
Living organisms (biotic components) in an ecosystem can be classified as either
producers or consumers, depending on how they get their food.

PRODUCERS (autotrophs, i.e. self-feeders) can make the organic nutrients they need,
using simple inorganic compounds in their environment. For instance, the green plants
on land and the small algae in aquatic ecosystems produce their food by the process of
photosynthesis.

CONSUMERS (heterotrophs, i.e. other-feeders) are those organisms that directly or

indirectly depend on food provided by producers. Consumers, depending on their food
habits, can be further classified into four types.

l Herbivores, like deer, rabbits, cattle, etc., are plant eaters and they feed directly
on producers. They are also referred to as the primary consumers.
l Carnivores are meat eaters and they feed on herbivores (primary consumers).
They are thus known as secondary consumers. Examples include lions, tigers,
wolves, etc.
l Omnivores eat both plants and animals. Examples of omnivores are pigs, rats,
cockroaches and humans.
22 SHIVANI JAIN

Abiotic chemicals Heat Solar

(carbon dioxide, energy
Heat oxygen, nitrogen,
minerals)

Heat

Decomposers Producers
(bacteria, fungi) (plants)

Consumers
Heat (herbivores, Heat
carnivores)

Illustration 2.2 Ecosystem is a dynamic network of interactions between the living and the non-living
components

l Decomposers digest and convert the complex organic molecules in dead organic
matter into simpler inorganic compounds. They absorb the soluble nutrients as
their food. Some examples are bacteria, fungi and mites.

Our planet without decomposers

Decomposers (primarily bacteria, fungi, nematodes like tapeworms, mites and certain insects)
are organisms that feed by degrading organic matter. Decomposers break down organic
waste and recycle the nutrients present in it. Decomposers use dead organisms as a source of
energy and nutrition. As they consume material for their own use, they return nutrients to
the environment in forms that can be used again by producers. Decomposers are nature’s
recyclers. If decomposers are removed from the biosphere, the earth will become a vast
dump of dead organisms. Life will probably stop as the nutrients for life would be tied up in
the dead organisms.
 ECOLOGY 23

NON-LIVING COMPONENTS
Non-living (or abiotic) components of an ecosystem include all the physical and chemical
factors that influence living organisms, like air, water, soil, rocks, etc. Non-living com-
ponents are essential for the living world. With no sunlight, water, air and minerals, life
cannot exist.

Abiotic components

Non-living components include all the physical and chemical factors of an ecosystem that
affect the living organisms. Some examples are:

Physical factors Chemical factors

Sunlight Percentage of water and air in soil
Temperature Salinity of water
Precipitation Oxygen dissolved in water
Nature of soil Nutrients present in soil
Fire
Water currents

CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEMS

As a result of the influence abiotic factors exert on organisms, different ecosystems

develop differently. The major factors that determine the growth and type of ecosystem
include temperature, rainfall, soil type and location (the latitude and altitude). These
factors, their interactions with each other and with the local biotic community, have
resulted in a variety of ecosystems.

Table 2.1
Major types of ecosystems in the world

Ecosystem type Area (millions sq km)

Terrestrial ecosystems
Tropical rainforest 17.0
Tropical seasonal forest 7.5
Temperate evergreen forest (taiga) 5.0
(continued)
24 SHIVANI JAIN

(continued)
Ecosystem type Area (millions sq km)
Temperate deciduous forest 7.0
Boreal forest 12.0
Woodland and shrubland 8.5
Savannah 15.0
Temperate grassland 9.0
Tundra 8.0
Desert/semi-desert shrub 18.0
Extreme desert, rock, sand and ice 24.0
Cultivated land 14.0
Total terrestrial 145.0
Aquatic ecosystems
Swamp and marsh 2.0
Lake and stream 2.0
Open ocean 332.0
Upwelling zones 0.4
Continental shelf 26.6
Algal beds and reefs 0.6
Estuaries and brackish waters 1.4
Total aquatic 365.0
Total biosphere 510.0
Source: Tyler G. Miller, Jr. 1994. Living in the Environment:
Principles, Connections and Solutions, 8th ed. Belmont:
Wadsworth Publishing Company.

AN ECOLOGICAL PROFILE OF INDIA

India, the seventh largest country in the world, possesses a variety of ecosystems. These
include mountains, plateaus, rivers, wetlands, lakes, mangroves, forests and coastal
ecosystems. This section looks at the ecological profile of India.

THE TRANS-HIMALAYAN REGION

‘Trans’ means the other side of, or beyond. Trans-Himalaya means beyond the Himalayas.
Outside the Indian region, Trans-Himalaya is very extensive, covering a total of nearly
2.6 million sq km comprising the Tibetan plateau. Within India, in Ladakh (Jammu &
Kashmir), and in Lahaul–Spiti (Himachal Pradesh), the Trans-Himalaya covers an esti-
mated area of 186,200 sq km. The entire zone is a high-altitude cold desert, with altitudes
 ECOLOGY 25

Illustration 2.3 India: Biogeographic zones

26 SHIVANI JAIN

varying between 4,500 m and above 6,600 m above mean sea level (msl). It is a sparsely
populated region, the population in the Indian part being approximately 250,000.
Though the area accounts for just over 5 per cent of the country’s total land area, its
value is tremendous as a drainage and feeder region for some of the greatest Indian
river systems such as the Indus, Brahmaputra and Sutlej. Three mountain ranges, the
Zanskar, Ladakh and the Karakoram, dominate the Trans-Himalaya.
The Trans-Himalaya cold desert is characterized by a distinct lack of natural forests,
the vegetation being primarily sparse alpine type. Though the environment here appears
harsh and inhospitable, a wealth of animal life exists. The largest number of wild sheep
and goats in the world are, for instance, found here. They include the nayan or great
Tibetan sheep, the urial or shapu, the bharal or blue sheep and the ibex. Other wildlife
includes the Tibetan antelope, known locally as the chiru, and the Tibetan gazelle. Smaller
animals of the region include pikas, marmots and Tibetan hares. The habitat is also shared
by predators like the snow leopard, the Pallas cat, the Indian wolf and the lynx.

THE HIMALAYAS
The Himalayas account for nearly 7 per cent of the country’s total surface area. The
mountains extends more than 2,000 km across the states of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh in India. Outside India, they
extend into Pakistan, Nepal and Bhutan.
Mountains are very fragile ecosystems, and the Himalayas are perhaps the youngest
mountain chain in the world. Intense rainfall, steep slopes and infirm soils, all due either
to young age or to geological location, make the Himalayan mountains extremely
vulnerable.
The Himalayas have extreme habitat types, ranging from arid Mediterranean and
temperate in the western parts, to warm, moist, evergreen jungles in the east. Altitudinally
and longitudinally, the Himalayas can be grouped into three distinct habitat types:

1. The low altitude foothills region is the most highly populated portion of the
Himalayas.
2. The temperate region above the foothills, roughly between 1,500 and 3,500 m, is
covered by a complex mix of broadleaved and coniferous vegetation. The faunal
community includes musk deer, sloth bears, several birds, especially of the
pheasant family, mountain sheep and goats. The western part of the Himalayas
has a rich herbivore structure as in the ibex and the markhor. In the more luxuriant
eastern parts where the treeline is higher, animals like the red panda, binturong
and several lesser cats are found.
3. The subalpine habitat type (higher than 3,500 m) consists of birch, rhodo-
dendrons, junipers, dwarf bamboo and a mixture of open meadows and scrub-
dotted grasslands. The western part is very dry, but in the moist east the treeline
 ECOLOGY 27

is higher. Above 5,000 m, rock and snow dominate the landscape and mark the
ultimate limit of vegetation. As habitat types change, a noticeable transform-
ation takes place in the faunal community as well. The higher reaches house
several threatened species such as the ibex, shapu, wolf and snow leopard.

Table 2.2
India’s biodiversity

Number of species Number of species SI/SW

Group in India (SI) in the world (SW) (%)
Mammals 350 4,629 7.6
Birds 1,228 9,702 12.6
Reptiles 428 6,550 6.2
Amphibians 197 4,522 4.4
Fishes 2,546 21,730 11.7
Flowering plants 15,000 250,000 6.0
Source: http://www.teriin.org/biodiv/status.htm

THE DESERT
The desert region of the north-west has large expanses of grasslands in patches. For kilo-
metres together, we may not find any signs of vegetation in the desert. Water, or the lack
of it, is the single most significant feature in the desert. In this region, both plants and
animals face the problem of maintaining the water balance of their bodies under extreme
diurnal (daily) temperature variation. They adapt to cope with this in different ways.
For instance, to reduce water loss, desert trees are mostly thorny with highly reduced leaf
surfaces, and their roots go deep in search of water. A large number of desert mammals
live in burrows to cope with extreme temperature variations. Similarly, desert vertebrates
like the camel have efficient kidneys which secrete concentrated urine, thereby reducing
water loss. The Asiatic wild ass, found in the salt flats of the Little Rann of Kachchh, has
great tolerance to dehydration.
Rodents probably represent the largest group in desert fauna. A common example is
the desert gerbil. Other commonly found desert animals include blackbuck, desert cat,
desert lizard, snakes and the Great Indian Bustard.

THE SEMI-ARID ZONE

The semi-arid zone is a transition from true desert to semi-desert. Here scrub and stunted
forests spread over low mountain ranges. Lying to the east of the Indian desert and west
of the Gangetic Plain, the semi-arid zone encompasses a total area of 508,000 sq km.
28 SHIVANI JAIN

Covering nearly 15 per cent of India’s area, this is a rich agricultural belt (especially in
the states of Punjab and Haryana) and has thus far been considered the granary of India.
Poor land management and short-term planning have, however, adversely affected the
ecology of the region already. Additionally, a sizeable chunk of India’s 400-million-strong
livestock is to be found here, a factor leading to the demise of vast grasslands due to
overgrazing.
The northern part of this zone comprises the flat, alluvial deposits of the Indus river
drainage system. Intensely irrigated and cultivated, this northern stretch, known as the
Punjab Plains, includes Haryana and Punjab, the southern margins of Jammu & Kashmir
and Himachal Pradesh. The outskirts of Delhi as also the western end of Uttar Pradesh
and a part of the Bharatpur district in Rajasthan, fall within the Punjab Plains belt. The
region comprises predominantly cultivated flatlands, interspersed with a network of
wetlands—marshes and rivers.
In marked contrast to the northern parts of the semi-arid zone, the southern expanse
(including Rajasthan, Gujarat and the north-western part of Madhya Pradesh) is much
drier and less cultivated. The Aravalis and the Vindhyan mountain ranges dominate the
central portion of this zone, while the Kathiawar peninsula of Gujarat, with its black
cotton soil, characterizes the southern sprawl. The herbivores in this area include nilgai,
blackbuck, chowsingha or four-horned antelope, chinkara or Indian gazelle, sambar and
spotted deer. With such a rich and healthy population of herbivores, it is hardly surprising
that the semi-arid zone boasts of a good population and a variety of predators. In fact, it
is the only zone which harbours the three large cats of India—the tiger, the leopard and
the Asiatic lion. Other predators include the wolf, the caracal and the jackal.

THE GANGETIC PLAIN

The Gangetic Plain extends along the foothills of the Himalayas, from Uttar Pradesh
eastwards through Nepal, Bihar, West Bengal and parts of coastal Orissa. The entire area
is a vast, flat alluvial expanse, both to the north and to the south of the river Ganga and
its many tributaries. The Plains are characterized by fertile soils, moderate climate and
abundant water.
Known to be one of the world’s most fertile regions, the Gangetic Plain is densely
populated. Elephants, rhinoceros, swamp deer, wild buffaloes and tigers are found in
the region. By far the finest feature of this zone is its wetland habitats, a well-formed and
distributed network of lakes, marshes and rivers. Harbouring over 20 species of turtles,
as also animals like the non-gregarious Gangetic dolphin, the mugger and gharial, this
vital wetlands’ network is one of the subcontinent’s wintering strongholds for migratory
waterfowl.
 ECOLOGY 29

THE WESTERN GHATS

Along the west coast of India—from the Dangs at the western extremity of the Satpuras
in south Gujarat, for over 1,500 km, to the southern tip of India in Kerala—stretch the
Western Ghats. The Ghats form the catchment area for the complex river system of penin-
sular India that drains almost 40 per cent of the country. This zone also contains the
second largest tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forest belt of the subcontinent.
The Western Ghats are characterized by a series of forest gaps which are actually val-
leys that break the continuity of the mountain ranges and thus of the biological com-
ponents as well. These series of gaps have prevented the spread of certain species, and
have thus facilitated local speciation and endemism.
A wide climatic (rainfall and temperature) and spatial (altitudinal and latitudinal)
gradient has resulted in major habitat variations in this zone. The animal species found
here include the tiger, elephant, gaur, dhole, sloth bear, panther and several species of deer.
The Nilgiris, an offshoot of the Western Ghats, are characterized by extensive grassy
areas interspersed with densely forested evergreen vegetation, together known as the
sholas. They provide shelter to elephants, gaur and other large animals. Many of the trees
and also some of the animals found in these high sholas are also found in the high-altitude
forests of the north-eastern region of India.

Hotspots of biodiversity

Hotspots are areas that are extremely rich in endemic species (a species that is native to a
particular region and found only in that region), and have been significantly impacted and
altered by human activities.
Plant diversity is the biological basis for hotspot designation—to qualify as a hotspot, a
region must support at least 1,500 endemic plant species, i.e. 0.5 per cent of the global total.
Existing primary vegetation is the basis for assessing human impact in a region—to qualify
as a hotspot, a region should have lost more than 70 per cent of its original habitat. Thus, the
hotspot concept targets regions where the threat is greatest to the greatest number of species
and allows conservationists to focus cost-effective efforts there.
The 25 biodiversity hotspots identified in the world contain 44 per cent of all plant species
and 35 per cent of all terrestrial vertebrate species in only 1.4 per cent of the planet’s land
area. Of these 25 hotspots, two are in India, extending into neighbouring countries—the
Western Ghats/Sri Lanka and the Indo–Burma region (covering the eastern Himalayas).
These areas are particularly rich in floral wealth. Endemism here is prevalent not only in
flowering plants but also in reptiles, amphibians, swallowtail butterflies, and some mammals.

Source: http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/hotspotsScience/
30 SHIVANI JAIN

THE DECCAN PENINSULA

With an area of 1,421,000 sq km, the Deccan Peninsula extends over 43 per cent of India’s
land mass, spreading over eight states. Though the massive zone is more or less homo-
geneous, at least three principal habitat types are easily recognized. These are deciduous
forests, thorn forests and scrublands. Additionally, there are pockets of semi-evergreen
and evergreen forests, mainly in the mountain range known as the Eastern Ghats. Ancient
forests, older than the Himalayan forests, characterize this most diverse zone. Elephants,
tigers, gaur, buffaloes and birds of all descriptions are to be found here.

ISLANDS AND WETLANDS

India also has two major groups of islands—the Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian
Sea, and the Andaman–Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. These islands receive both
the south-west and the north-east monsoons. These islands are home to tropical rain-
forests. The Andaman and Nicobar group is a largely north–south running archipelago
with 348 islands stretching over a length of nearly 600 km. The total land area of these
islands is 8,327 sq km. The Lakshadweep group consists of 25 islands in three clusters,
with a total land area of a mere 109 sq km.
India with its varied terrain and climate, supports a rich diversity of inland and coastal
wetlands. Twenty-one of these wetlands have been declared National Wetlands. An
important wetland is the Keoladeo National Park in Bharatpur, Rajasthan, which is a
man-made wetland. Among the various migratory species of birds that visit this park
almost every winter is the endangered Siberian crane (Grus leucogeranus). Another im-
portant wetland is Chilika (1,100 sq km), the largest brackish water lake in India, situated
in the Puri and Ganjam districts of Orissa.

Did you know?

Wetlands are areas where water is the primary factor controlling the environment and the
associated plant and animal life. They occur where the water table is at or near the surface of
the land or where the land is covered by shallow water.
Wetlands are among the world’s most highly productive environments. They are cradles
of biological diversity. Wetlands are also important storehouses of plant genetic material.
Wetlands perform a number of ecological functions—water storage, flood mitigation, shore-
line stabilization, groundwater recharge and discharge, water purification and the stabiliza-
tion of local climatic conditions, particularly rainfall and temperature.
Besides their ecological value, wetlands are also economically valuable as they support a
number of economic activities such as fisheries, agriculture, transport, wildlife resources,
recreation and tourism opportunities.
(The SASEANEE Circular; 6[2], December 1998.)
 ECOLOGY 31

THE COAST AND THE SEA

Among the countries of the world, India has the seventh longest coastline measuring
over 7,500 km. Starting at the Pakistan border, the Indian shoreline extends from Gujarat
in the west, down along the Konkan and Malabar coasts, around Kanyakumari, and then
up along the Coromandel coast to Bengal’s Sundarbans, and continues into Bangladesh.
The western coast borders the Arabian Sea and the eastern coast lies along the Bay of
Bengal. The western coast is divided into three parts: the Saurashtra coast along the
northern part; the Konkan coast in the middle; and the southern part known as the
Malabar Coast. The eastern coast extends from Kanyakumari to the delta of the Ganga
in the Bay of Bengal. The southern half of the coast is called the Coromandel coast.
Oceans have great diversity of life forms as they provide a gradient of habitats in terms
of varied light and pressure zones. Dugongs, marine turtles, estuarine crocodiles and a
myriad waders constitute the most obvious ‘wildlife’ of the shore and nearshore habitat.
Crabs, lobsters, oysters, jellyfish, puffer fish, octopus and sea slugs can be easily observed
by those venturing into the coral belts. With their rich cache of fish, minerals and potential
energy, marine ecosystems make an invaluable resource in the form of food reservoirs
and the resource base for aquacultural practices.
All ecosystems are linked. While it is convenient to divide the living world into different
ecosystems for purposes of study, in nature there are seldom distinct boundaries between
them. They are never totally isolated from one another. Any disturbance or change in any
one of these, sooner or later, influences the other.

ECOTONES: THE TRANSITIONAL ZONES

A transitional region between ecosystems is known as an ecotone; for example, the region
between a forest and grassland. This region shares many of the species and characteristics
of the adjacent ecosystems, and also has species unique to it. The ecotone region provides
conditions of both types of neighbouring ecosystems and thus supports a greater variety
of life forms. It also has species living exclusively in the ecotone region. An ecotone is
thus a biologically rich area with very high species diversity. In some cases, the number
of species and the population density of some of the species is greater in the ecotone
than in the adjacent ecosystems. This tendency for an increased diversity and density is
called the ‘edge effect’.
A common example of ecotones is an estuary—the transitional area between a river
and the ocean. The variety of species found in an estuary is much higher than in the
river or in the shallow sea water. But high levels of pollution in river water as well as
in marine systems are destroying these unique habitats. Today, these unique micro-
environments are being threatened by human activities.
32 SHIVANI JAIN

Disturbances in estuaries

Some fish species not only migrate between the water of the various oceans and seas, but
also between fresh waters and marine waters. Such fishes, which spend part of their life
cycle in saltwater and part in fresh water, are called diadromous fishes, e.g. the eel, the
salmon, and the trout. These include the anadromous species, which migrate from the sea to
fresh water for spawning (process of laying eggs), and the catadromous species, which spawn
in the ocean or at sea and migrate towards fresh water as juveniles. Thus, for such migratory
species to complete their life cycles the ecotone areas of estuaries are critical.
Today ecotone regions in many coastal areas are immensely disturbed due to constant
disturbance from the mainland from pollution in the fresh waters—pesticidal pollution, dis-
charge of effluents, silt, etc. Pollution in the estuarine and coastal areas makes the migration
of diadromous fishes to their spawning areas difficult and adversely affects their populations.
Such disturbances act as major bottlenecks in the life cycle of these species.

MAJOR BIOCHEMICAL PROCESSES IN ECOSYSTEMS

We have looked at some basic ecological concepts. We know that the ‘organism’ provides
the basis for the study of ecology, eventually leading to understanding the highest level,
the ecosystem. Let us now try to understand the functioning of ecosystems. How does
an ecosystem function? What gives an ecosystem its balance? These are some of the
questions that come to mind when we think of a forest, desert or pond ecosystem. To
gain some clarity on these, we need to understand how ecosystems work.
In an ecosystem, several kinds of biochemical processes take place. The two major
processes that form the basis of ecosystem functioning are energy flow and nutrient
cycling.

1. Energy flow is the flow of energy from the sun through the materials and living
things (as food) on the earth, then into the environment (as heat), and eventually
into space as infrared radiations.
2. Nutrient cycling is the cycling of nutrients required by living organisms through
different parts of the biosphere.

UNDERSTANDING ENERGY FLOW

Any kind of ‘work process’ either requires energy or releases it. Thus, if we want to
study the functioning or the working of an ecosystem, we must understand the basic
principles and laws of thermodynamics in an ecological context.
 ECOLOGY 33

1. The first law of thermodynamics states that energy may be transformed from
one type into another but is neither created nor destroyed.
2. The second law states that no energy transformations are 100 per cent efficient,
i.e. energy is always being transformed from a more useful to a less useful form.
3. Under natural conditions, energy tends to flow from a higher level to the lower
one. This is a derivation from the second law of thermodynamics.

The ecological implication of these laws is that energy cannot be produced in ecosystems
from nowhere. Thus, when we say ‘productivity of ecosystems’, we are referring to the
transformation of one form of energy (say, solar) into another (say, organic form in plant
bodies). Secondly, the process of transformation of energy from one form into another,
or even the transfer of energy from one organism to another, is never a 100 per cent
efficient; all energy transformations always involve energy loss in the form of heat energy
which is not available to the organism. The amount of the loss may vary from one trans-
formation process to the other, but it invariably occurs. In the light of these two laws of
thermodynamics, let us try to analyse the energy flow in an ecosystem.

Heat

Decomposers
Carnivores

1
Heat

10 Heat
Herbivores

Heat

100
Usable energy
available at Producers
each trophic
level (in units)

Illustration 2.4 Flow of energy in ecosystems

34 SHIVANI JAIN

ENERGY FLOWS IN ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS: The ultimate source of energy for all ecological
systems is the sun. The energy that enters the earth’s atmosphere as heat and light is bal-
anced by the energy that is absorbed by the biosphere, plus the amount that leaves the
earth’s surface as invisible heat radiation (first law of thermodynamics). When solar
energy strikes the earth, it tends to be degraded into heat energy. Only a very small part
(about 10 per cent) of this energy gets absorbed by the green plants, and is subsequently
transformed into food energy. The food energy then flows through a series of organ-
isms in ecosystems. All organisms, dead or alive, are potential sources of food for other
organisms. A grasshopper eats the grass, a frog eats the grasshopper, a snake eats the
frog and is in turn eaten by a peacock. When these creatures die, they are all consumed
by decomposers (bacteria, fungi, etc.).

FOOD CHAINS: In an ecosystem, the sequential chain of eating and being eaten is called
a food chain. It is this process which determines how energy moves from one organism
to another within the system. In a food chain, energy (organic form) is transferred from
one organism to another. Ideally, this transfer or flow of energy from the sun to green
plants to herbivores to carnivores should be 100 per cent efficient. But in reality this does
not happen, because at each link in a food chain, 80 to 90 per cent of the energy transferred
is lost as heat (second law of thermodynamics). It is because of this loss that fewer indi-
viduals are found at each successive level of the food chain (e.g. fewer carnivores than
herbivores). This also limits the number of levels in a food chain. All organisms are part
of a food chain, and may be part of more than one. Food chains usually consist of pro-
ducers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers and decomposers.
Every organism in an ecosystem can be assigned a feeding level, referred to as the
trophic level. A trophic level consists of those organisms in food chains that are the same
number of steps away from the original source of energy. Green plants would be grouped
in the first trophic level (producers), herbivores in the second trophic level (primary
consumers), carnivores in the third (secondary consumers), and so on.

Types of food chains: Though all food chains comprise a series of living organisms
which are interdependent on each other for food and hence energy, they may not always
be similar. In nature there are two major types of food chains: the first—called the grazing
food chain—starts from a base of green plants and goes on to herbivores and finally to
carnivores; the second starts from a base of dead organic matter, and proceeds to a variety
of other organisms, including scavengers, insects and micro-organisms—called the
detritus food chain—and helps the dead organic matter flow back into the food chains.
Grazing food chains and detritus food chains are linked, as dead organisms from the
grazing food chain form the base for the detritus food chain. This in turn provides
nutrients vital to green plants. One cannot exist without the other.
 ECOLOGY 35

A number of food chains interwoven with one another give rise to a structure similar
to the web of a spider. These interlocking patterns formed by several food chains that
are linked together are called food webs. Exploring connections between various com-
ponents of an ecosystem can be an exciting activity.

Illustration 2.5 Food chains in nature do not operate in isolation but are linked to each other forming
food webs

Understanding food chains: Trophic levels in a food chain can be shown graphically
through ecological pyramids, with producers at the base and successive levels of
consumers forming the higher layers. Ecological pyramids are of three basic types: the
pyramid of numbers, in which the numbers of individual organisms are depicted; the
pyramid of biomass, based on the total dry weight or other measures of the total amount
of living matter; and the pyramid of energy, in which the energy assimilated and/or pro-
ductivity at successive trophic levels is shown. Ecological pyramids are used for compar-
ing biomass and energy flow between trophic levels. Such comparisons can be used for
identifying/comparing which ecosystems and communities are more efficient in terms
of energy transfer.
36 SHIVANI JAIN

Hawk
(fourth trophic level)
Tertiary consumer
(top carnivore)
Snake
Secondary consumer (third
(carnivore) trophic
level)

Primary consumer
Mouse
(herbivore)
(second
trophic
level)

Producer

Grass
(first trophic level)

Illustration 2.6 Organisms at various trophic levels

NUTRIENT CYCLING: LINKING BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC COMPONENTS

Living organisms need food to grow and to reproduce. Any food or element required by
an organism to live, grow or reproduce is called a nutrient. Depending on the amount in
which it is needed, a nutrient can be classified as a macronutrient (needed in large
quantities, e.g. carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorous, etc.), or a micronutrient
(needed in small quantities, e.g. iron, zinc, copper, iodine, etc.).
In nature, these nutrient elements and their compounds move continuously from the
non-living environment to the living organisms, and back to the non-living environment.
This cyclic movement of minerals from their reservoirs (air, water and soil) to the living
components, and back to the reservoirs is called nutrient cycling or biogeochemical
cycles. These nutrient cycles, driven directly or indirectly by incoming solar energy and
gravity, include the carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous, sulphur and hydrological
(water) cycles. Since the amount of the various nutrients present on our planet is constant
and the nutrients have been cycling through the biotic and abiotic components of the bio-
sphere for millions of years, the biogeochemical cycles connect past, present and future
forms of life. Thus, some of the carbon atoms in the skin of your nose may once have
been a part of a petal, a dinosaur’s skin, or even a diamond!
 ECOLOGY 37

Biological magnification

In food chains, it is not only nutrients that get transferred. Toxic substances too may be
transferred from one trophic level to another. In such cases, the concentration of the toxic
substance increases with every increase in the trophic level. This increase in concentration
with every link in the food chain is called biological magnification or biomagnification. In
food chains, larger organisms at higher trophic levels accumulate more because they ingest
numerous smaller organisms, each of which contains a small amount of the toxic chemical.
It is important to understand that not all chemicals present at the beginning of the food
chain get magnified. Some get washed off/diluted. But certain chemicals, which by their
nature are persistent, get absorbed and accumulated in the tissues of living organisms. Such
pollutants and toxic substances like mercury and lead, usually released in the environment
in low concentrations and thus thought to be harmless, over a period of time, tend to build
up to critical toxic or lethal levels in the body of living organisms through the process of bio-
magnification.
The oft-quoted example of biomagnification is the build-up of DDT across various trophic
levels in a food chain. To control mosquitoes, DDT was sprayed in Long Island, USA. The
DDT levels used were carefully regulated so that they were not directly lethal to fish and
other wildlife, but only to the mosquitoes. Though the mosquitoes were destroyed, the DDT
did not get washed out to sea as was predicted. Rather, the poisonous residues were absorbed
by detritus and eventually became concentrated in the tissues of detritus feeders and small
fishes, and, step by step, got concentrated in the top predators such as fish-eating birds. As a
result, the shells of eggs laid by these birds were not fully formed and hence could not give
protection to the embryo. Thus no chicks hatched. This ultimately wiped out whole popu-
lations of the predatory birds.

ECOSYSTEMS: SOME CONCERNS

If ecosystems are self-maintaining, then why not throw all waste into nature and let
nature take care of it? But it has been realized and experienced that whether it is an eco-
system, a community, or even an organism, every system has its tolerance limits. We
have seen the various ill effects of creating drastic disturbances in natural systems. Stresses
beyond the tolerance limits of these systems can be fatal for the biosphere and hence for
us. For example, Srinagar’s Dal Lake, one of India’s most well-known lakes, is rapidly
deteriorating. The lake attracts thousands of visitors every year, who stay in houseboats
on the lake and in hotels around it. This pressure from the tourism industry adds nutrient-
rich sewage to the lake which has resulted in eutrophication, whereby the lake is being
rapidly colonized by a fern called Salvinia natans and by algae. The lake is getting choked
38 SHIVANI JAIN

and will die if corrective measures are not taken. Here, it is important to mention that
wetlands also play a key role in groundwater recharge, therefore, destroying a wetland
can affect the groundwater status of that region.

Eutrophication

Eutrophication is a natural process by which waterbodies gradually become more productive.

Three main stages explain the process of eutrophication. These are oligotrophy, mesotrophy
and eutrophy. Stagnant waterbodies go through these stages as part of their life cycle. In
nature, eutrophication is a slow process and may take thousands of years to progress.
When one or more of these stages is speeded up or even skipped completely, the natural
balance is disrupted and may destroy the ecosystem. Human activities have accelerated
this process tremendously. Nitrates and phosphates from synthetic detergents, domestic
sewage, agricultural run-off and some industrial wastes give unnatural nourishment to algae
(microscopic plants), causing them to flourish in huge amounts on waterbodies. As the algal
growth explodes, it forms a cover on the water surface. This could starve the submerged life
in the waterbody of oxygen and sunlight, which are vital for life and photosynthetic activity.
If uncontrolled, they choke the oxygen supply normally shared with other organisms like
fish, etc., living in the water.
When these algae die, they decompose. The decomposition uses up even more oxygen. As
a result, the water becomes deficient in oxygen. This condition encourages organisms that
can survive in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic organisms) to increase in number and attack
the organic wastes. When anaerobic organisms break down organic substances, they release
foul-smelling gases such as methane and hydrogen sulphide, which are harmful to the
oxygen-requiring (aerobic) forms of life. Such disturbances slowly lead to the death of all
forms of life in the waterbodies.

The other concern is that in the process of modifying ecosystems to suit our demands,
we unknowingly simplify them. For instance, on the one hand we clear dense forests
containing thousands of interrelated plant and animal species for a variety of ‘develop-
ment’ requirements, and on the other hand, we try to balance it by afforestation pro-
grammes which create plantations of single or fewer species and not forests that are
made up of numerous species in close interaction. Comparatively, such simplified systems
are much more vulnerable to any disturbance—natural or caused by humans. With the
growing human population, too many of the world’s complex mature ecosystems have
been made young and simple. Such alarming trends, if not attended to in time, can
jeopardize the biosphere.
 ECOLOGY 39

FROM ECOSYSTEMS BACK TO ORGANISMS, SPECIES ...

We have just looked at some of the unique features of ecosystems. Let us now identify
some of those characteristics of organisms, species, populations and communities that
make them unique and distinct from one another.

SOME FEATURES OF ORGANISMS

A unique feature of all organisms is their ability to adapt to the surrounding environment.
Adaptation is any alteration in the structure or function of an organism or any of its
parts, which results from natural selection and by which the organism becomes better
fitted to survive and multiply in its environment. Adaptations can be classified into
three basic types: physiological, behavioural, and structural.
Physiological adaptations are adaptations in the processes carried out in the body of
the organism. For example, camels produce concentrated urine for water conservation.
Behavioural adaptations are adaptations with regard to behaviour, i.e. what an organ-
ism does. Examples include migration and other diurnal/nocturnal activities. During
winters the Siberian cranes migrate from Siberia to escape the harsh winter weather
conditions to places with relatively mild weather. In hot deserts, to avoid the harshness
of extreme high daytime temperatures, many desert species hide away in humid and
cool places during the harsh day hours, thereby avoiding the heat, and become active
during the night hours. Such nocturnal behaviour helps desert animals survive in the
heat. Structural adaptations are changes in the anatomy or body structure of an organism,
for example, the webbed feet of the duck for swimming and cactus leaves modified into
thorns to cope with desert conditions.

SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF SPECIES

Like organisms, species also have certain characteristics that help us to differentiate them
from populations and communities. Two of these are:

1. Ecological niche: The physical space occupied by a species, along with its func-
tional role in the community and its position in the environmental gradients of
temperature, moisture, pH, soil and other conditions of existence, is its ecological
niche. The ecological niche of a species is a way of life that is unique to that
species. Niche and habitat are not the same thing. The ecological niche includes
both the physical habitat of the species as well as how it has adapted to life in
that habitat.
40 SHIVANI JAIN

An ecological niche is a very complex description of the way in which a species

lives in its world and habitat. A full description of even the simplest niche is
probably too complex to completely understand, but certain parameters or
boundaries of a niche can be measured, studied and reported. For example, a
bare-skinned human will freeze to death at temperatures approaching 0oC, and
die of heatstroke above about 60oC. The range of permissible temperatures for
bare-skinned humans is therefore quite narrow. Polar bears, on the other hand,
can live at temperatures much below freezing, and still live quite well at 37oC.
So their range of permissible temperatures is different from ours. With respect
to this one parameter, the polar bear ‘niche’ is different from ours.
Any two variables, such as temperature and pH, which can be measured and
a range established, will define a ‘space’ (or set of values) within which a species
can be found; i.e. its ecological niche. Move outside this ‘space’ and you will no
longer find that species. You may find another species, but its niche will be dif-
ferent. The more variables one is able to measure (e.g. pH range, temperature
range, salinity range, etc.), the more multidimensional the ‘space’ or niche be-
comes. This multidimensional space is sometimes called the fundamental niche
of the species.
While many species may share a habitat, this is not true of a niche. Each plant
and animal species is a member of a community. The niche describes the species’
role or function within this community. The ecological niche describes all the
physical, chemical and biological factors in an ecosystem that a species needs to
survive and reproduce. It also defines the role of the species in the ecosystem.
Each species has a defined and unique role in the ecosystem and hence no two
species in the same general territory can occupy the identically same ecological
niche for long.
Each species has a particular habitat and niche resulting from its interaction
with its environment. Understanding habitat and niche requirements is signifi-
cant for species management.
2. Species evolution and species extinction: Extinction of existing species and evo-
lution of new ones is a natural phenomenon. New species arise from pre-existing
ones through the process of evolution. The processes of evolution and extinction
are very slow and take place over long periods of time. Under natural conditions,
these two processes keep pace with the changes in the abiotic environment. How-
ever, in recent times, due to human interference, the rate at which species are
becoming extinct has outpaced the rate at which new species are evolving. This
loss of species is today a global concern, and that is why phrases like ‘species
at risk’ or ‘the lost world’ often make the headlines of newspapers, magazines
and journals. For example, the pink-headed duck became extinct in India due to
indiscriminate hunting for its flesh and for its ornamental value.
 ECOLOGY 41

SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF POPULATIONS

The following features characterize a population:

1. Population size: The size of a population is the number of individuals making

up a population. For example, the human population of India is comprised of
over 1 billion individuals.
2. Population growth: This refers to the increase in the number of individuals in a
population. The factors that affect growth in a population are birth, immigration,
death and emigration.
3. Population density: This is the number of individuals of a population per unit
area at a given time. Thus, to calculate the population density of India for the
year 1997, divide 1 billion or 1,000,000,000 (population size) by 3,287,263 sq km
(total land area of India).
4. Population dispersion or distribution: This refers to the general pattern in which
the members of a population exist in their habitat. Population distribution may
be random, clumped, regular, or may show a gradient. For example, in a crop-
land, the crop population is usually distributed in a regular pattern with similar
distance between two plants, whereas in a natural forest, the same plant may be
dispersed in clumps in those areas where there is no tree shade and where suffi-
cient sunlight is available for their growth. Thus, population dispersion depends
on various factors like availability of food, shelter or protection.
5. Age structure: The proportion of individuals in each age group in a population
is its age structure. Common age categories are pre-reproductive, reproductive
and post-reproductive. A larger percentage of individuals in the pre-reproductive
and reproductive categories means greater population growth. Understanding
the age structure of human populations is important for framing development
policies and plans. The age structure helps to make future projections of the na-
tion’s population growth. Natural populations maintain a balanced age structure
because, in nature, there is always the survival of the fittest. However, human
actions may drastically change such balances.

SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNITIES

When individuals of several species come together and interact with each other, they give
rise to communities. The following are some of the features that characterize communities:

1. Species diversity: This refers to the variety of species present in a community.

Each community has a unique set of species. For instance, the types of species
42 SHIVANI JAIN

found in a grassland community will be different from those found in a desert

or in an estuarine community.
2. Ecological succession: In most communities, the variety of species in a given
area changes slowly over a period of time. This gradual process of change in the
composition and function of communities is called ecological succession. Eco-
logical succession is a way in which communities respond to changes in their
environment. Succession is a normal process and is driven by various kinds of
interactions between the different species of a community and the environment.
Natural, uninterrupted ecological succession leads to the development of young,
fragile communities into more mature, developed and sustainable ones.
Succession may be primary or secondary. Primary succession is the process
of initial establishment of a community in an area where no life forms existed
before; e.g., ferns colonizing a barren rock. Secondary succession follows the
destruction of all or a part of an earlier community; e.g., grass seeds germinating
after a forest fire.
3. Living interactions: Different species in a community do not live in isolation
from each other. When any two organisms have some activities or requirements
in common, they interact with each other. These interactions may occur between
individuals of the same species (intraspecific) or between individuals of different
species (interspecific).
There are three major types of interactions—predation, competition and
symbiosis.

Predation: The consumption of one individual (prey) by another (predator)

is predation. For instance, a lion preys on deer, or a kingfisher feeds on fish in
a pond.
Competition: In most communities, each species faces competition from one
or more species for common limited resources. Competition can again be of
two types: interference and exploitation.
Interference is where one species hinders another species’ access to some
resource, say food, water, shelter, etc., irrespective of whether the resource is
abundant or scarce. For instance, some coral animals kill other nearby corals
by poisoning them.
In exploitation, two competing species have equal access to a particular re-
source, but differ in how quickly or efficiently they exploit it. In this way one
species gets more of the resource, thereby hampering the growth, reproduction
and survival of the other species. This kind of competition is usually exhibited
only when a resource is scarce. For instance, grasses thrive better in deserts
than other plants because their root systems are more efficient in absorbing
more water in a short time than those of other plant species.
Symbiosis: This includes mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism.
 ECOLOGY 43

Mutualism: Interaction where both the interacting species are mutually

benefited is mutualism. A common example is the interaction between flowers
and insects, where the flower is benefited by being pollinated and the insect
gets the nectar. In some cases, the mutual relationship has become so close
that the species involved cannot survive without each other. For example,
certain species of fungi and algae live in close association as lichens. The fungus
gets its food from the algae. The algae in turn gets protection through certain
chemicals secreted by the fungus. If separated, neither can survive.
Commensalism: A cooperative relationship where one partner gains from
the arrangement while the other is neither helped nor harmed is called com-
mensalism. For example, in dense forests where sunlight does not reach the
ground in sufficient quantity, orchids grow on other tree species. The orchid
is benefited by getting sufficient light, but the tree is neither benefited nor
harmed.
Parasitism: This is a one-way relationship where the parasite gains and the
host is adversely affected. Parasites are usually smaller than their hosts. They
do not kill or consume the hosts but only derive their nutrition from them.
For example, ticks attach themselves to dogs and suck the blood. Similarly,
tapeworms are found in the human intestine.

Did you know?

Symbiosis refers to the phenomenon of ‘living together’ in close union. Symbiosis is sometimes
interpreted to be a beneficial relationship—where the organisms involved always benefit by
living together. However, ecologically, any interaction where two or more organisms live in
close association is referred to as a symbiotic relationship, irrespective of whether the two
are benefited or harmed, or remain unaffected. Thus, symbiosis includes parasitic, commensal-
istic as well as mutualistic relationships.

BEFORE WE CONCLUDE...

We began this chapter on the basics of ecology by stating that ‘in nature everything is
connected.’ In the later sections, we consciously classified and categorized the natural
system into smaller hierarchical units for the convenience of our study about their eco-
logical features and associated processes. Before closing this dialogue, it is desirable to
emphasize again that the essential features of the living and non-living parts of ecosystems
are interdependence and connectedness. This fact holds the key to understanding various
ecological concepts and phenomena.
44 SHIVANI JAIN

BOUNCING OFF THE RESILIENCE

As mentioned in this chapter, human beings are knowingly or unknowingly inflicting a

number of damages on many natural ecosystems, several of which are now beyond
repair. Drastic disturbances or shocks affect the resilience or the ability of a living system
to return to its normal state after an outside disturbance. The repercussions of this, sooner
or later, will definitely be felt by the human species because, in nature, we do not stand
isolated. Rather, we are a part of the web of life.

I QUESTIONS

1. What are the various components of ecosystems? What role do they play in
ecosystem processes?
2. Are food chains in nature never-ending? Why? Justify your answer.
3. What do you understand by ‘nutrient cycling’? What is the significance of
decomposers in nature?
4. Define any two types of interactions that take place in the living world.
Also mention the significance of those interactions.
5. Define Ecology. How can understanding ecology help strengthen con-
servation efforts?

II EXERCISE

Listed below are several events. Read them and arrange the events in chronological
order so as to make a sequence that you think is logical and correct.

a. Rats increased
b. Lizards slowed down
c. Caterpillar numbers went up
d. ABC Health Services sent DDT to Gyanpur
e. Mosquitoes were wiped out
f. Caterpillars ate grass roofs
g. Cats were parachuted in
h. Cats died
i. Cats caught lizards
j. Rats spread the plague
 ECOLOGY 45

k. Lizards disappeared
l. Lizards ate mosquitoes and stored DDT

Now read the actual story below, which is based on a real-life case. After reading
the story, answer the questions that follow.

The Real Story: The Day the Cats were Parachuted In

Some years ago, the ABC Health Services sent supplies of DDT to Gyanpur to con-
trol the mosquitoes that were spreading malaria among the people. As the DDT
was sprayed, the mosquitoes were quickly wiped out. But there were thousands of
lizards in the village that ate these mosquitoes (which had absorbed the sprayed
DDT) and they, in turn, kept accumulating the DDT in their bodies. When these
lizards ate mosquitoes, they also absorbed a lot of the DDT. Due to the accumulation
of so much DDT in their bodies, the lizards became very inactive and slow. This
made it easier for cats to catch the lizards, one of their favourite foods. At about
the same time, people also found that hordes of caterpillars had moved in to feed
on the roofing materials of their homes. They realized that the lizards, which had
previously kept the caterpillar population under control, were now being eaten by
the cats. And now, all over Gyanpur, the cats that ate the lizards died from DDT
poisoning. Then rats moved in because there were no cats to control their
population. With the rats came a new danger: plague. Officials sent out emergency
calls for cats, which were sent in by airplane and dropped by parachute.

1. How did one small act of humans (spraying of DDT) disturb the balance of
the ecosystem?
2. How did the disappearance of one link in the food chain affect the remaining
parts of it?

III DISCUSS

Read the following quote and comment on it.

Life support functions are carried out continuously by self-sustaining, living communities.
Natural ecosystems are actively engaged in maintaining the planet’s habitability. To the
degree that we exterminate the organisms forming our ecosystems, we imperil Earth’s
capacity to support us. To the extent we preserve our life support systems, we increase our
individual and collective chances of survival.

Paul Ehrlich
46 SHIVANI JAIN

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
Andrew, R.W. and Julie M. Jackson. 1996. Environmental science: The natural environment and human
impact. London: Longman.
Bandopadhyay, J., N.D. Jayal, U. Schoettli and S. Chhatrapati. 1985. India’s environment: Crises and
responses. Dehra Dun: Natraj Publishers.
Brown, Lester R., ed. 1991. The World Watch reader on global environmental issues. USA: Pan Asian Business
Services.
Centre for Environment Education. 1990. Essential learnings in environmental education: A database for
building activities and programmes. Ahmedabad.
Cunningham, William P. and Barbara Woodworth Saigo. 1997. Environmental science: A global concern,
4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Jones, Allan M. 1997. Environmental biology. London: Routledge.
Miller, G. Tyler, Jr. 1996. Living in the environment: Principles, connections and solutions, 9th ed. Belmont:
Wadsworth Publishing Company.
———. 2002. Sustaining the earth: An integrated approach. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Odum, Eugene P. 1983. Basic ecology, 3rd ed. New York: CBS College Publishing.
Pickering, Kevin T. and Lewis A. Owen. 1997. An introduction to global environmental issues, 2nd ed.
London: Routledge.
Raghunathan, Meena and Mamata Pandya, eds. 1999. The green reader: An introduction to environmental
concerns and issues. Ahmedabad: Centre for Environment Education.
Saharia, V.B. 1982. Wildlife in India. Dehra Dun: Natraj Publishers.
www.sanctuaryasia.com/resources/map/biogeozones.pdf (as viewed on 15 December 2003).
 CHAPTER 3

BIODIVERSITY
SEEMA BHATT

Visitors at the various zoos, wildlife sanctuaries and national parks in India stare in fas-
cination at the magnificent tiger. It is easy to become emotionally involved at the thought
of this beautiful species becoming extinct. While tigers have many advocates throughout
the world, few people are aware of the enormous variety of other life forms that exist on
earth. For example, we do not know exactly how many kinds of insects exist in various
parts of the world, what roles they play, and how many of them are disappearing.
Every day, around the globe, species are being lost; others are being pushed towards
extinction. Biological diversity, or biodiversity, is more threatened today than at any
other time in the past. During the last 200 million years, 100 to 1,000 species became
extinct in each century. But evolution also brought forth new life forms, replacing species
that were lost. Today we are losing about 1,500 species every two months! This threatened
biodiversity needs to be conserved.

WHAT IS BIODIVERSITY?

Biodiversity is a combination of two words ‘biological’ and ‘diversity’. Taken literally,

biodiversity refers to the number, variety and variability of all life forms on earth. These
include millions of plants, animals and micro-organisms, the genes they contain, and
the intricate ecosystems of which they are a part.
Biodiversity is usually described at three levels: genetic, species and ecosystem diversity.

GENETIC BIODIVERSITY
The diversity of genes within a species, passed down the generations is known as genetic
biodiversity. It is this type of diversity that gives rise to the different varieties of rice,
mangoes, etc. For example, the Alphonso mango is different from the langda variety,
48 SEEMA BHATT

which again is different from the Banganapalli. Some variations are easy to see, such as
size or colour; some, different, such as taste or flavour, can be perceived by other senses;
and some others, such as susceptibility to disease, are not obvious to the senses.

Illustration 3.1 Genetic diversity gives rise to several varieties of wheat

SPECIES BIODIVERSITY
Species is the unit used to classify the millions of life forms on earth. Each species is
distinct from every other species. Horses and donkeys are distinct species, as are lions
and tigers. What unites members of a species is the fact that they are genetically so
similar that they can produce fertile offspring. Species diversity is usually measured in
terms of the total number of species within a defined area.

ECOSYSTEM BIODIVERSITY
An ecosystem is a set of life forms (plants, animals, micro-organisms) interacting with
one another and with non-living elements (soil, air, water, minerals, etc.). Ecosystem
 BIODIVERSITY 49

diversity is, therefore, the diversity of habitats which include the different life forms
within. The term also refers to the variety of ecosystems found within a biogeographical
or political boundary (see Chapter 2, titled Ecology).

DOMESTICATED BIODIVERSITY
When we think of biodiversity, we tend to think only of wild plants and animals. But
there is also considerable diversity among domesticated plants and animals. Domesti-
cated biodiversity may be the result of manipulation by humans, or of natural adaptations
to different conditions over a period of time.
Since the dawn of agriculture, people in different parts of the world have developed
different plant and animal varieties to meet certain needs and conditions. These include
higher productivity, better taste, resistance to pests or disease, and the ability to withstand
adverse conditions like floods, drought or frost. When humans first started cultivating
cereals, they must have chosen those with characteristics that were suitable for easier
cultivation and harvesting; for example, varieties of grains that had larger kernels, more
rows of kernels on each stalk, or those whose seeds did not disperse as soon as they were
ripe. This selection was done by storing and sowing seeds of a few plants with the desired
characteristics. Over a period of time, these developed into the ancestors of the cereal
crops we know today.
Different crop varieties and livestock breeds also adapt themselves to different environ-
mental conditions. The Kankrej cow, for example, is adapted to survive in semi-arid
conditions. Similarly, a species of rice grown in the hills could develop characteristics to
suit that region, such as the ability to tolerate the cooler temperatures of these areas. The
same species grown in the plains would evolve characteristics such as stalks which are
more resistant to the stronger winds that blow across the plains, or roots and leaves
adapted to more or less rainfall and sunlight. Thus, two varieties of rice would evolve.
Over time, this kind of adaptation to natural conditions or to human manipulation
has led to large variety in the species of domesticated plants. The number of varieties of
rice grown in India is estimated to have been between 50,000 and 60,000. Other crops
with high diversity include mango, 1,000 varieties; sorghum, 5,000 varieties and pepper,
500 varieties.

MICRO-ORGANISM DIVERSITY
When we think of biodiversity, we rarely think of the most abundant organisms on earth—
micro-organisms or microbes. Microbes include bacteria, viruses, protozoa, yeast, fungus,
etc., and form a vital part of life on earth. Bacteria are the oldest life forms on earth.
Microbes play an important role in various biogeochemical cycles. They live in the digest-
ive tracts of most animals (including humans and insects), where they break down the
50 SEEMA BHATT

food and facilitate digestion. Microbes that live in the roots of leguminous plants trans-
form atmospheric nitrogen and make it available to the plants (nitrogen fixation). The
soil contains thousands of species of microbes which decompose dead organic matter
and help maintain soil structure. Just a teaspoonful of soil contains billions of these micro-
scopic living organisms!
The number of microbial cells on earth is estimated to be about 4 to 6×1030, containing
nearly half of the total carbon and 90 per cent of the nitrogen and phosphate on this
planet. Micro-organisms are the only living forms which are present in the most extreme
environments, such as salt pans, deep down inside rocks and even in extremely cold
places.

IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity may sound like an abstract concept, but in reality it touches almost every
aspect of our life. The earth has an enormous variety of plants and animals, both domesti-
cated and wild, as also a wide array of habitats and ecosystems. This diversity meets the
food, medicinal, clothing, shelter, spiritual as well as the recreational needs of millions
of people around the world. It also ensures that ecological functions such as the supply
of clean water, nutrient cycling and soil protection are maintained.
In fact, biodiversity loss would mean a threat to the survival of the human race. Here are
some reasons why each one of us should be concerned about biodiversity and its loss.

SURVIVAL
Quite simply, without biological diversity we would perish. The global collection of
genes, species, habitats and ecosystems is our real wealth, far more important than money.
Perhaps the most important value of biodiversity, particularly in a country like India, is
that it meets the basic survival needs of a vast number of people. Even today a large
number of traditional communities depend, wholly or partially, on the surrounding na-
tural resources for their daily needs of food, shelter, clothing, household goods, medicines,
fertilizers, entertainment, etc.

HEALTH AND HEALING

Up to 80 per cent of the people in developing countries depend for primary health care
on traditional medicine, most of which is derived from plants, and some from animal
and mineral sources.
 BIODIVERSITY 51

Indigenous systems of medicine

Traditional medicine in India has relied heavily on the rich biodiversity of the region. Three
traditional systems of medicine are widely prevalent in the country—Ayurveda, Siddha and
Unani.
The Ayurvedic system subscribes to the view that there is no plant on the earth which is
not a medicine. The story goes that Brahma ordered the sage Jivaka to find a tree or a herb
which had no medicinal property. Jivaka wandered for 11 long years in search of such a
plant but could not find one. When he returned and informed Brahma of his failure, much to
his surprise, Brahma recognized him as a great physician!

It is not just traditional medicines that are derived from biotic resources. Nearly one-fourth
of all prescription drugs used in the developed world are based on plants. These include
21 drugs which are today almost indispensable—whether it is aspirin from the plant
Filipendula ulmaria, or quinine from the bark of several species of the cinchona tree.

FOOD SECURITY
Biodiversity is critical for agriculture. About 90 per cent of the world’s food comes from
20 plant species. Genetic diversity is important in breeding crops and livestock. Crop
breeders need a diversity of crop varieties in order to breed new varieties that resist
evolving pests and diseases. Modern agricultural practices have replaced genetic diversity
in crops and livestock with uniformity, and this could have dangerous consequences.
The loss of diversity in crop species has severe implications for global food security. A
single pest invasion or disease could wipe out all standing crop or a particular livestock.
Many crops have been ‘rescued’ with genetic material from wild relatives or traditional
varieties. In the early 1970s, genes from a wild rice variety from India helped to save rice
crops from total destruction by the widespread grassy stunt virus in many parts of Asia.
Scientists at the International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines searched 6,723
samples for a gene resistant to the virus. They found it in only one single sample of
Oryza nivara, collected from eastern UP in 1963. The strain of rice evolved by using that
sample is now widely grown all over South and South-east Asia.

AESTHETIC PLEASURE
Each species and ecosystem adds to the richness and beauty of life on earth. Perhaps no
artificial medium can match the sheer joy of watching a sunset over an ocean, the sight
of a leaping deer, the sound of a singing bird, or the smell of wet earth after the first
rains. A natural ecosystem, once destroyed, is impossible to recreate. The number of
52 SEEMA BHATT

people who visit a natural site is an indication of its aesthetic value. For example, every
year more than 1,500,000 people visit the Sanjay Gandhi National Park on the outskirts
of Mumbai.

ETHICAL REASONS
Each species is unique and has a right to exist. Humans do not have the right to eliminate
any species. Ethics provide the basis for deciding what is good or bad, right or wrong.
The World Charter for Nature, adopted by the United Nations in 1982, states that ‘Every
form of life is unique warranting respect regardless of its worth to man, and to accord
other organisms such recognition, man must be guided by a moral code of action.’

ECOLOGICAL SERVICES
Species evolve to fill particular niches (roles) in an ecosystem or habitat. Many species
also depend on each other in intricate ways for survival. Destroying one species can
lead to further extinctions or changes. Specific life forms present in a particular habitat
help to create conditions for other life forms to live in that environment. For example, a
single tree provides not only its products, which may have economic value, but it is also
a habitat for innumerable living things. In addition, it also plays a vital role in conserving
soil and water and helping to keep the air clean. Mangroves and coral reefs, apart from
their normal ecosystem service role in preventing erosion, play a critical role in protecting
offshore life during hurricanes and storms. These are services for which it is very difficult
to put a precise monetary value. Sometimes it is even difficult to know what services a
species provides. Most often the price for ecological services thus remains unpaid.
Take the case of Mumbai. A substantial part of Mumbai city’s drinking water comes
from the Tansa and Borivili reservoirs. These reservoirs are in turn protected by the sur-
rounding forests which are under the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972. Yet Mumbai’s
citizens do not pay for the upkeep of these forests and reservoirs.

RELIGIOUS AND CULTURAL PURPOSES

In India, many plants and animals have ritual significance and are associated with religi-
ous, spiritual and other cultural uses. Among the auspicious flowers offered in temples
are hibiscus, offered to the goddess Kali, and datura flowers offered to Shiva. Various
plant and animal species are considered sacred on account of their association with differ-
ent deities. Some animal species are believed to be the vahanas or vehicles of the deities
and are hence venerated. Important among these are the bull of Shiva, the rat of Ganesha
and the lion of Durga.
 BIODIVERSITY 53

In India and several other countries, pockets of forests have traditionally been set
aside because they are believed to be the abode of a particular god. Over the ages, local
communities have protected these areas which are called sacred groves. As a result of
the protection, these areas are preserved as pockets of rich biodiversity.

The Indian treasure house

India is one of the world’s 12 megadiversity countries. India contains 8.1 per cent of the
world’s biodiversity on 2.4 per cent of the earth’s surface. It is estimated that 47,000 wild
species of plants and over 89,450 wild species of animals occur in our country. India has a
tremendous range of ecosystem, species and genetic diversity. The location of the Indian
subcontinent at the confluence of three biogeographic realms has led to the presence of ele-
ments of African, European, and Chinese and Indo–Malayan characteristics in the flora and
fauna. The diversity is also due to the fact that India has almost every major type of habitat
and climatic condition—from alpine heights to coasts and plains; from areas of the heaviest
rainfall to dry deserts.
The Indian subcontinent is known as the Hindustan Centre of Origin of crop and plant di-
versity. At least 166 species of crops and 320 species of wild relatives of crops are known to
have originated here. Within each of these species, the diversity of varieties is astounding.
India is also considered one of the world’s eight centres of origin of cultivated plants. It
has 51 species of cereals and millets, 104 species of fruits, 27 species of spices and condiments,
55 species of vegetables and pulses, 24 species of fibre crops, 12 species of oilseeds, and vari-
ous wild strains of tea, coffee, tobacco and sugar cane. India also has significant indigenous
livestock diversity, with 27 breeds of cattle, 40 breeds of sheep and 22 breeds of goats. For
example, India’s eight breeds of buffaloes represent the entire range of the genetic diversity
of buffaloes in the world.
These are only the recorded species. A number of biologically rich areas in India, such as
the north-east, are not yet fully explored and studied. Who can tell what treasures lie therein?

EROSION OF INDIA’S BIODIVERSITY

India’s rich biological diversity is rapidly eroding. At least 10 per cent of its recorded
flora, and possibly a large fraction of its wild fauna, is threatened. Many may be on the
verge of extinction. In the last few decades, India has lost at least 50 per cent of its forests;
polluted over 70 per cent of its waterbodies; built, cultivated or otherwise encroached
upon its grasslands; and degraded many coastal areas.
The cheetah and the pink-headed duck are amongst the conspicuous species that have
become extinct. More than 150 of the known species of medicinal plants in India have
already become extinct due to unsustainable methods of harvesting. Of the species of
54 SEEMA BHATT

flora and fauna that remain, over 10 per cent of flowering plants, 21 per cent of mammals
and 5 per cent of birds are believed to be under threat. India’s domesticated biodiversity
is also under threat. Hundreds of crop varieties have disappeared, and even their genes
have not been preserved.

Illustration 3.2 There are no cheetahs left in the wild in India today

LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY: CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES

Most causes of the loss of biodiversity can be traced, directly or indirectly, to the way we
live. Biodiversity is essential for sustainable development, but finding sustainable ways
of living is essential for the conservation of biodiversity. The following are some of the
major causes of the loss of biodiversity.

UNPLANNED DEVELOPMENT AND HABITAT DESTRUCTION

Biologically diverse natural systems and the services they provide are most often under-
valued in monetary terms, and as a result, are used for development activities that seem-
ingly have more direct economic benefits. Large-scale development projects such as
industrial plants or hydroelectric projects have contributed substantially to the loss of
biodiversity-rich areas. Projects such as the construction of large dams not only result in
the submergence of large tracts of forests but also introduce human settlements and
roads within forest areas. Between 1951 and 1980, 502,000 ha of forest were diverted for
 BIODIVERSITY 55

Figure 3.1
Causes and mechanics of the loss of biodiversity

Inequity in the Deficiency in knowledge

ownership, concerning natural
management ecosystems and their
and flow of components
benefits from
both the use and
the consumption
of biological
resources Impact of introduced
encouraging species of flora and fauna
unsustainable (accidental or deliberate)
exploitation

Over-exploitation of
Pressure to
natural resources
export to
Unsustainable
ameliorate
population
debt Loss of
growth and
increased biological
natural diversity
resource Economic systems and policies
consumption that fail to value the environment
and its resources, e.g. conversion
of wetlands into areas considered
more economically beneficial Habitat
loss and
fragmentation
Inflexible
legal and
institutional
Some agricultural
systems
and forestry
practices, e.g.
monocultures

Global climate
change
Unplanned
development
Pollution of soil, water
and atmosphere

Source: Adapted by Seema Bhatt from Global Biodiversity Strategy (WRI, IUCN, UNEP, Washington,
D.C., 1992).
56 SEEMA BHATT

river valley projects. The enormous demand for minerals in a rapidly industrializing
economy has resulted in large-scale deforestation for mining purposes. As many as 70
protected areas, that is, natural areas protected by law and supposed to be free of all
destructive human presence, are under threat by ongoing or proposed mining within or
adjacent to their borders.
In Goa, nearly 600 mining concessions lie within forest areas rich in biodiversity. Coral
reefs, known for their rich biodiversity of marine life, have been exploited for use as raw
material in cement manufacture in the country’s coastal region.
Large areas rich in biodiversity have been reduced to small pockets due to their con-
version to agricultural land or for the construction of roads and housing. Wetlands are
filled up to provide space for more housing, large tracts of forests are submerged for
hydroelectric projects. This may lead not only to the loss of innumerable species of flora
and fauna, but also to the disappearance of entire ecosystems.

CHANGING AGRICULTURAL AND FORESTRY PRACTICES

Over the ages, farmers have bred and maintained a tremendous diversity of crop and
livestock varieties. This broad genetic base provided insurance against pests, diseases
and adverse climatic conditions. The Warli tribals of Maharashtra, for example, grow
several varieties of rice for different water and soil conditions. These varieties have vary-
ing periods of maturity, are resistant to different diseases, and are used during different
cultural events.
In the last few decades, changing market forces and the increase in demand for food
have prompted farmers to change their traditional agricultural practices. They have
moved towards the cultivation of a single crop rather than a mixed crop. This mono-
culture, which is high yielding, is supported by the excessive use of chemical fertilizers
and pesticides. This has led to a severe loss in the genetic diversity of crops.
In forestry, too, mixed stands are being replaced by monocultures of species which are
fast-growing and have commercial value. In South India, large tracts of natural forest
land have been replaced by commercial monoculture plantations of eucalyptus, wattle,
teak and silver oak which are used for timber or pulpwood.
Several parts of the north-east and also parts of southern and western India have seen
the replacement of local crops by cash crops like coffee, rubber, cardamom and tea. Indi-
genous breeds of cattle have been replaced by cross-breeds and exotic breeds for their
higher milk yields. So, in the name of productivity, stability and diversity are being
replaced by uniformity.

INVASION BY INTRODUCED SPECIES

The introduction of non-native species (also known as invasive, alien or exotic species),
deliberately or accidentally, has been a major threat to biological diversity worldwide.
 BIODIVERSITY 57

The introduced animals and plants pose a threat to the local species of fauna and flora.
For example, the spotted deer (Axis axis) was introduced by the British in the Andaman
and Nicobar islands. The deer have now proliferated on these islands as they have no
predators except crocodiles and humans. Their large numbers seem to be affecting forest
regeneration as they over-exploit certain forest species for food. The deer are also causing
crop damage in the fields of the islands’ settlers. Exotic plants, such as Lantana camara,
originally introduced as an ornamental plant from Brazil, are spreading rapidly in our
forests at the expense of local species.
Exotics such as eucalyptus are replacing native tree species because they are fast grow-
ing and commercially valuable. It is estimated that 18 per cent of Indian flora comprises
invasive aliens, of which about 55 per cent are American, 10 per cent Asian, 20 per cent
Asian and Malaysian, and 15 per cent European and Central Asian species.

OVER-EXPLOITATION FOR COMMERCIAL GAIN

Many plant and animal species have been over-exploited by humans, sometimes to the
point of extinction. Many species such as tigers and elephants are killed or poached
for their skin, tusks, claws, etc., which have high commercial value. Others, such as sev-
eral snake and bird species are caught and smuggled out for their curiosity value for
collectors and as pets. Marine fauna are under great threat from over-exploitation, largely
as a result of mechanized fishing and increasing international fishing operations in Indian
waters.
A rapidly expanding pharmaceutical industry, for which no collection regulations exist,
also affects medicinal plants. For example, the forest shrub Rauvolfia serpentina (sarpa-
gandha or Indian snakeroot) has been used in the country for over 4,000 years to treat
snakebite, nervous disorders, dysentery, cholera and fever. About 50 years ago, an extract
(reserpine) from this plant became the base for modern tranquillizers. Today this plant
is threatened in India due to over-collection.

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Soil, water and air pollution affects the functioning of ecosystems and may reduce or
eliminate sensitive species. Several studies carried out in India have clearly traced the
effects of pesticide pollution on populations of specific plant and animal species. A long-
term study in Keoladeo National Park in Bharatpur, Rajasthan, showed high levels of
pesticide residues in Sarus cranes. These toxic residues could lead to a high mortality
rate among the cranes and eventually to a decrease in their population. At the Corbett
National Park, studies on the effects of DDT on the breeding of the grey-headed fishing
eagle show that DDT causes egg-shell thinning, which leads either to the eggs not hatching
or to the death of the fledglings.
58 SEEMA BHATT

Water pollution affects aquatic biodiversity. In India, industrial effluents are destroying
coral reefs and other marine life. A thin film of oil (from oil leaks) can spread across the
water surface reducing the penetration of sunlight. The impermeable oil film reduces
the exchange of gases in the water. This can lead to a disruption in the respiration of
aquatic organisms, thus killing them.

GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE

In the coming years, climate change could also affect global biodiversity. There are several
hypotheses about this. Different species of plants and animals may respond in different
ways to an increase in global temperature. Many species which cannot adjust to warmer
temperatures could become extinct. Species with specialized niches or rare species will
be at greatest risk being most sensitive to any atmospheric change. A change in the climate
may also result in a change in the characteristics of habitats, thereby affecting the species
within those habitats. Some habitats such as islands and coastal systems, which are at
risk of flooding and submergence due to rising sea levels, could suffer particularly high
losses of biodiversity.

LOSS OF TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE

Traditions, beliefs and cultures of traditional communities are closely linked to the diver-
sity of life around them. In India, hundreds of tribal and other communities utilize the
products of biodiversity in their everyday lives. They are known to use about 5,000 spe-
cies of wild plants for many different purposes; for food, fibre, antidotes against insect
and snakebite, medicines, and for making hunting, fishing, and farm implements.
The lifestyles of these communities are rapidly changing. A lot of knowledge about
medicinal plants and their uses is being lost because the coming generations of traditional
medicinal healers are in an education system which alienates them from their tradition,
and therefore they are not interested in carrying on their traditional practices. If their
traditional knowledge is not recorded, understood and passed on, we are likely to lose it
all. In some cases, species may be known locally but the knowledge may die out as trad-
itional lifestyles change. A species may be lost because we did not know it existed at a
site that was subsequently developed.

NATURE OF LEGAL SYSTEMS

Although laws to protect biodiversity exist, the loss of biodiversity continues. In planning
legal enforcements, what is missing is an approach which combines ecological and eco-
nomic realities and involves the people who will be affected.
 BIODIVERSITY 59

Where planning is over-centralized, it hinders the participation of the local people

who could contribute valuable local knowledge, experience and insights. Often traditional
or community laws have been powerful in promoting sustainable use of biological re-
sources. The Bishnois (meaning twenty-niners), a community living in Rajasthan, have
followed, for over five centuries, the 29 principles laid down by Guru Jambaji. These
principles emphasize the conservation of plant and animal species.
In the state of Mizoram in north-east India, the traditional land use system is divided
into two distinct categories: ‘supply forests’, from which only regulated harvest of biomass
is permitted, and the ‘sacred safety forests’, from which the removal of biomass is strictly
prohibited. These designations are followed even today.
Sometimes, the so-called contemporary legal deterrents may prove to be counter-
productive. The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, for example, curtails the rights of local
communities to the land in and around protected areas, particularly national parks. For
generations, these communities have depended on these forests for many of their basic
survival needs. Curtailing their access to fuelwood, food, fodder and many other forest
products gives rise to conflicts between park authorities and the local people, leading to
more disturbances in the natural and social systems.

Parks versus people

On 7 November 1982, six people were killed when police opened fire at the Keoladeo National
Park at Bharatpur. This 2,200 ha park harbours over 350 bird species. Some 4,000 head of
cattle from 14 surrounding villages also used to feed on its grass. In November 1982, the
state government decided to ban grazing inside the national park without making any accept-
able alternative provision. This led to growing tension between the park authorities who
tried to impose the ban, and the villagers who claimed that the park was their only source of
fodder. The continuing conflict resulted in tragedy.
Interestingly, the effect of grazing on the park’s ecosystem is not clear. A long-term study
by the Bombay Natural History Society concluded that grazing might even help in maintain-
ing the current ecosystem. The buffaloes clear the marshes of grass, their droppings provide
fertilizer, animals eat up the dry grass thus preventing forest fires and checking weeds from
growing, and several birds were found to nest in the footmarks left by cattle.
While the incident at Keoladeo National Park is important from the historical perspective,
conflicts still continue in protected areas. Some examples are given below.
At Ranthambore National Park in Rajasthan, poachers are known to employ local Mogya
adivasis as trackers. The Mogya are expert hunters. This community used to depend on the
forests for their food, and survived by gathering fruits and wild roots for their livelihood.
The declaration of the park put an end to all that and they started using their skills for
poaching.
(For more information on the Bharatpur example, see CSE. 1985. State of India’s Environment,
1984–85.)
60 SEEMA BHATT

NATURE OF MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

The issue of ownership (legal versus traditional), management, and flow of benefits from
the use and consumption of biological resources may lead to situations which encourage
unsustainable exploitation of natural resources, which leads to the loss of biodiversity.
Substantial areas in India significant for their biodiversity, have been designated as
protected areas and have been set aside for conservation. These are legally managed by
the state or central government as reserved forests, protected forests, national parks and
sanctuaries. In the past, local communities living within or around these areas derived
benefits from them. In turn, they acted as the local custodians of the areas. However,
with the curtailment of their traditional rights and benefits, the communities living in
and around these areas are beginning to wonder who benefits from the protection of
these areas and are wary of outside control and management of what was traditionally
theirs. This conflict of interests is now being seen in several of lndia’s protected areas.

INTERNATIONAL TRADE
The demands of international markets can affect the status of biodiversity. For example,
extensive areas of agricultural land have been planted with monocultures of bananas,
sugar cane or pulp trees, to produce commodities on a large scale for export in order to
expand the economy (export-led growth). Another example is the global market for prawn
and shrimp, which has encouraged several governments in Asia to create policies favour-
ing investment in shrimp farming. Shrimp farming is practised in brackish water. How-
ever, it uses up precious freshwater resources. At the same time, the infrastructure for
commercial farming pollutes the water that is flushed into estuaries. As a result, man-
groves, an important habitat for fish, have been destroyed. The costs of habitat loss are
borne not only by the plant and animal species, but also by the local people who depend
on the mangrove ecosystem for fish protein, income and forest materials.

GROWING DEMANDS
The unprecedented growth in human population, as well as the materialistic lifestyles
of affluent people and countries, has put enormous pressure on biodiversity. Greater
demand for food and land, excessive consumption of minerals and other non-renewable
resources and gross overuse and waste of energy, have aggravated the problem.
Many of these causes raise the difficult issue of how to balance the demands of develop-
ment and the need to conserve biodiversity. The concern for economic growth is valid.
And yet, this growth cannot be sustained if the resource base upon which development
depends is destroyed. Development planning must recognize that its success depends,
ultimately, on ecological, social and economic sustainability. The ultimate challenge is
to rethink the way we live, and review our own patterns of consumption.
 BIODIVERSITY 61

CONSERVING BIODIVERSITY

It is now recognized that biodiversity is a global wealth on which no value can be put. It
is also evident that this invaluable heritage is being destroyed at an alarming rate. Fortu-
nately, measures are being taken at the international as well as the national level, to tackle
this issue before it is too late. Some of the conservation strategies are discussed below.

NATIONAL CONSERVATION STRATEGIES

Several measures are being taken at the national level to protect biodiversity.

LEGISLATION: India has several Acts in force, which have a bearing on the conservation
of biodiversity.

The Environment Protection Act, 1986, relates to general measures to protect the
environment, such as restrictions on industrial and other processes or activities in
specified areas. It also deals with the prevention of and control over the manufacture,
use, release and movement of hazardous substances.
The Fisheries Act, 1897, prohibits the use of explosives and poisons for fishing.
It also regulates fishing in private waters.
The Forest Act, 1927, deals with the setting up and management of reserved,
protected and village forests, and controls how selected products from the forest
can be sold and at what price.
The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, primarily focuses on prohibiting or regulating
non-forest use of forest lands.
The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972; The Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act,
1991; and The Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 2002, deal with the restriction
and prohibition of the hunting of animals, and with the protection of specified plants.
They also deal with the setting up and management of sanctuaries and national
parks, setting up of the Central Zoos Authority, control of zoos and captive breeding.
They also control trade and commerce in wild animals, animal articles and trophies.
The Biodiversity Act, 2002, which was formulated after a long period of discus-
sions and considerable public debate, is part of India’s follow-up of the International
Convention on Biological Diversity. The Act provides for a National Biodiversity
Authority (NBA), which will screen proposals for the transfer of genetic resources
abroad, and set up a system for genetic material from India to be sent to any other
country. This is to ensure that there is a record of all genetic material going out of
the country. The NBA will also advise the central government on measures for
conservation, sustainable use, and benefit-sharing resulting from the use of the
biodiversity with the communities who are its traditional custodians.
62 SEEMA BHATT

THE NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY STRATEGY AND ACTION PLAN (NBSAP): This plan was
initiated in late 1999 by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), Government
of India, as part of India’s commitment to the Convention on Biological Diversity. The
broad purpose of this process was to produce an implementable action plan that would
ensure the conservation of India’s biodiversity, its sustainable use and equitable sharing
of benefits arising from its use—the main tenets of the Convention on Biodiversity. The
two prerequisites of this plan are the ecological security of the country or of any region
within it, and the livelihood security of those most critically dependent on biodiversity
and its components.
The NBSAP has been one of India’s largest participatory planning exercises with the
involvement of several thousand people in different parts of the country. The attempt of
the process at various levels has been to involve all the relevant stakeholders. This was
done keeping in mind the fact that there are millions of people in India who use bio-
diversity and many who are also involved in its conservation. In most planning processes,
these people have never been involved. In this case, public participation was sought and
encouraged through meetings, workshops, seminars, public hearings and even festivals
organized for the purpose. The end result has been a series of action plans. The national
plan attempts to build elements from all these.

CONSERVATION: In-situ conservation, as defined by the UNEP (United Nations

Environment Programme), is ‘the conservation of ecosystems and natural habitats and
the maintenance and recovery of viable populations of species in their natural surround-
ings’. This is an effective conservation strategy since it ensures the maintenance of eco-
systems and species in their natural conditions. India has taken several steps towards
in-situ conservation of biodiversity.
India’s major attempt to conserve in-situ wild biodiversity has been through a network
of protected areas throughout the country. Two kinds of protected areas are recognized
by the legal system in India; national parks and wildlife sanctuaries. National parks are
highly protected by law. No human habitation, private landholding or traditional human
activity such as firewood collection or grazing is allowed within the park. Sanctuaries
are also protected, but certain types of activities such as collection of firewood and grazing
of cattle are permitted within these areas.
The first such initiative was the establishment of the Corbett National Park in 1936. As
of 2003, India has 89 national parks and 500 wildlife sanctuaries occupying 156,000 sq
km, or over 5 per cent of the country’s area. These protected areas have helped in conserv-
ing habitats and their biodiversity.
Several special projects have also been launched to save certain animal species which
have been identified as needing concerted protection effort. These projects are designed
to protect the species in-situ, by protecting and conserving their natural habitat. Project
Tiger and Project Elephant are two such major initiatives. Other species’ conservation
projects include Project Crocodile Breeding and Management, which was started in 1976
and now operates in 16 sanctuaries; and the Gir Lion Sanctuary Project in Gujarat, which
 BIODIVERSITY 63

aims at saving the Asiatic lion which once roamed over a wide stretch of the northern
and central parts of the Indian subcontinent, but is today one of the most threatened
species of animals in India.
Many NGOs are also involved in the conservation of wild species of fauna and flora.
The WWF–India, for example, has a specific programme focused on the protection of
the tiger and its habitat. Operation Kachhapa was initiated in 1998 for the conservation
of the Olive Ridley sea turtles in Orissa. It is coordinated by the Wildlife Protection
Society of India (New Delhi), and involves government departments as well as NGOs.

Illustration 3.3 Project Tiger has helped not only to protect the tiger, but numerous other wild
inhabitants of India’s tiger sanctuaries as well

To conserve medicinal plants, the forest departments of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,

Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, with the help of the Foundation for the Revital-
isation of Local Health Traditions (FRLHTs), have set aside 54 forest patches as Medicinal
Plants Conservation Areas (MPCAs) measuring 200 to 500 ha each. These MPCAs repre-
sent all the forest types and climatic zones of the region and harbour many species of
medicinal plants threatened with extinction.
64 SEEMA BHATT

A citrus gene sanctuary has been established in the Garo Hills of Meghalaya. Its purpose
is to conserve both wild and cultivated species/varieties of citrus, such as Citrus indica
(wild citrus variety), and of other plants that are useful to human beings.
An example of the initiatives taken for the conservation of agricultural biodiversity
is the Beej Bachao Andolan. This is a movement in the Garhwal Himalayas to save indigenous
seeds from being wiped out by the introduction of new, hybrid varieties. It also emphasizes
the conservation of seeds and farming practices that traditionally existed in the area. The
movement has been successful in conserving, in-situ, several hundred indigenous varieties
of seed, including those of 40 different crops, oilseeds, medicinal plants, as also vegetables.
The movement has now spread to many villages in the area and is an established network.
In India, a number of communities also practise different forms of nature worship. This
has resulted in the tradition of providing protection to patches of forest (sacred groves),
waterbodies (sacred ponds, lakes, etc.) and even entire landscapes for cultural and/or
religious reasons. This customary protection of the habitat over centuries has resulted in
the conservation of a range of rare and endangered species in these sacred spaces. Nearly
14,000 sacred groves are reported to exist in India.

CONSERVATION: There is a need to conserve species of animals and plants outside

natural habitats also and, therefore, the relevance of ex-situ conservation. This could be
in zoological parks and botanical gardens or through forestry institutions and agricultural
research centres. There are many examples of ex-situ conservation of plant and animal
species.
A number of orchid sanctuaries and orchidariums have been established in orchid-rich
habitats, like the foothills of the Himalayas, the Western Ghats, the western coastal region
and the southern hill stations.
The Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha (CCRAS), established in
1978, has promoted the cultivation of medicinal plants at five herbal gardens across the
country covering an area of 135 acre.
The pygmy hog is the smallest and rarest wild pig in the world. Very small populations
survive in the wild but it is almost on the brink of extinction. A small population exists
in the Manas National Park in Assam. The Pygmy Hog Conservation Programme (PHCP),
a collaborative programme of the government and international specialist groups, fo-
cuses its work on trying to ensure that pygmy hogs are successfully bred in captivity
and released in the wild in an effort to save them from extinction.
The Madras Crocodile Bank (MCB) was the first crocodile-breeding centre in Asia.
Since its establishment, it has supplied over 1,500 crocodiles and several hundred eggs
to various state forest departments for their stocking programmes and to set up breeding
facilities.
A lot of effort is underway to collect and preserve the genetic material of crop, animal,
bird and fish species by the Government of India. This work is being done by institutions
such as the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGRs), New Delhi, and the
National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGRs), Karnal.
 BIODIVERSITY 65

BUILDING ON INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE

The lives of several rural communities are closely interwoven with their environment as
they are dependent upon their immediate resources for their needs. These communities
have a vast and rich bank of knowledge about local flora and fauna, which is very im-
portant for biodiversity conservation. Much of this knowledge is passed on orally from
generation to generation. Such indigenous knowledge needs to be recorded and preserved
before it is lost. Several organizations have recognized this and are working to record
the knowledge and preserve it for posterity.

People’s biodiversity registers

India’s Biological Diversity Act formulated in 2002, attempts to address the challenge of how
best people’s traditional knowledge can be documented and conserved. People’s Biodiversity
Registers (PBRs) are a step in this direction, where trained scientists along with local com-
munity members document the indigenous local flora and fauna as well as the related indi-
genous knowledge. PBRs are essentially instruments in developing a biodiversity information
system. Such documentation requires the collaboration of people with expertise in several
disciplines and would include trained modern-day scientists as well as traditional health
practitioners, local experts, etc. PBRs are an attempt at organizing the information available
in the domain of folk science. Such a system would give due credit to the informants and
practitioners who use this knowledge. This system of documenting traditional and local
knowledge is already underway, and several thousand PBRs have been made. In some places,
college students, too, have been trained and are involved in documenting for the PBRs.

COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

It is being recognized that no legal provision can be effective unless local communities
are involved in planning, managing and monitoring conservation programmes. Several
initiatives to do this have been started, both by government and by non-governmental
organizations.

JOINT FOREST MANAGEMENT (JFM): JFM has been and continues to be the government’s
largest attempt at regenerating and sustainably using forests with the support of local
communities. This is a forest-management strategy launched in 1990, in which the forest
department and the village community agree to jointly protect and manage the degraded
forest land adjacent to the villages. They agree to share responsibilities of and the benefits
arising from this protection. The village community is represented through an institution
which is commonly called the Forest Protection Committee (FPC). In 2003, 27 states had
adopted JFM, and through them over 63,000 FPCs were managing around 14 million ha
of forest land.
66 SEEMA BHATT

INDIA’S ECO-DEVELOPMENT PROJECT: This project which operates around select protected
areas, is an attempt to reduce biotic pressure from grazing and the collection of fuelwood,
fodder and various non-timber forest products in the PAs, by providing alternatives to
the villagers. The villages are represented in this scheme through their Eco-Development
Committees (EDCs). The EDCs decide what kinds of alternatives the villages require,
and plans are made accordingly.
It is recognized that for conservation strategies to be successful, they must have the
confidence and participation of the local communities. There are several thousand
community-conserved areas in India, where communities continue to conserve the
biodiversity of the region without any government or legal support.

LINKING LIVELIHOODS WITH CONSERVATION

In a country like India, where several thousand people still depend on forests, fresh
water and marine resources for meeting their livelihood needs, any conservation strategy
must ensure that the people continue to benefit from these areas of biodiversity. The gov-
ernment’s attempts have been in the form of projects such as JFM and eco-development.
The link between biodiversity conservation and livelihoods still remains weak. For
this to be strengthened, several questions need to answered. First, how do we ensure that
people will benefit from the area? Second, how do we ensure that if people benefit then
the area will be conserved and not destroyed? Third, how do we ensure that people who
benefit from these areas will themselves help to conserve them? There have been some
attempts to formulate projects where these questions could be answered. (See box, NTFP
in the Biligiri Rangan Hills.)

NTFP in the Biligiri Rangan Hills, Karnataka

At the confluence of the Eastern and Western Ghats lies the Biligiri Rangaswamy (BR) Temple
Sanctuary. This area has high floral and faunal diversity and is also rich in non-timber forest
produce (NTFP). The sanctuary is also home to approximately 4,000 Soligas, an indigenous
tribe. The Soligas, once shifting cultivators and hunter-gatherers, now rely on the limited
NTFP they collect from the sanctuary.
A project supported by an international agency called the Biodiversity Conservation
Network (BCN), focused on the sustainable extraction and local processing of three different
forest products: (i) amla (Phyllanthus officinalis), (ii) wild honey, and (iii) some Ayurvedic pre-
parations from select medicinal plants. The processing and marketing of amla (as pickles and
jams), honey and some Ayurvedic products has helped to increase the income of the Soligas.
The project is continuing through the Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the
Environment (ATREE). This project looks at how the income levels of the Soligas can be
raised, how they could be encouraged to ensure that conservation of the forest is taking
place, and how they could monitor the harvesting of these forest products in a comparatively
non-destructive manner.
 BIODIVERSITY 67

EQUITABLE SHARING OF BENEFITS FROM

CONSERVATION AND INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE
Another big challenge for countries like India is how to ensure that benefits from biodiver-
sity resources do flow to local communities. For many years now, large pharmaceutical
companies have explored areas in different parts of the world for plants and animals as
sources of medicinal products, very often using local knowledge. They have also produced
drugs based on these resources. Unfortunately, local knowledge has neither been acknow-
ledged nor have local communities benefited from the sale of these products. An attempt
is now being made to ensure that communities do benefit from the use of their local
knowledge. One of the first attempts to do this in India is described in the following box.

The Kani–TBGRI Model

In 1987, a team of scientists from the Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute (TBGRI)
was on an ethnobotanical field trip in the Agasthya Hills in the southern Western Ghats.
They noticed that the Kanis (a tribe resident in that area) who accompanied them were eating
a fruit which energized them. After discussions with the Kanis and an assurance that
knowledge about the fruit would not be misused, the scientists took the fruit back for analysis
of its properties.
The analysis revealed that the fruit, locally known as arogyapacha, did have ‘anti-stress’
properties. Having isolated 12 active ingredients from the plant, and filed patent applications,
a drug named Jeevani was formulated by TBGRI. Arya Vaidya Pharmacy (Coimbatore) Ltd,
in 1995, was given a license to manufacture this drug. It was decided by the TBGRI that the
Kanis would receive 50 per cent of the royalty from the sale of the drug. In 1997, the TBGRI
assisted the tribals to register a trust called the Kerala Kani Samudaya Kshema Trust. The
50 per cent license fee received was transferred to the Trust. The Trust could decide what this
money would be used for. There have been many hurdles in this benefit-sharing agreement.
However, it is the first attempt of its kind in India.

INTERNATIONAL CONSERVATION STRATEGIES

Conserving biodiversity is not an issue confined to any one country or community. This
is a crucial global concern because what happens to the biodiversity of one country
affects another. The forests of one country may help in decreasing the effects of global
warming. The cure for AIDS or cancer may lie in the forest or seas of one country but
may cure people living in many different parts of the world.
Several international treaties and agreements are in place in the attempt to strengthen
international participation and commitment towards conserving biodiversity (see
Appendix 2). This is because certain problems can be addressed only if several countries
work together. International agreements and treaties help in tackling such problems.
68 SEEMA BHATT

The issue of illegal trade in wild fauna and flora, for example, transcends political bound-
aries and is best addressed through international agreements. This is, of course, over and
above national laws. Some of these international agreement are briefly described below:

THE CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY: This convention was signed during the
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit) in Rio
de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992. It focuses not only on conserving biodiversity but also on the
sustainable use of biological resources and equitable sharing of benefits arising from its
use. By signing this convention, member countries are committed to several activities
including developing strategies for biodiversity conservation and sustainable use, and
incorporating biodiversity issues into national plans, programmes and policies. This is
by far the most important convention for the conservation of biodiversity at national
and international levels.

THE CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN ENDANGERED SPECIES OF WILD FLORA

AND FAUNA (CITES): This convention is an international treaty which is designed to
protect wild plants and animals affected by international trade. The treaty, in force since
1975, controls the export, import and re-export of endangered and threatened wildlife.
Today, this convention provides varying degrees of protection to more than 30,000 species
of animals and plants that are being traded as live specimens, for fur coats, or even as
dried herbs.

THE CONVENTION ON WETLANDS OF INTERNATIONAL IMPORTANCE: This convention

also known as the Ramsar Convention, was signed in Ramsar (Iran) in 1971, and came
into force in December 1975. It provides a framework for international cooperation for
the conservation of wetland habitats which have been designated to the List of Wetlands
of International Importance.
Although it originally focused on conserving habitats for waterbirds, the convention
now covers all aspects of wetland conservation and wise use. India became a signatory
to this Convention in 1982, and till November 2002 had designated 19 wetlands as Ramsar
sites. These are Harike (Punjab), Pong Dam (Himachal Pradesh), Ashtamudi Lake,
Sasthamkotta Lake and Vembanad–Kayal (Kerala), Chilika Lake and the Bhitarkanika
Mangroves (Orissa), Deepor Beel (Assam), Kolleru Lake (Andhra Pradesh), Tsomoriri
and Wular Lakes (Jammu & Kashmir), east Kolkata Wetlands (West Bengal), Sambhar
Lake and Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan), Ropar Lake and Kanjili Lake (Punjab),
Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary (Tamil Nadu), Bhoj (Madhya Pradesh), and
Loktak Lake (Manipur).

THE WORLD HERITAGE CONVENTION: Also the Convention Concerning the Protection
of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, to give this international treaty its full name,
is aimed at protecting sites of such outstanding value that their conservation is of concern
to all people. Natural or cultural sites, which are nominated by the signatory nations,
 BIODIVERSITY 69

are evaluated for world heritage quality as per the criteria given in the convention before
being added to the World Heritage List. The treaty was adopted in Paris in 1972 and
came into force in 1975. India has a total of 23 designated World Heritage Sites of which
five are natural sites. These are: the Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan), Manas National
Park (Assam), Kaziranga National Park (Assam), The Sunderbans (West Bengal), and
Nanda Devi National Park (Uttar Pradesh).
It is important to consider what each one of us can do towards the conservation of bio-
diversity. Conservation of biodiversity is everyone’s problem. It needs to be dealt with
at various levels. Biodiversity is not only confined to the fields of farmers, forests or
waterbodies. It is also found in urban areas, where we live. We need to realize this and
see how best it can be conserved.

I QUESTIONS

1. Do you know of any sacred grove or pond in your village, district, state, or
anywhere in the country? Is it different from the area around it? Is there any
story behind it? If so, what is it?
2. What are some of the factors responsible for India’s rich biological diversity?
3. Why and how do ‘exotic’ species of plants and animals pose a threat to
native species?
4. In what way do our changing lifestyles and consumption patterns lead to
biodiversity loss?
5. In what way can local communities living in and around biologically-rich
areas be motivated to conserve the biodiversity of these areas?
6. Which is biologically the most diverse place you have visited? Why do you
rate it so?

II EXERCISES

1. Read the following description of the situation in one of India’s national

parks, and then answer the questions that follow.
Ranthambhore National Park in Rajasthan is a green island in degraded
surroundings. Tiger sightings have become rare in recent years. The census
conducted in 1992 showed that the number of tigers, which had been 44 in
1981, was down to 17. Nearly 60 villages surround the park. Villagers depend
for their fuel, fodder and timber requirements on the buffer zone. The buffer
zone experienced tremendous pressure as soon as a large part of the forest
70 SEEMA BHATT

was declared inaccessible, and today it is severely degraded. Efforts to

restock the buffer zone have been negligible, which has further increased
the pressure on the national park. Recently, poaching has been a cause for
serious concern. A kingpin of the tiger-poaching racket was arrested.
Ranthambhore has become an important tourist destination for Indian and
foreign tourists. The area which used to belong to the people of Rantham-
bhore is now not accessible to them, but is open to tourists!

Problem:
The first problem is that the people of Ranthambhore were not consulted
by the government when it created the national park. Thus, they were cut
off abruptly from their traditional resource base. No alternatives were pro-
vided, which led to an acute mistrust between the park authorities and the
people. The second problem is that of diminishing habitats for endangered
species such as the tiger. Citizens and activists alike have serious concerns
about the future of such species and their degraded habitats.

Questions:
a. The villagers contend that they have been using the local forest resources
for generations and so have every right to the forest. But while the
population of the people and their cattle has been increasing, the area
under forest has at best remained constant, and the productivity of the
forest has not increased. If the forest had not been declared a protected
area, and the people had free access to it, what would be the state of the
forest? Would it continue to be a healthy ecosystem? If yes, why? If no,
why not?
b. Who should decide whether local communities should have access to
local resources—the government or the people (or both)? Why?
c. If you had to choose between protecting the forest to save the tiger at the
cost of the basic survival needs of humans, such as fuelwood, or providing
for the needs of the people even if it means that the tiger becomes extinct,
which would you choose and why?
d. Is it possible to create a sustainable relationship between the forest and
the people which also protects the tiger? If yes, how? If no, why not?

2. Find out about at least five household medical remedies that use plants.
What are these used to treat? What part of the plant is used? How is it pre-
pared/administered? There is an increased market for ‘Ayurvedic’ prepar-
ations. Find out more about five such products in the market. What plants
do they list as ingredients? Are they the same as those listed in the household
medical remedies?
 BIODIVERSITY 71

3. Locate the Ramsar sites and World Heritage sites on a map of India. Does
your state have any one or more of these?

III DISCUSS

1. Do you think reviving local health traditions (e.g., Tribal and Ayurvedic
medicine) will help conserve the biodiversity of India? Why or why not?
2. Discuss the pros and cons and ethics of encouraging biological collections
and dissections as part of school and college syllabi.

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

Arora, R.K. and E.R. Nayar. 1983. ‘Distribution of wild relatives and related rare species of economic
plants in India.’ An assessment of threatened plants of India. S.K. Jain and R.R. Rao, eds. Calcutta:
Botanical Survey of India.
Bhat, J.L. and D. Bandhu. 1994. Biodiversity for sustainable development. New Delhi: Indian Environ-
mental Society.
Centre for Environment Education. 1995. ‘Core concepts in biodiversity conservation.’ Draft.
Ahmedabad.
Centre for Science and Environment. 1985. The state of India’s environment, 1984–85: The second citizen’s
report. New Delhi.
Forest Survey of India (FSI). 1987, 1989, 1991, 1993, 1995. The state of forest reports. Dehra Dun.
Kalpavriksh and MoEF. 2002. National biodiversity strategy and action plan (NBSAP)–India. Draft.
New Delhi.
Kothari, A. 1995. Conserving life: Implications of the biodiversity convention for India. 2nd ed. New Delhi:
Kalpavriksh.
Kothari, A., P. Pande, S. Singh and D. Variava. 1989. Management of national parks and sanctuaries in
India: A status report. New Delhi: Indian Institute of Public Administration.
Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. 1999. National policy and macro-level action
strategy. New Delhi.
Navdanya. 1993. Cultivating diversity: Biodiversity conservation and the politics of the seed. Report No. 1.
Dehra Dun: Research Foundation for Science, Technology and Natural Resources Policy.
Perreira, W. 1992. ‘The sustainable lifestyle of the Warlis.’ India International Centre Quarterly (special
issue), 19(1, 2): 189–204.
Prater, S.H. 1965. The book of Indian animals. Mumbai: Bombay Natural History Society.
Vijayan, V.S. 1991. Keoladeo National Park ecology study 1980–1991: Final report. Mumbai: Bombay Natural
History Society.
72 SEEMA BHATT

Whitaker, R. 1985. Endangered Andamans. New Delhi: WWF–India; MAB India, Department of Environ-
ment, Government of India; Environmental Services Group.
Wilson, E.O., ed. 1988. Biodiversity. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
World Conservation Monitoring Centre. 1992. Global biodiversity: Status of the earth’s living resources.
London: Chapman and Hall.
WWF–India. 1992. India’s wetlands, mangroves and coral reefs. New Delhi.
———. 1993. Directory of Indian wetlands. New Delhi.
 CHAPTER 4

WATER
AVANISH KUMAR AND SARITA THAKORE

There can be no life without water. Water is an essential component of all living things.
All animals and plants need water, and contain large amounts of it. Water plays a key
role in determining the weather; it helps to shape the land surface and regulate the climate.
Water has played a predominant role in governing the distribution of humans across
the surface of the earth. In fact, the earliest civilizations such as the Mesopotamian, the
Egyptian and the Harappan arose on the banks of perennial rivers.
The importance of water and its uses can be briefly summed up as follows:

1. Sustaining life: Life began in water and water is a basic component of every
living cell. It acts as a medium for important life processes and chemical reactions,
and transports food and waste products.
2. Agriculture: Water is the basic input for agriculture. All crops and livestock
need water. Agriculture is one of the prime users of water.
3. Industry: Almost all industrial processes need water. It is needed for the
manufacturing or processing of ores, textiles, chemicals, paper, food, etc. Water
is needed as a solvent, as a medium, as a cooling agent, as a cleaning agent.
4. Power: Almost all modes of power generation require water—from hydel power,
where falling water turns turbines to produce power, to thermal and nuclear
power, where usually water is used as a coolant.
5. Domestic use: Cleaning, cooking, washing, bathing, sanitation, all these require
water.
6. Medium of transport: Boats, ships and sailboats carry humans and materials
from one place to another across bodies of water.

WATER IN NATURE
About three-fourths of the earth’s surface is covered by water. This is the earth’s
hydrosphere. It consists of water in the oceans, lakes, streams, rivers, swamps, on the
74 AVANISH KUMAR AND SARITA THAKORE

surface of the land and under the ground. It also consists of water frozen as ice and
snow—in icebergs, glaciers, polar ice, on mountains and in the frozen layers of soil—
and as water vapour in the atmosphere.

HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

Water continuously circulates from the ocean, to the atmosphere, to the land, and back
to the ocean. This never-ending movement from one stage to another is called the hydro-
logical cycle or water cycle. Water in the oceans, lakes and streams is heated by the sun
and evaporates. Water also evaporates from plants. This is called transpiration. All this
water vapour rises into the air. As it rises, it cools and condenses and forms little droplets
which make up the clouds.

Condensation
Precipitation on Precipitation
oceans and seas on land

Evaporation and transpiration loss

Evaporation low
from oceans te rf Groundwater
wa recharge
rf ace
Su
Oceans

Illustration 4.1 Water cycle is powered by the sun

Water that falls from the clouds is called precipitation. Precipitation can occur in the
form of rain, snow, hail and sleet. Precipitation occurs when large masses of air laden
with water vapour rise, cool and condense to form the tiny droplets that make up clouds.
Within clouds, the tiny droplets of water come together to form larger and heavier clouds.
 WATER 75

When the air around the clouds cools, the droplets fall as rain, or when the temperature
is below freezing point, as snow.
Some of this rainwater seeps through the soil and is stored underground. This is called
groundwater. Plants absorb water from the soil and return it to the atmosphere during
transpiration. Much of the remaining rainwater finds its way into rivers which transport
it to the oceans. From the oceans it evaporates again. Thus, a new cycle begins.
Powered by energy from the sun and the gravitational force of the earth, the water
cycle recycles and redistributes the earth’s fixed supply of water. Several natural processes
involved in the water cycle purify the water—evaporation and precipitation act as a
natural distillation process, and as the water seeps through the ground and flows through
streams and lakes, it is filtered and also purified by biological and chemical processes.

SOURCES OF WATER

If we think of the entire hydrosphere as being made up of 100 l of water, what is actually
available to us as fresh water is about half a teaspoonful. About 97 per cent makes up the
oceans and is too salty, and the rest is locked up as ice and snow.
The primary source of fresh water is precipitation in the form of rain, snow and hail.
Rain is the most important of these.

The Indian monsoon

India has one of the richest water resources in Asia, with about 14 per cent of Asia’s renewable
freshwater resource. It receives an average annual rainfall of 1,150 mm. However, rainfall
distribution varies widely across the land, both in space and in time. Some areas like parts of
the Thar desert receive less than 200 mm annually, while 10 km from Cherrapunji in
Meghalaya stands the village of Mawsynram, which holds the world record for the heaviest
rainfall of 12,163 mm.
Most of the rainfall in India occurs during the ‘monsoon’ season. Monsoon refers to the
seasonally shifting winds in the Indian Ocean and surrounding regions, which blow from
the south-west in summer and from the north-east in winter. A monsoon seasonal change is
characterized by a variety of physical mechanisms which produce strong seasonal winds, a
wet summer and a dry winter.
In the Indian Ocean monsoon, the land/sea heat differential and intense convection, as a
result of orography (the location and orientation of mountains in the area), produce more
intense effects than in any other place in the world. The highlight is the ‘wet summer’ phase
from June to September, also called the monsoon season, with prevailing winds from the
south-west and heavy rainfall. The failure of the monsoon can result in drought, while heavy
rainfall during the season can cause floods.
76 AVANISH KUMAR AND SARITA THAKORE

FRESH WATER
Fresh water is available as part of the vast water cycle in which water evaporates from
the ocean and land and falls as rain. It has a low salt concentration—usually less than 1
per cent (1000 mg/l) of dissolved salts. Our freshwater supplies are mainly stored either
in the aquifers as groundwater or are available in lakes, rivers and streams on the earth’s
surface as surface water. Waterbodies on the earth’s surface are either flowing (lotic), for
example, a river or a stream; or relatively stationary, i.e. still waters (lentic), for example,
ponds or lakes which are often fed by rivers.

Watershed and catchment area

A watershed is a system. It is a drainage basin which guides all precipitation and run-off
(water, sediments, dissolved minerals, pollutants and trash) to a common watercourse or
body of water. It is an area of land that catches rain and drains it into a stream, river or lake,
or seeps it into the ground. Our homes, farms, villages, forests, small towns, big cities and
more, are all part of some watershed. The entire area from which drainage is received by a
river system is called the catchment area.
Watersheds are found in all shapes and sizes. They can vary from thousands of hectares—
like the land that drains into the Ganga—to a few hectares that drain into a local pond.
A watershed may be open or closed, depending on where the water drains. In a closed
system, like in some ponds, there are no outlets for the water, so it leaves the system naturally
by evaporation or by seeping into the ground (becoming groundwater). In an open watershed
system, water eventually flows into outlet rivers or a gulf, and ultimately the sea.
Within a watershed there are many different human activities that use water and affect
water quality.

GROUNDWATER
Most of the fresh water on land is not in rivers and lakes. It is hidden underground in
spaces between soil and rock particles as groundwater.
As rainwater seeps into the ground, some of it clings to particles of soil or to roots of
plants. This moisture provides the plants with the water they need to grow. The rest
moves deeper into the ground.
The amount of groundwater that can flow through soil or rock depends on the size of
the spaces or pores in the soil or rock and how well the spaces are connected. The total
amount of pore spaces determines the amount of water the soil can hold and is referred
to as porosity. The extent to which the pores are linked, so they can become the channels,
determines the ease with which the water can percolate through the soil and is referred to
as permeability. If a material contains pores that are not connected, groundwater cannot
move from one space to another. These materials are said to be impermeable. Materials
 WATER 77

such as clay or shale have many small pores, but the pores are not well connected. There-
fore, clay or shale usually restricts the flow of groundwater. Materials such as sand have
large connected spaces that allow the water to flow through and are therefore permeable.
The character of most soils changes with increasing depth. As water percolates down-
wards, eventually it must reach a layer of impermeable material. This may be closely
packed clay or it may be the underlying rock itself. At this level, water does not move
downwards but flows around horizontally at the same level. This water which flows
over the impermeable layer is called the groundwater. It does not flow as in rivers and
streams but within the soil material that is saturated. This water-saturated layer of
material or bedrock is called an aquifer.
Just as the depth of a lake varies from place to place according to the level of the lake
bed, the depth of the groundwater also varies from place to place, and it also has an
‘upper surface’. This is the water table, a somewhat indistinct boundary below which
the soil is saturated and above which, although not saturated, the soil is very wet. The
level of the water table falls in very dry weather, when the rate at which water is drained
out of the soil exceeds the rate at which the rainfall contributes to the groundwater. In
very wet weather, the water table rises, and in some places and at some times it may
reach the ground level causing waterlogging of the upper layers.
Most usable groundwater occurs up to a depth of 750 m. Groundwater supplies water
to wells, springs and even to rivers and streams. Groundwater has a number of advan-
tages when compared to surface water. Groundwater reservoirs do not suffer seepage
losses like surface reservoirs, such as streams and lakes. The chances of pollution are
also less, and less water is lost due to evaporation.

Wetlands: Uses and threats

Wetlands are waterbodies—both fresh and saline. They are areas where water is the primary
factor controlling the environment and the associated plant and animal life. Wetlands occupy
the transitional zone between permanently wet and generally dry environments. Shallow
lakes, ponds, abandoned quarries, estuaries, lagoons, mangrove swamps are some examples
of wetlands.
Wetlands are amongst the world’s most productive environments. They provide a wide
array of benefits to human beings, and harbour a great diversity of life forms. They provide
food for humans, like fish and other animals, and recreation, like birdwatching, boating, etc.
Flood control, water purification, serving as habitat for fish, birds and other wildlife are
other functions of wetlands.
Many wetlands are being drained for agriculture, urban expansion and other such purposes.
Also, a large number of these are subjected to the inflow of domestic sewage, industrial pol-
lutants and agricultural run-off. Deforestation leading to soil erosion and several unplanned
human activities in the catchment area of many wetlands have caused increased sedimen-
tation and the resultant shrinkage of the wetlands. Weed infestation is another problem
posing a great threat to the wetlands’ ecological functions (Water Manual, UNICEF).
78 AVANISH KUMAR AND SARITA THAKORE

WATER USE

Water woes
Some news headlines and stories capturing the state of water problems in the country:

l Amreli in Saurashtra region of Gujarat goes without water for 18 days

l Three people were killed and scores injured in different parts of Madhya Pradesh in
‘water riots’ in the summer of 2003 caused by an unprecedented drinking water crisis
in the state
l Parts of Hyderabad get municipal water supply once every three days for about an hour
l A part of Chennai’s water supply is brought in every day from a distant source by
freight train

The demand for water has been ever-increasing due to the growing population and
water-consuming human activities. This has led to the serious depletion and deterioration
of available water. The projected increase in the demand for water as depicted in Table 4.1,
therefore, presents an alarming picture.

Table 4.1
Sectorwise present and future water requirements: 1990–2050

Sectorwise water use and future requirements (million hectare-metres)

Population Domestic and
Year (millions) Irrigation livestock Industry Thermal power Total
1990 800 46.0 2.5 1.5 3.0 53
2000 1,000 63.0 3.4 3.6 5.0 75
2025 1,400 77.0 5.0 12.0 16.0 110
2050 1,700 70.0 6.0 20.0 16.0 112
Source: Anil Agarwal, et al. 1999. The Citizens’ Fifth Report, Part II: 36.

The major sectors of water use in India and their present state are described here.

AGRICULTURAL USE
The agriculture sector is the largest water user in the country, accounting for over 80 per
cent of total water use. Irrigation practices in India in the latter half of the 20th century
have changed drastically. Taking advantage of the huge government subsidies on water
and on electricity for pumping water for irrigation, farmers indiscriminately use ground-
water. In states like Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh, over 85 per cent of the
 WATER 79

irrigation is done through groundwater sources. This has resulted in an alarming

depletion of groundwater resources. Though it is a well-recognized fact that subsidized
electricity and pumps only encourage indiscriminate bore-well extraction, politicians
are not willing to reduce the subsidies for fear of losing the vote bank.
Figure 4.1
Sector-wise utilization of total water resource in India (1997)

Source: http://wrmin.nic.in/wresource1.htm

The agricultural cropping pattern has changed as more and more farmers are growing
water-intensive crops, even in regions where water is scarce. In some areas of Maharashtra,
many farmers have switched to sugar-cane farming, which is a water-intensive crop and
not suited to the drought-prone region. Excessive pumping of groundwater has also
resulted in saline water ingress in coastal areas, affecting the quality of the water resource.

Water problems in Junagadh, Gujarat

In Junagadh, a district in Gujarat, indiscriminate water pumping has resulted in the water
table going down at an alarming level. Anyone who can afford it digs a bore well and there
is no limit to the depth of the bore. People connect motors to their handpumps and draw as
much water as possible. The amount of water that can be obtained from handpumps has
been falling by almost 20 per cent every summer. Women have to travel up to 4 km in search
of potable water. Ingress of saline sea water is another problem faced by the villagers: it
increases the salinity of both the groundwater and the soil. The occurrence of bone-related
diseases is increasing in the region as the hardness of water is well beyond the permissible
limits. The problems faced by Junagadh are just one example of a widespread phenomenon
that is occurring in several parts of the country.
80 AVANISH KUMAR AND SARITA THAKORE

Waterlogging is another problem arising from the excessive irrigation of poorly drained
soils. Waterlogging also occurs in areas that are poorly drained topographically. Excessive
irrigation (and/or seepage from irrigation canals) eventually raises the water table. The
raised water table results in the soils becoming waterlogged. In waterlogged soils, air
spaces are filled with water and plant roots suffocate due to lack of oxygen. Waterlogging
also damages the soil structure. Farmers generally do not realize that waterlogging is
taking place until it is too late.
Waterlogging is already manifesting its disastrous effects in Punjab, Haryana and
Rajasthan. The cultivable area as well as the agricultural yields in these states have been
going down.

Figure 4.2
Increase in annual groundwater demand (cubic kilometres)

Source: The Citizens’ Fifth Report, Part II—Statistical Database, CSE.

INDUSTRIAL USE
Though the overall proportion of water for industrial use accounts for only a small per-
centage compared to that used for irrigation, the impact on water sources due to industrial
pollution is considerable. Water is used in a variety of industrial processes. The problem
of industrial use of water occurs mainly from the contamination and pollution of ground-
water and fresh water by industrial effluents. Industrial wastes are toxic to life forms
that consume or live in the water into which they are released. Water treatment facilities
are either non-existent/not functional or not up to the mark at most places, and are un-
able to treat micropollutants like heavy metals and pesticides. Large stretches of the
Ganga, Yamuna, Damodar, Tapi, Betwa and Periyar rivers are polluted with both domestic
sewage and industrial effluents being drained into them.
 WATER 81

DOMESTIC USE
Domestic use of water includes water for drinking, bathing, washing and other household
purposes. This water comes from surface as well as groundwater sources. River water is
increasingly becoming unfit for human consumption due to pollution, and this is leading
to more and more exploitation of groundwater. There is no regulation on the digging of
bore wells; anyone can dig them. As a result, groundwater levels are falling. In parts of
Gujarat, they have fallen to around 240 to 275 m, with water levels dropping by 9 to
12 m a year.
Figure 4.3
Rapid drop in groundwater in Ahmedabad between 1960 and 1995

Source: ‘Reviving Ancient Wisdom’, Heritage Cell, Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation.

Domestic uses of water are related to issues of access, scarcity, tariffs and subsidies. In
Delhi, on an average a person uses up to 400 l of water every day, whereas in nearby
Najafgarh, it is less than 20 l. In metros like Delhi, nearly 15 to 20 l of potable water is
used to wash one car. Less than 15 per cent of piped water is used for drinking and
cooking purposes. The rest goes down the drain, including much from non-judicious
use in toilets and bathrooms. Water amusement parks are mushrooming even where
water is scarce.
The domestic water supply in urban areas is hugely subsidized. Studies indicate that
just the operational and maintenance costs for water supply in cities are around Rs 15
per cu m. This does not include capital costs which are huge for a watersupply system.
Consumers, however, are typically charged around Rs 1.5 per cu m, which is only about
82 AVANISH KUMAR AND SARITA THAKORE

a tenth of the operating and maintenance costs. Moreover, most cities do not have metered
supplies of water. The unmetered customers pay an average fixed charge of around
Rs 45 per month, while they might be consuming closer to 20 cu m per month, thus
paying less than one-sixth of what they ideally should. This subsidy on water has led to
non-judicious use of water.
On the other hand, about 40 per cent of the urban poor in India do not use either
private or public taps, and hence do not benefit from the subsidy.

WATER PROBLEMS

As the examples given above reveal, the problems related with water are essentially
those of quantity and quality. Both these problems are also related. For example, as the
demand for and the use of water for various human activities increases, so does the
generation of waste water. As the quality of water goes down, so does the supply of
usable water.

WATER QUANTITY
The problems related with the quantity of water available are the result of two major
discontinuities that have emerged in the management of water since the 19th century.
One, the state has emerged as the main provider of water, replacing communities and
households as the primary agents for the provision of water. Two, there has been growing
reliance on the use of surface and groundwater. With the government taking up the role
of providing water, communities have slowly abandoned their water-conservation
practices and thus precious rainwater, which could well support the water use, is being
wasted. Groundwater exploitation has been ever increasing, especially in the agricultural
sector, primarily due to subsidies for power.
Water scarcity is a major problem both in rural and in urban India. Scenes of long
queues in front of wells or water tankers and of women making day-long trips to collect
water for the day’s requirements are everyday stories in many states of the country.
More than 70 per cent of the rural population does not have a water source within the
house; millions still travel considerable distances to collect drinking water. The situation
in drought-affected areas is much worse. In the Dahod district of Gujarat, to get a potful
of water, women walk at least 3–4 km to a dry river bed. There they dig more than a
metre-deep hole in the river bed. Then a woman is lowered into the hole. There is a long
wait before enough water seeps into the hole to fill a small vessel, which is then passed
out to the women waiting above. The muddy water is filtered through a fine cloth before
being poured into a pot.
 WATER 83

Figure 4.4 Figure 4.5

Drinking water availability in rural areas Drinking water availability in urban areas

Source: Down to Earth, Centre for Science and Environment, 31 May 2003.

TOO MUCH WATER—FLOODS: ‘Too much water at the wrong place, or more water than
can be handled by the drainage of the area’ is how a flood may be defined. There are
several other ways of describing a flood. A simple definition is: ‘A flood is when water
inundates land which is normally dry.’
Flooding occurs when there is prolonged rainfall over several days, intense rainfall
over a short period of time, or an ice or debris jam which cause a river or stream to over-
flow and flood the surrounding area. Melting snow can combine with rain in the summer;
severe thunderstorms can bring heavy rain in the monsoon season; or tropical cyclones
can bring intense rainfall to the coastal and inland states.

Human-induced causes of floods:

Deforestation: The canopy, undergrowth and the root system in forests provide some
protection from floods by trapping and absorbing precipitation. When these are cut down,
heavy rainfall results in rapid run-off and causes soil erosion. This soil is carried by the
water to rivers where it accumulates on the river bed, raising its level. This reduces the
water-holding capacity of the river channel. The less water a river channel can hold, the
greater the chances of a river overflowing its banks and flooding the surrounding areas.
Flood plains are the areas bordering a river that are subject to flooding whenever the
level of the river rises.
Urbanization: With growing population and urbanization, more and more area from
flood plains is being reclaimed for the growth of cities. Faulty town planning is another
factor in the rise in floods. Housing colonies often come up in low-lying areas which are
84 AVANISH KUMAR AND SARITA THAKORE

easily submerged even with moderate rains. Stormwater-drainage systems are either
absent or often not adequately developed or maintained in urban localities, hampering
quick clearance of rainwater, especially during heavy rains. In many Indian cities, storm-
water drains are usually clogged with garbage, leaving no space for rainwater clearance.
With nowhere to go, the rainwater flows onto the roads.
Wetlands (waterbodies like ponds, lakes or small water systems) which store or have
huge potential to store rainwater or excess water from the rivers, are also increasingly
being encroached upon and reclaimed due to urban growth. With the reduction in the
number and extent of wetlands, the chances of floods are increasing.
Construction of transport networks: Human activities, such as blocking the natural
drainage on flood plains by constructing roads, railways and buildings, increase the
likelihood of floods and flood damage.

Floods in India
India is the most flood-affected country in the world after Bangladesh. Most floods in India
occur after the heavy monsoon rains. Rainfall in India is confined mainly to the south-west
monsoon months of June to September. The rainfall is not even; it has spatial and temporal
variations, causing drought in some parts of the country and floods in others. The all-India
annual average rainfall is 1,170 mm, but in a given year, it varies from 100 mm in the western
deserts to 11,000 mm in the north-eastern region. Fifty per cent of the precipitation takes
place in about 15 days and in less than 100 hours altogether in a year. This means there is a
lot of rain in a short period of time. If the rainfall is heavy, coupled with snow melts from the
Himalayas, it causes floods in several states.
The seven most flood-prone states in the country are Uttaranchal, UP, Bihar, Jharkhand,
West Bengal, Orissa and Assam. The Rashtriya Barh Ayog (National Flood Commission) has
estimated the flood-prone area in the country at about 40 m ha. On an average, floods annually
claim 1,600 lives and 95,000 heads of cattle and damage 1.2 million houses. The annual dam-
age caused by floods is about Rs 13,470,000.

TOO LITTLE WATER—DROUGHT: Scarcity of water, which occurs due to inadequate rains,
late arrival of rains and excessive withdrawal of groundwater, is referred to as drought.
It is a period of unusually dry weather which persists long enough to produce a serious
hydrologic imbalance, leading to crop damage and water shortage. The severity of the
drought depends on the degree of moisture deficiency, the duration of the drought and
the size of the affected area.
Droughts are classified into several different types. They are:

1. Meteorological drought: Occurs when the total amount of rainfall received in an

area is less than 75 per cent of the normal rainfall. The departure from normal rainfall is
usually defined by comparing the current situation to the historical average of the place,
 WATER 85

often based on a 30-year period of record. The drought is said to be severe if the rainfall
is less than 50 per cent of the normal rainfall.

2. Hydrological drought: This drought is associated with the effects on surface (stream
or river flow, reservoir and lake levels) and sub-surface (groundwater) water supply
due to less rainfall. It takes some time for rainfall deficiency to show up in the components
of the hydrological system such as soil moisture, stream flow, and groundwater and
reservoir levels. Thus, there is a lag between the occurrence or the impact of hydrological
drought and the occurrence of meteorological and agricultural droughts.

3. Agricultural drought: This drought links various characteristics of meteorological

and hydrological droughts to agricultural impacts. Overall rainfall shortage as well as
the timing of the rain affects agriculture. Reduced groundwater or reservoir levels, less
soil moisture, etc., adversely affect agricultural output. Agricultural drought also depends
on the susceptibility or tolerance of the cropped plant to deficiencies of water.

4. Socio-economic drought: This drought occurs due to a reduction in the availability

of food and social security of the people in the affected areas.
A drought can result in famine, which occurs when a large-scale collapse of access to
food occurs. Without intervention, this can lead to mass starvation.
While a meteorological drought occurs due to climate and weather conditions bringing
less rain, the effects of a meteorological drought are compounded by human activities.
Deforestation is a big culprit in inducing a hydrological drought. Trees help in facilitating
the percolation and storage of groundwater, and when they are removed, the soil can no
longer retain water. This affects the recharge of groundwater and depletes soil moisture,
making the land parched and dry.
Low or no rainfall during the cropping season has its adverse impacts on agriculture.
But the impact also depends on the cropping pattern. More and more water-intensive
crops like sugar cane are now grown even in regions which have a historical record of
low to medium rainfall. This heightens the chances of an agricultural drought. Farmers
grow high value cash crops to earn more money, but a deficient rainfall may ruin their
entire crop, which may have been avoided if the crop had been less water intensive.

Droughts in India
Nineteen per cent of India’s total area is drought prone. Till very recently, the Indian Meteoro-
logical Department declared a drought in the meteorological divisions where the annual
rainfall was less than 75 per cent of the normal; but since April 2003, the criteria have been
revised to declare a drought wherever the rainfall is less that 90 per cent of the normal.
Severe drought is declared in years when rainfall is 50 per cent below normal.
86 AVANISH KUMAR AND SARITA THAKORE

The yearly average of rainfall does not always accurately indicate the real situation
during different parts of the year. While there may not be a meteorological drought if
the average yearly rainfall is good, there may have been less rains during the cropping
season, which would result in an agricultural drought. This presents a problem while
declaring a district as drought affected, even though the area may be facing the serious
effects of drought.

A good drought!
P. Sainath, an eminent journalist, in his award-winning book Everybody Loves a Good Drought
quotes the occurrence of drought and the ‘drought relief’ it bestows upon an area declared
as drought-affected as teesri fasal (the third crop). Though the relief schemes of the government
are meant for areas affected by scarcity and for the poor, it is not they who benefit the most
from the schemes. Contractors, middlemen and a number of other functionaries are the ones
who get most out of the relief operations.
There is always a hurry and eagerness to declare more and more areas as drought affected,
because that would mean more governmental and other supporting schemes coming into
play. Some of the top few districts that are constantly reported as drought affected—and for
even starvation deaths—are not necessarily the ones which receive below normal rains. For
example, Kalahandi in Orissa or Palamau in Bihar or Surguja in MP, are some places that are
always in the news for their drought miseries.
Do these districts really receive less rainfall? Most districts in India receive an average of
800 mm rainfall annually, which is more or less sufficient for different uses. The lowest rain-
fall that Kalahandi has had in the past 20 years is 978 mm. This is well above what some
districts get in ‘normal’ years. Otherwise, Kalahandi’s annual rainfall on an average has
been 1,250 mm. Besides, the average food produced per person in Kalahandi is higher than
the state and national averages. In Palamau also, the average rainfall is 1,200 to 1,300 mm in
a normal year. Surguja’s annual rainfall seldom falls below 1,200 mm. In some years it gets
1,500 to 1,600 mm.
So inadequate rainfall is not the problem. What is crucial is defining an area as really
suffering from drought, and not just ‘drought-affected’, is the management of the water,
along with issues of land use, cropping patterns, the public distribution system, etc.

India has faced droughts in 1966–67, 1972–73, 1979–80, 1986–87, 1996–97 and 2001–02.
In each instance, food production fell below the national average. There were large-scale
losses due to starvation, depletion of assets and livestock, etc. In 1987, 267 districts and
166 million people were affected by drought.
While food-grain stocks built up over the years have meant that there are no more fam-
ines in the country, drought still plays havoc with the livelihoods of thousands of farmers
and other workers in rural areas. The government’s relief measures like ‘food for work’
programmes in the drought-affected areas are temporary and provide only interim relief.
Long-term programmes for drought-proofing, like watershed management and rain-
water harvesting, could help in alleviating the situation on a long-term basis.
 WATER 87

Shortage amongst plenty

Cherrapunji was once the wettest spot on earth. Over the last decade or so, the mixed natural
forests in the upper catchment areas have been slowly destroyed. There are no forests to
hold water in the slopes and this makes most of the 12,000 mm of annual rainfall quickly run-
off downstream, where it causes floods. And in Cherrapunji, soon after the monsoon, the
springs and rivers dry up, resulting in drought and even acute drinking-water shortages.
In the Himalayan foothills, three decades of limestone quarrying has destroyed the forests,
and perennial mountain streams have either dried up or have become seasonal. In Saurashtra,
limestone mining from natural aquifers for the several cement factories has resulted in the
ingress of saline sea water as well as an increase in desertification.

WATER QUALITY
WHAT IS WATER POLLUTION? Water pollution may be defined as the introduction into a
waterbody of substances of such character and in such quantity that the natural quality
of the waterbody is altered. This alteration impairs its usefulness, affects the health of
living organisms or renders it offensive to the senses of sight, taste or smell. Water pollu-
tion includes surface water pollution (rivers, lakes, ponds), groundwater pollution and
marine pollution. (See chapter on Pollution for a listing and description of some of the
common types of water pollutants.)
Contamination of both groundwater and surface water sources due to widespread
municipal sewage and industrial pollution is commonplace in the country.

Eutrophication
The introduction of untreated or partially treated sewage into a waterbody could lead to an
increase in the amount of organic matter in it. The decaying organic material provides nutri-
tion for the growth of algae and other aquatic plants. This accumulation of excess nutrients
is called eutrophication. Eutrophication also occurs when excess fertilizer nutrients (mainly
nitrogen and phosphorus) accumulate in a waterbody. Eutrophication usually results in an
overgrowth of phytoplankton (small plant algae). Once these die, they begin to decompose.
Their decomposition causes the depletion of dissolved oxygen, which is very important for
the life of fish and other aquatic life. This may ultimately lead to the death of fish and other
aquatic organisms due to suffocation.

SURFACE WATER POLLUTION: Surface water gets polluted by wastes disposed from
human settlements and industries; agricultural run-off; and also natural sources like the
addition to waterbodies of soil, plant and animal debris after a heavy downpour. Dis-
cussed here are some of the sources of surface water pollution and associated problems.
88 AVANISH KUMAR AND SARITA THAKORE

Domestic sewage pollution: Sewage and municipal effluents account for 75 per cent
of the pollution load in rivers, while the rest can be attributed to industrial effluents and
other sources like agricultural run-off. Large towns and cities situated along the river
course discharge millions of litres of sewage into the rivers every day. Treatment facilities
are non-existent or inadequate. It is reported by a World Bank study that, in India, out of
the 3,119 towns and cities, only 209 have partial and just eight have full sewage treatment
facilities.
Domestic sewage leads to biological contamination of the water by a variety of disease-
causing micro-organisms. When the source of drinking water is contaminated, it may
cause serious health problems, and water-borne diseases, like cholera, gastroenteritis,
typhoid, etc., some of which can prove fatal.

Diseases from contaminated drinking water

Type of organism Disease Symptoms

Bacteria Typhoid Diarrhoea, severe vomiting, enlarged spleen,

inflamed intestine; often fatal if untreated
Cholera Diarrhoea, severe vomiting, dehydration;
often fatal if untreated
Bacterial dysentery Diarrhoea; fatal in infants without proper
treatment
Enteritus Severe stomach pain, nausea, vomiting;
rarely fatal
Viruses Infectious hepatitis Fever, severe headache, loss of appetite,
abdominal pain, jaundice, enlarged liver;
rarely fatal but may cause permanent liver
damage
Parasitic protozoa Amoebic dysentery Severe diarrhoea, headache, abdominal pain,
chills, fever; if not treated can cause liver
abscess, bowel perforation and death
Giardia Diarrhoea, abdominal cramps, flatulence,
belching, fatigue
Parasitic worms Schistosomiasis Abdominal pain, skin rash, anaemia, chronic
fatigue, and chronic general ill health

Industrial effluents: Industries use water for many purposes, such as processing,
cooling, and the treatment of materials at various stages of production. During these
processes, the water may become polluted. Sometimes waste water may be a by-product
 WATER 89

of the industrial process. Such polluted water released by industries may directly or
indirectly reach waterbodies.
All major rivers in the country are being polluted by unchecked industrial effluents
being discharged into them. There are norms specified for the treatment of industrial
waste water before it is discharged into rivers or other waterbodies: but without enforce-
ment, the pollution continues unabated at most places.

Deadly Damodar
The 563 km long Damodar river flows through six districts of Jharkhand, before entering
West Bengal and joining the Hooghly river. One hundred and eighty-three coal mines,
28 iron ore mines, 33 limestone mines and 84 mica mines draw water from the river and
drain into it. A variety of industries—coal washeries, coke-oven plants, the country’s major
iron and steel plants, thermal power plants, glass and cement plants and fertilizer and
chemical factories—seriously pollute the river. A total of about 6,000 mn l of mostly untreated
industrial waste water flows into the river every day. This does not include the waste water
discharged from mine-based activities and untreated sewage from towns and cities along
the course of the river.
Some estimates put the daily outfall of effluents at 60 tonnes of organic load, 2 tonnes of
non-metallic toxins and 1.2 tonnes of toxic metal substances. Mining and industrial effluents
generally carry high suspended solids in the form of fine coal particles and fly ash. Highly
toxic substances like phenol, cyanides and heavy metals are found in these effluents.
The Central Pollution Control Board, in a report in 1998, classified the Damodar under the
heavily polluted category. This means that its water is totally unsafe for human consumption
and can hardly support much aquatic life. Yet, many of the cities, such as Dhanbad and
Jharia, have no other source of drinking water, except for groundwater which is also
contaminated.

The problem of industrial water pollution occurs when inadequate measures are
adopted for effluent or waste-water treatment. The major water-polluting industries in
India include leather, pulp and paper, textiles and chemicals. When these industries
dump their wastes without adequate treatment into waterbodies, they introduce a wide
variety of pollutants—both inorganic and organic—which are not biodegradable. Various
pollutants—solvents, oils, plastics, metallic wastes, suspended solids, phenols, and
various chemical derivatives of manufacturing processes—cannot be removed from the
water easily with the available technology, thereby making the water unfit for human
applications.
Certain metals like zinc, copper, chromium, tin, and particularly heavy metals like
arsenic, cadmium, lead and mercury, are widely used in industries, especially in metal-
works and in processes related to batteries and electronics. These metals are also used in
the manufacture of certain pesticides, medicines, paints and pigments, glazes, inks, etc.
The wastes from such industries would usually have a high amount of these materials.
90 AVANISH KUMAR AND SARITA THAKORE

These are extremely toxic as ions. When present in certain water-soluble compounds, they
may enter the aquatic food chain. In humans, even small amounts of these can cause
severe physiological (including neurological) problems. For example, lead poisoning is
known to cause mental retardation, and mercury poisoning causes insanity and crippling
birth defects.

The Minamata story

The long-term and indirect effects of chemical pollution are best illustrated by the Minamata
story. When people near the Minamata Bay in Japan began suffering from a mysterious
disease, the culprit was traced to mercury. A chemical factory was releasing waste products
high in mercury into the stream leading to the bay. The mercury accumulated in shellfish
and other fishes, which were eaten by the local inhabitants. Over the years, hundreds of
people died and many were paralyzed for life. The other effects included impairment of
vision and hearing and neurological problems. Prenatal poisoning of foetuses was observed,
even when the mothers did not show any visible symptoms.

Another pollutant from industries, especially power plants, is the heat (a by-product
of industrial activity) that is released into waterbodies. This heat causes not only direct
harm to life forms, but may also catalyze chemical reactions between the various chemicals
that are already present in the waterbody. This unnatural heating can also cause disturb-
ances in the natural life cycles of aquatic organisms.
Tirupur, an industrial town in Tamil Nadu heavily engaged in the hosiery industry, is
facing a water crisis due to the contamination of its groundwater sources. Its dyeing and
bleaching industry uses more than 90 mn l of water a day and then discharges the same
amount as effluents, mostly untreated, into the non-perennial Noyyal river. The river
has become a cocktail of dyes—red, yellow, brown and black. The groundwater within
an estimated 10 to 20 km radius from Tirupur is not potable.
Stories like these abound in the whole country, especially in the industrial zones. In
Gujarat, of the total water used by industries, 80 per cent comes from groundwater
sources. Most of this is discharged without treatment, polluting fresh water and ground-
water sources. Thus, water treatment and the recycling of industrial waste water need to
be addressed much more effectively.
Water pollution is mainly due to sewage and industrial wastes. Having a proper
sewage-treatment system and the treatment of industrial effluents before they are dis-
charged into a waterbody are a few of the steps that can be taken to reduce surface water
pollution.

Agricultural run-off: Since the beginning of the Green Revolution large quantities
of chemical pesticides and fertilizers are being used to increase the yield of the crops.
Excess fertilizers or pesticides remain in the soil. Traces of these fertilizers and pesti-
cides are washed into the nearest waterbody when it rains or with irrigation waters. As
 WATER 91

rivers are the primary source of drinking water in most Indian cities, their contamination
means contaminated drinking water. River waters have been found to be contaminated
with pesticides like DDT, aldrin and dieldrin, which are very harmful for human and
ecological well-being. It is important to minimize the use of fertilizers and pesticides, as
any kind of treatment is not possible for this non-point pollution.

GROUNDWATER POLLUTION: Water pollution is not restricted to surface water alone. There
have been cases where the groundwater is found to be contaminated. Solid-waste
dumping is one cause of groundwater pollution. Various kinds of harmful materials
(chemicals, metals, etc.) present in the solid waste may get dissolved or leached into the
water. The pollutants dissolved in the water percolate down into the soil and contaminate
the groundwater. Industrial effluents that are dumped into underground tanks or wells,
or allowed to spill on to the ground, can also pollute groundwater. This is a serious
problem as groundwater is one of the main sources of drinking water.

Bichhri’s woes
In Bichhri, a tiny village in Rajasthan, during the early 1990s, villagers realized that the
water in their wells was brown, coal-like in colour and no longer usable. For more than a
decade an acid-manufacturing factory had been dumping its waste near Bichhri. The ground-
water became replete with iron salts that had leached down from the dump site years earlier.
These gave the local groundwater its peculiar brown tint and made it totally unfit for con-
sumption. In 1997, the Supreme Court shut down the polluting factory and ordered com-
pensation for the villagers. The court also instructed the Ministry of Environment and Forests
to assess the damage. But the situation has far from improved because other zinc smelters
are also contaminating other wells.

Natural contaminants of groundwater: Underground rocks in many areas in the

country have high levels of certain metals or compounds. Sometimes a change in the
water level, such as by digging deeper for water, can cause the contamination of water
by natural sources. One such contaminant in several parts of India is fluoride. Though
necessary for humans in small amounts, according to WHO, fluoride can be harmful in
amounts more than 1.5 parts per million (ppm). Prolonged exposure to fluoride exceeding
this maximum contamination level (MCL ) can cause skeletal fluorosis, a serious and
crippling bone disorder. Children exposed to levels of fluoride over 2.0 mg/l for an ex-
tended period of time may develop dental fluorosis, a brown staining or pitting of their
permanent teeth.
The people of Mandla, a fluoride-rich area in Madhya Pradesh, abandoned con-
ventional shallow wells for bore wells with depths of over 45 m to draw more water.
While 10 to 20-m deep conventional wells are safe, the water in bore wells with depths
of over 43 m has a high fluoride content. Many of Mandla’s children now have symptoms
of fluorosis, which include deformed teeth and skeletons. In Rajasthan’s Dungarpur
92 AVANISH KUMAR AND SARITA THAKORE

district, drinking-water sources contain 2 to 8.5 ppm of fluoride. Over 93.5 per cent of
the people of the 157 villages in the district suffer from dental fluorosis. The disease
affects about 100,000 of the state’s population.
Another contaminant which has emerged as a major threat to human health, particu-
larly in West Bengal, is arsenic. It may be found in water which has flowed through
arsenic-rich rocks. Long-term exposure to arsenic via drinking water causes cancer of
the skin, lungs, urinary bladder and kidneys, as well as changes in skin pigmentation
and its thickening. In West Bengal, about 1,000 villages in eight districts are affected by
the problem of arsenic-rich groundwater. This could mean around 40 million people in
the state are drinking arsenic-contaminated water every day. Experts believe that over-
exploitation of groundwater has a direct link with the arsenic contamination of aqui-
fers. According to some researchers, as the groundwater level dips, the arsenic-laden
subterranean rocks come in contact with air and get decomposed, releasing more arsenic
in the process.
Unlike flowing surface water, groundwater is unable to cleanse itself of degradable
wastes because groundwater flows so slowly that it cannot disperse or dilute the con-
taminants effectively. Groundwater is also much colder than surface water and this slows
down the chemical reactions that decompose wastes. Groundwater aquifers are also
difficult to clean because of their enormous volume and inaccessibility. So the best way
to protect groundwater resources is to prevent contamination.

QUALITY OF DRINKING WATER: The quality of water is an important criterion which influ-
ences its use and effects. Drinking-water quality should be such that it is pure, i.e. without
any contaminant or pollutant, and wholesome, i.e. it provides the necessary nutrients.
Drinking-water sources, both surface and groundwater, are often contaminated. While
surface-water pollution occurs due to the discharge of domestic sewage, agricultural
run-off and industrial effluents, groundwater can be contaminated naturally or it may
also be polluted due to the downward seepage of pollutants from the surface.
Drinking water quality standards or specifications have been established by agencies
such as WHO and UNICEF. In India, the Bureau of Indian Standards has specified the
criteria for drinking-water quality. Some of the important criteria are given in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2
Specifications for drinking water quality

Characteristics Maximum permissible limits Adverse effects beyond permissible limits

Colour (hazen units) 10 Consumer acceptance decreases
Odour Unobjectionable –
Taste Agreeable –
Turbidity (NTU) 10 Consumer acceptance decreases
T.D.S. (mg/l) 500 Palatability decreases, may cause
gastrointestinal irritation
(continued)
 WATER 93

(continued)
Characteristics Maximum permissible limits Adverse effects beyond permissible limits
pH value 6.5–8.5 Mucous membrane affected
Total hardness as ) 300 Encrustation and adverse effects on
CaCO3 (mg/l domestic use
Copper as Cu (mg/l) 0.05 Astringent taste, discolouration and
corrosion of metallic parts
Iron as Fe (mg/l) 0.3 Taste and appearance affected, promotes
iron bacteria
Fluoride as F (mg/l) 0.6–1.2 Low fluoride cases are linked with dental
caries. Above 1.5 p/m causes fluorosis
Mercury as Hg (mg/l) 0.001 Toxicity* effects
Arsenic as As (mg/l) 0.05 Toxicity effects
Lead as Pb (mg/l) 0.1 Toxicity effects
Coliform organisms
Coliform bacteria, which Throughout any year, 95 per cent of samples should not contain
inhabit the lower intestines any coliform organisms in 100 ml
of mammals, while not No sample should contain more than 10 coliform organisms
pathogenic themselves, per 100 ml
are taken as an index of Coliform organisms should not be detectable in 100 ml of any
contamination of two consecutive samples
watercourses No samples should contain Escherichia coli in 100 ml
Source: Indian Standard Specification for Drinking Water IS:105000–1983.
Note: *Toxicity here refers to the adverse effects that the high concentration of the metal causes to
various body systems and processes.

Many diseases like cholera, typhoid, jaundice, malaria, diarrhoea and dysentery, and
many other gastrointestinal problems are directly linked to drinking-water contamination.
In India, more than 1,000,000 children died due to diarrhoea and other gastrointestinal
disorders in the decade from 1990 to 2000. Water-borne diseases account for nearly one-
third of all deaths in the world. Thus, it is very important that the drinking water is
clean and pure.

MEASURING WATER QUALITY

Surface water bodies also support considerable aquatic life, and there are other significant
parameters of water quality that influence the biota in the waterbody. The most common
and measurable parameters for measuring water quality are biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD), dissolved oxygen, coliform organisms, besides the concentration of some other
gases and elements in the water. BOD is a measure of water pollution based on the organic
material it contains. The organic material provides food for aerobic bacteria which require
oxygen to be able to bring about the biodegradation of organic material. The greater
the volume of organic material and the greater the number of bacteria, the greater will
94 AVANISH KUMAR AND SARITA THAKORE

be the demand for oxygen. Thus, the BOD value gives an indication of organic pollution
levels in water. If BOD exceeds the available dissolved oxygen in the water, oxygen
depletion occurs and aquatic organisms suffer.

TOWARDS SOLUTIONS
The best way to deal with the problem of water pollution is to shift from thinking about
cleaning up pollution to preventing pollution. However, to clean up polluted water to
make it fit for drinking, certain technological solutions are commonly in use. Similarly,
waste water, whether it is domestic sewage or industrial effluent, can also be treated so
as to render it safe for disposal in any waterbody like a river or a lake.

TREATMENT OF DRINKING WATER

Filtration is the first step in purification. Through this process, suspended particles caus-
ing turbidity are removed. Organic and inorganic contaminants are removed by a process
called softening. Chemicals like calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) and sodium carbonate
(soda ash) are used for removing salts dissolved in the water. Softening must be followed
by sedimentation and filtration in order to remove the precipitates. Water is then disin-
fected by chlorination, to remove disease-causing bacteria. The appropriate dosage of
chlorine in the form of sodium hypochloride is administered to the water to disinfect it.
Disinfection can also be achieved through solar radiation. Solar-water disinfection
has been found to be effective in treating small quantities of drinking water at the house-
hold level. The UV rays in sunlight kill the disease-causing organisms. But as the intensity
of radiation decreases with the increase in depth, in order to allow sufficient solar radi-
ation to kill the microbes in water, the depth should be small and should not exceed
10 cm. An efficient, inexpensive and simple method which can be followed by anyone is
to place bottles of water in bright sunlight for about 6 hours.

WASTE-WATER TREATMENT
Waste-water treatment involves three stages: primary treatment, secondary treatment
and tertiary treatment.
Primary treatment is the physical removal of floatable and settleable solids present in
the waste water. The processes adopted include:

1. Screening—to remove large objects, such as stones or sticks.

2. Grit chamber—a chamber or tank used in primary treatment where heavy, large
solids (grit) settle down and are removed.
 WATER 95

3. Sedimentation tank (settling tank or clarifier)—settleable solids settle and are

pumped away, while oils float to the top and are skimmed off.

Secondary treatment involves the biological removal of dissolved solids. It utilizes

biological treatment processes in which micro-organisms convert non-settleable solids
to settleable solids. Sedimentation typically follows, allowing the settleable solids to
settle. In many domestic sewage plants the water is discharged after secondary treatment,
but whenever there are more chemicals in the waste water, it must be subjected to tertiary
treatment.
Tertiary treatment may include processes to remove nutrients such as nitrogen and
phosphorus, and carbon adsorption to remove chemicals. These processes can be physical,
biological, or chemical.

River action plans

About one-third of India’s population living in urban towns is served by the Ganga waters.
The Ganga Action Plan (GAP) initiated in 1985, was envisaged to improve water quality,
permit safe bathing all along the 2,525 km stretch of the Ganga from the Himalayas to the
Bay of Bengal, and make the water potable at important pilgrim and urban centres on its
banks. In Phase I, the main task was to intercept and treat 873 mn l of waste water from 25
cities and towns in the states of Uttar Pradesh (then including Uttaranchal), Bihar (then
including Jharkhand) and West Bengal. Phase I was to be completed by March 1997, but it
was later extended as GAP Phase II till March 1999 and included 29 towns and cities. Later,
the Yamuna Action Plan, the Damodar Action Plan and the Gomti Action Plan were added
to include the tributaries of the Ganga. The National River Conservation Plan, launched in
1995, expanded the scope to include all the rivers in the country.
Though the water quality of the Ganga improved due to GAP, it was not enough. Studies
indicate that though some parameters like DO and BOD have improved which would not
have been possible if there had been no effort to reduce pollution, the programmes have not
been able to achieve what they were really meant for. There is not much perceptible difference
in the water quality; the dark colour and bad odour are still there and the water can hardly
be used without treatment. The plans did not ensure the long-term sustainability of the
treatment plants as they did not indicate who would pay for the plants in the long run. In
many of the states, power is erratic; the facilities which are power-dependent lie under-
utilized. River-cleaning processes are very long term and complex: perhaps the years to
come may show the results that were expected from the action plans.

CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF WATER

Considering how little water is actually available for use, conservation of water and
efficient management of water sources is more critical than ever before. This requires a
combination of technology, traditional, modern or both, and good practices. Several parts
96 AVANISH KUMAR AND SARITA THAKORE

of India lie in arid or semi-arid regions, where people over the centuries developed
ways of catching and storing every drop of rain that fell on land, and using this precious
resource judiciously. Today, many of these traditional systems of water management
and use, which were governed by strict codes of conduct, have died out or been eroded.
In view of the water crises being faced today, efficient water management requires the
revival of some of these systems and practices through the increased participation of
people everywhere. The following case study is an example of a community-based effort
to revitalize traditional water-conservation practices, as well as to work collectively for
new systems of water management at the local level.

REVIVING : A SUCCESS STORY

The Alwar district in Rajasthan is classified as a semi-arid region. It has a meagre average
annual rainfall of 620 mm, and drought is a recurrent feature. In the early 1980s, with the
pressures of population, increased consumption and overall environmental degradation,
the water situation became worse. The district was officially declared by the Government
of Rajasthan as a ‘dark zone’, an area where the groundwater table has receded below
recoupable levels.
In 1985–86, a severe drought hit the region adding to the already bleak situation of
vanishing livelihoods and mass migration. Into this grim scenario entered a team of
dedicated volunteers from the Tarun Bharat Sangh (TBS), a voluntary non-governmental
organization. The TBS volunteers were convinced that one of the ways to improve the
situation would be to revive traditional practices, especially the johad (an earthen bund
or check dam to conserve rainwater), that had sustained Alwar and its populace in the
past. But initiating a dialogue with the villagers and convincing them to take part in the
revival was not an easy task. The volunteers decided that the best way to do this was to
practise rather than preach. They themselves started digging to revive an already existing
johad in one village, Gopalpura. Their hard work and patience paid off. The villagers
began participating in discussions and gradually became involved in the process.
The TBS activists evoked a sense of commitment and involvement in the community.
To spread the movement in the entire area, the TBS organized Pani Yatras (water tours).
Every year these yatras of about one and a half months would travel extensively, to share
the experiences of water harvesting. The goal was to involve at least a hundred more vil-
lages in this work. The march carried the message of harvesting rainwater and saving
forests by using traditional systems and knowledge. Today, there are more than 4,000
johads, which are totally managed by the community and have come to be regarded as
community or village property. In many cases, the villagers have contributed around 90
per cent of the total cost. The role of the TBS has been that of a catalyst and motivator.
The perceptible changes brought about by building johads have been no less than a
miracle. The wells have been recharged and water supply ensured for the entire year to
 WATER 97

meet the needs of the people and livestock. The effect has been evident in many areas, in
increased food production, in soil conservation and in increased biomass productivity.
It has even brought back to life two rivers, the Aravari and the Ruparel. These were once
perennial but had nearly disappeared during the drought in the 1980s. Now they are
perennial again.
Wastelands that were sparsely cultivated earlier are now cultivated with higher
cropping intensity. These efforts have transformed an officially ‘dark zone’ into a ‘water-
surplus zone’. The revival of traditional harvesting systems in Rajasthan is one example
among several such initiatives undertaken all over the country, especially in the drought-
prone regions of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Karnataka.

Johad: A technological marvel

Technologically, johads are simple structures—earthen check dams designed to capture
rainwater. But their unique feature is that they have been built entirely with local traditional
knowledge and the experience of the villagers. No ‘qualified’ engineer has been involved in
their construction. Starting with site selection, design and execution, they have been managed
by gajdhars or traditional rural engineers. These gajdhars have no formal degree, but are car-
riers of traditional knowledge and skills, which are so perfect that even modern technologists
marvel at their systems. Mr G.D. Agrawal, the former head of the civil engineering department
at the Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, who assessed the water-harvesting structures
in these areas found them not only structurally adequate but also built at very low cost. The
johads have withstood the test of adverse natural conditions, like intense rainfall, and have
not failed, unlike some other structures designed by qualified engineers.

RAINWATER HARVESTING
Water harvesting: This is one of the main techniques of conserving water, one which
has great potential to solve the water crisis all across the globe. Water harvesting means
the delib-erate collection and storage of rainwater that runs off on natural or man-made
catchment areas. Catchments include rooftops, compounds, rocky surfaces or hill slopes
or artificially prepared impervious/semi-pervious land surfaces. The amount of water
harvested depends on the frequency and intensity of rainfall, catchment characteristics,
water demand and how much run-off occurs.
Rainwater harvesting is neither energy-intensive nor labour-intensive, thus making it
an eminently feasible alternative to other water-accruing methods, such as desalination
of sea water or the contentious, much discussed issue of interlinking rivers.
India has an enormous amount of water that can be captured directly as rainwater or
as run-off from small catchments in and near villages or towns. Even if 15 per cent of the
total run-off can be captured through rainwater harvesting, tremendous pressure can be
98 AVANISH KUMAR AND SARITA THAKORE

taken off the country’s groundwater and surface water resources, and the availability of
clean water can be greatly extended.
Rainwater harvesting is an age-old practice. Water harvesting measures were highly
developed in ancient Indian civilizations. There is evidence that even during the
Harappan period, there was very good system of water management, as can be seen in
the excavations at Dholavira in Gujarat.
Kunds in Rajasthan: In many parts of Rajasthan, an ingenious system of rainwater
harvesting known as kunds or kundis had evolved over the centuries. The kund, the local
name given to a covered underground tank, was developed primarily for tackling
drinking-water problems. The kund consists of a saucer-shaped catchment area with a
gentle slope towards the centre where a tank is situated. Openings or inlets for water to
go into the tank are usually guarded by a wire mesh to prevent the entry of floating
debris, birds and reptiles. The top is usually covered with a lid from where water can be
drawn out with a bucket. The first known construction of a kund in western Rajasthan
was in AD 1607 by Raja Sursingh in the village Vadi-ka-Melan. During the Great Famine
of 1895–96, the construction of kunds was taken up on a wide scale. The proximity of a
kund to the house or village saved time and effort in searching for drinking water. Without
a kund, households in many parts of the Thar would have had to make a 10 to 15 km
round trip by donkey, camel or bullock cart, to meet their water needs.
Tankas in Gujarat: Rainwater harvesting and storage for individual houses is also an
old practice. Old houses in Gujarat had water-storage tanks called tankas. Rainwater
from the roof was drained during the monsoon months and diverted to these under-
ground tankas. Water from these tankas was then used in the summer months when there
was scarcity of water. Although tankas still exist in most of the old houses, the practice of
storing water is dying out. With most new houses being built without the provision of
rainwater harvesting, the traditional wisdom is slowly dying out.
Temple ponds: In South India, ponds or tanks were built in temple compounds to
store water. During the water-scarce season, water from these tanks was utilized by the
community.
With water scarcity being a problem in all big cities today, various methods have been
developed and tried out for rainwater harvesting in urban buildings. Rainwater is
directed from roofs or other surfaces, such as roads, to an underground tank, well, or
percolation pit. The pit carries the water to the aquifer to be recharged.
The potential of water harvesting in meeting household needs is enormous. According
to some estimates, there is no village in India which cannot meet its drinking water
needs through rainwater harvesting. Some calculations also show that, if rain was cap-
tured in the area of Delhi alone, there would be enough clean water to meet the drinking
water needs of every individual in India!
 WATER 99

Oceans
Oceans cover more than 70 per cent of the earth’s surface. This is why the earth is also called
the blue planet. These oceans play a key role in the survival of life forms on earth. They
serve as a gigantic reservoir for carbon dioxide, thus helping in regulating the temperature
of the troposphere. Oceans provide habitats for about 250,000 species of marine plants and
animals which are food for many organisms, including human beings. They also serve as a
source of iron, sand, gravel, phosphates, magnesium, oil, natural gas and many other valuable
resources. The oceans, because of their size and currents, mix and dilute many human-
produced wastes flowing or dumped into them, to less harmful or even harmless levels, as
long as they are not overloaded.

What oceans do for us

Oceans plays a vital role in the water cycle; they supply us with rain, food, and help to regu-
late our climate. Oceans help to regulate the greenhouse effect—billions of tiny plants called
phytoplankton absorb the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide and release oxygen—thus helping
to balance the carbon dioxide and oxygen. But these oceans are threatened by human activities
directly or indirectly; by activities that take place on the land and in the water.

Threats to oceans
Industries in coastal areas discharge their untreated effluents into the sea through waste
water, canals, drains, creeks, etc. Pesticides and herbicides used in the fields contain persistent
organic pollutants; their toxic chemicals find way through the washed away silt and irrigation
water and finally into the ocean. Sewage contains heavy metals, man-made chemicals and
organic wastes, all of which ultimately find their way into the ocean. The toxic chemicals
released through all these lead to the problem of biomagnifications, and subsequently the
creatures of the food chain are affected.

GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES
The constraints of water availability and the variety of uses warrant good water manage-
ment. The Government of India has framed a National Water Policy to address the variety
of issues related to water in the country. The water policy states that planning and devel-
opment of water resources need to be governed by national perspectives. Thus, water
allocation is one of the important issues to be addressed. Special attention needs to be
given to equitable access to water, with emphasis on the marginalized and weaker sections
of the society. Effective water management including conservation and protection of
water sources is part of the water policy.
100 AVANISH KUMAR AND SARITA THAKORE

The government has initiated a number of programmes to protect and conserve water.
Some of the laws, policies and programmes related to water management are:
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (1974): This act establishes an
institutional structure for preventing and abating water pollution. It establishes standards
for water quality and effluent. Polluting industries must seek permission to discharge
effluent into water bodies. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) was constituted
under this act.
The CPCB along with the State Pollution Control Boards has set up a water quality
monitoring network with 480 sampling stations throughout India. Regular monitoring
visits to industries to check pollution are organized by the Pollution Control Boards.
The Boards now have the power to disconnect the electricity and water connections of
industries which flout pollution standards.
The National River Conservation Plan (NRCP): After the Ganga and Yamuna Action
Plan in the late 1980s and early 1990s, it was decided that other rivers should be included
in such programmes. The National River Conservation Plan was launched in 1995 to
cover 18 major rivers in 10 states of the country. Under this action plan, pollution abate-
ment works are being taken up in 46 towns in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat,
Karnataka, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu.
About 1928 mn l per day (mn l/d) of sewage is targeted to be intercepted, diverted and
treated. A National River Conservation Authority has also been set up under the Chair-
manship of the Prime Minister to oversee the river conservation plans.
The National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP): On the recommendations of the
National Committee of Wetlands, Mangroves and Coral Reefs, a programme for the con-
servation of 21 urban lakes was formulated. Large-scale conservation activities have
been taken up in selected urban lakes which are highly degraded due to pollution, en-
croachments and habitat degradation. Apart from these programmes, wetland con-
servation and watershed management have also been given priority by the government.
Watershed Management Programmes: Historically, the Drought Prone Areas Pro-
gramme (DPAP) and the Desert Development Programme (DDP) have looked into the
problems of drought and water scarcity. Both these programmes, along with the Inte-
grated Wasteland Development Programme, were brought under the watershed approach
and were included under the Guidelines for Watershed Development from 1995 onwards.
These guidelines take a holistic view of the problems of water scarcity and emphasize
the development of watersheds on a local scale with local participation. Roof-water
harvesting is also being stressed to augment water availability. The authorities in Delhi
and Chennai have made it mandatory for new houses to install roof-water harvesting
structures.
 WATER 101

TOWARDS A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE

To ensure that we find sustainable solutions to our problems of water availability and
quality, in addition to making use of appropriate traditional and modern technologies
and practices, government policies and laws, appropriate incentives and disincentives,
our emphasis must be on preventing water wastage and pollution and ensuring equitable
access to water, and the active participation of the community in managing and making
decisions about their water resources.

I QUESTIONS

1. Explain the terms:

Precipitation
Transpiration
Water table
Aquifer
Watershed

2. Match the following:

A. Meteorological drought a. affects soil moisture, stream flow,

groundwater level.
B. Hydrological drought b. affects output of food
C. Agricultural drought c. affects availability of food
D. Socio-economic drought d. occurs when rainfall received is less
than 75 per cent of the normal rainfall

3. The amount of water on the earth is same as it ever was or ever will be. Is
this statement true? If yes, then why are we facing water scarcity every-
where? Are there any threats to the water cycle? If yes, explain.
4. What are the causes and effects of flooding? Does flooding occur in some
parts of your town/city? Why? If your region or zone is at risk, what steps
will you take to reduce damage and the risk of injury or loss to society?
5. What is the difference between drought and famine?
6. What efforts have been taken to clean up the Ganga? Why have the efforts
not been successful? What would you do differently if you were made
responsible for cleaning up the river?
102 AVANISH KUMAR AND SARITA THAKORE

II EXERCISES

1. Study the following table. Which are the most drought-prone parts of the
country? Plot them on an outline map of India. What could be the possible
reasons for the occurrence of frequent drought in these areas? Which kind/
kinds of drought occur there most often, and why? Are any of the areas
listed in the table also prone to floods? Which ones and why?

Periodicity of droughts in different meteorological subdivisions

Recurrence of very
Meteorological subdivision deficient rainfall
1. Assam Once in 15 years
2. W. Bengal, MP, coastal AP, Kerala Once in 5 years
3. Bihar, Orissa, North Karnataka Once in 4 years
4. Eastern UP, Vidarbha, Gujarat, Eastern Rajasthan Once in 3 years
5. Western UP, Tamil Nadu, Kashmir, Rayalaseema, Once in 2.5 years
Telengana, Western Rajasthan
Source: Report on the Development of Drought Prone Areas. 1998. National
Committee on Development of Backward Areas.

2. Create an anti-pollution advertisement selling the value of clean water. The

ad could focus on persuading people to do something that benefits water,
or it could persuade people to avoid doing something that pollutes water.
Try out your artistic talents as well as your sense of humour in creating the
ad. The ad could be for the print medium (i.e it might appear in a newspaper
or a magazine); it could be a script for the radio; or a combination of a script
and visual ideas for a TV ad.
3. Conduct a survey of your college to identify how water is being wasted.
Report leaking taps and broken pipes, overflowing cisterns or tanks, etc.
Find out how long it takes to repair them. Develop a water-conservation
strategy for your college.
4. Find out if any traditional methods of rainwater harvesting were, or still
are, used in your town or surrounding area. Describe the system. If it is no
longer in use, try to find out why. Do you think the system can be revived?
If yes, why? If no, why not?
 WATER 103

III DISCUSS

Leonardo da Vinci said, ‘Water is the driver of nature.’ Discuss what he meant
by this.

REFERENCES AND SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

Agarwal, Anil, Sunita Narain and Srabani Sen. 1999. The citizens’ fifth report, Part I. New Delhi: Centre
for Science and Environment.
———.1999. The citizens’ fifth report, Part II—Statistical database. New Delhi: Centre for Science and
Environment.
Allaby, Michael. 1992. Water—Its global nature. Oxford: Facts on File Limited.
Athavale, R.N. 2003. Water harvesting and sustainable supply in India, Centre for Environment Education.
New Delhi: Rawat Publications.
Centre for Science and Environment (CSE). 1999. ‘Perpetual thirst.’ Down to earth (28 February): 32–44.
———. 2003. ‘Fact sheet: Simple, bare necessities.’ Down to earth (31 May): 60.
Chettri, Mridula. 2000. ‘Chronicle of a journey foretold.’ Down to earth (15 June): 24–26.
Miller, G. Tyler, Jr. 1994. Living in the environment: Principles, connections and solutions. Belmont, Ca.:
Wordsworth Publishing Company.
Nadkarni, Manoj. 2003. ‘Coal dust, fly ash and slurry.’ Down to earth (15 March): 27–34.
Parasuraman S. and P.V. Unnikrishnan. 2000. India disasters report: Towards a policy initiative. New Delhi:
Oxford University Press.
Raghupati, Usha P. and Vivien Foster. 2002. ‘Water: Tariffs and subsidies in South Asia—A scorecard
for India.’ PPIAF (Public-Private Infrastructure Advisory Facility) and WSP (Water and Sanitation
Programme) Paper Series.
Sainath, P. 1997. Everybody loves a good drought. New Delhi: Penguin, India.
Sengupta, Sohini. 2000. ‘Droughts: Reaping scarcity.’ India disaster report: Towards a policy initiative.
S. Parasuraman and P.V. Unnikrishnan, eds, pp. 165–72. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Sunilkumar, M. and Shailaja Ravindranath. 1998. Water studies: Methods for monitoring water quality.
Bangalore: Centre for Environment Education.
http://envfor.nic.in/nrcd/nrcd.html as viewed on 11 March 2003.
http://wrmin.nic.in/resource/cont_gw.htm as viewed on 10 March 2003.
http://wrmin.nic.in/wresource1.htm as viewed on 10 March 2003.
 CHAPTER 5

ENERGY
KIRAN B. CHHOKAR

Energy is an essential ingredient of all activity on earth. Human society has progressed
because it has learnt to harness and use more and more energy (see Illustration 5.1,
‘Consumption of Energy in the Development of Human Society’). Early humans acquired
the 2,000 kcal of metabolic energy necessary for survival by gathering and eating plants.
About 400,000 years ago, they discovered the use of a new source of energy—fire.
By using wood fires for cooking, keeping warm and protection against wild animals,
an early hunter-gatherer probably used not more than 5,000 kcal per day. Over time,
humans learnt to use fire to extract metal from ores and to forge tools. The metal tools
made settled agriculture possible. Humans also tamed animals to harness their muscle
power for agricultural tasks. Technological advances made possible improvement in
agricultural productivity and the harnessing of water and wind power. The invention of
the steam engine, which was able to convert heat energy into mechanical energy, set in
motion a process of rapid industrialization in Europe and the United States. By the mid-
1800s, industrializing countries like England, Germany and the USA were using 70,000
to 80,000 kcal per person per day.
Today, the average American commands 250,000 kcal per day, which, in energy terms
is equivalent to a hundred persons working full-time. In other words, each American
has the equivalent of 100 ‘energy slaves’ to warm, cool, light, transport, cook and manu-
facture things for him or her. These energy slaves are not people, horses or wood, but
mainly fossil fuels and, to a lesser extent, hydroelectric, nuclear and solar power.
While every technological advance in human history has, in a major way, been a result
of our increasing ability to harness energy, convert it to useful forms and put it to various
uses, the galloping increase in our use of energy has also created problems. Some of these
problems are local, some global; some immediate, some looming ahead. For example,
the increasing demand for fuelwood in rural and urban areas of India is contributing to
the denudation and degradation of forests in some parts of the country. The pollutants
released into the atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels are making the air unsafe to
breathe. According to a newspaper report, in Mexico city, the air was unsafe to breathe
for more than 300 days in 1990. In New Delhi, the air was so polluted that during the
1996 World Cup cricket series, the Australian cricket team refused to play in the city.
 ENERGY 105

Source: Earl Cook. 1971. ‘The flow of energy in an industrial society’, Scientific American, 225 (3): 136.

Illustration 5.1 Consumption of energy in the development of human society

106 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR

Due to certain gases emitted by fuel combustion trap heat, experts predict that by the
year 2100, the average global temperature will have increased by anywhere between 1°C
and 4.5°C. So it is important that we take a close look at energy—where it comes from,
how we use it, what the environmental impacts are, and what we can do about it.

SOURCES OF ENERGY

The earth is a vast storehouse of energy. The fossil fuels beneath its surface, the wind
and water on its surface, the plants growing on it, the sunlight falling upon it, these are
all sources of energy. All energy sources can be classified into two basic categories, non-
renewable and renewable, depending on the time period over which they can be
replenished. The degree of renewability is determined by the human timescale.

NON-RENEWABLE SOURCES
Fossil fuels are organic remains which have, through the process of fossilization, over
millions of years, become coal, oil and natural gas. They cannot be renewed over time-
scales relevant for humans. They are therefore non-renewable resources. Nuclear fuels
are also non-renewable sources of energy. Using the analogy of money in the bank, all
these sources of energy are our ‘capital’, which may be extracted at as fast a rate as we
want, but once it has been used up, it will be gone forever. The earth contains huge stocks
of these sources of energy, but they are in fixed quantities and are being steadily depleted.

RENEWABLE SOURCES
Renewable sources of energy, or flow sources, rely on natural energy flows and sources
in the environment and thus have the potential of being continually replenished. Renew-
able resources may be likened to a steady flow of interest on money in the bank. If the
deposit of money is considered as a resource, as long as we withdraw either less than or
equal to the interest which the deposit earns, the resource (deposit of money) can be
considered to be renewing itself.

BIOMASS (wood, and animal and crop wastes): Biomass is a renewable source of energy.
Biomass resources can, however, be exhausted if their rate of use exceeds the rate at
which they are replenished, like money in the bank. Animal and human muscle power
are also renewable resources.
 ENERGY 107

Biomass—A renewable resource

Biomass can be defined as the weight of all the living organisms in a given population, area,
volume or other unit being measured. Often it is also considered as the weight of the dry
matter of living organisms (phytomass of plants and zoomass of animals) at any given time
per unit area. Plant biomass provides the primary energy source and acts as the foundation
for all life forms. It is an important and major source of food, fodder for livestock, timber for
housing and furniture, and many other products needed for human existence.
In India, biomass is a major source of energy. Biomass resources, too, can be exhausted if
their rate of use exceeds the rate at which they are replenished.

Most renewable energy sources are powered directly or indirectly by the energy of the
sun, and so will last as long as the sun lasts. These include solar radiation, energy from
flowing or falling water, and from wind. These sources can however be tapped only at a
certain rate. But they can last forever and are therefore also called perpetual sources.
Another way of classifying energy sources is as ‘non-commercial’ and ‘commercial’
energy.

NON-COMMERCIAL ENERGY: This form of energy includes fuels such as firewood, dung
and agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered, not bought. These are also
called traditional fuels. However, when these sources of energy become scarce, often
they too have to be bought. For example, the denudation of forests and the consequent
reduction in the availability of wood for fuel has resulted in firewood becoming a
marketed product not only in urban areas, but in rural areas as well.
Non-commercial energy has been used by human beings for a long time. We use solar
energy for drying grain, clothes, fish and fruits; and the energy of flowing water for
grinding grain. Non-commercial or traditional sources of energy also include animal
and human muscle power. We use these for transportation, ploughing, threshing, lifting
water for irrigation, crushing sugar cane, etc. Unfortunately these are not included in
most energy statistics. Nor are the other sources of energy harnessed through traditional
means, such as the power of flowing water used by water mills. While these sources of
energy continue to be widely used in developing countries like India, we are now becom-
ing increasingly dependent on commercial sources of energy.
Accurate records of the use of non-commercial energy do not exist, but it has been
estimated that biomass fuels contributed 41 per cent to India’s primary energy supplies
in 1998. In India’s rural areas, about 95 per cent was supplied by biomass (wood, animal
dung and agricultural residues). While the use of dried dung and crop waste as fuel is
widespread in agriculturally prosperous regions, wood is still the principal domestic
fuel in poorer and less well-endowed regions. Overall, fuelwood is estimated to provide
almost 60 per cent of the energy in rural areas and about 35 per cent in urban areas.
108 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR

COMMERCIAL ENERGY: This energy is also known as industrial energy, and is energy that
is bought and sold. By far the most important forms of commercial energy are electricity
and refined petroleum products. The primary energy sources such as coal, oil, natural
gas, flowing or falling water and nuclear fuels are converted into secondary energy forms,
like electricity, which are of greater use and value.
Commercial energy forms the basis of industrial, agricultural, transport and commercial
development in the modern world. In industrialized countries, commercial energy is
the leading source not only for economic production but also for several household and
personal tasks such as washing dishes, drying clothes, shaving and even for brushing
teeth.
The production and consumption of commercial energy from conventional sources—
fossil fuels, large-scale hydroelectric and nuclear sources—is continuing to rise world-
wide. However, efforts are also on to harness commercial energy from alternative
renewable resources such as solar, wind, wave, geothermal, small-scale hydro and non-
traditional biomass.

INDIA: CURRENT ENERGY SCENARIO

India’s current energy requirement is increasing sharply because of rapid industrial-
ization, mechanization, urbanization, commercialization, population growth, and the
changing lifestyles and aspirations of the people. As the supply of energy cannot keep
pace with the rising demand, we experience energy shortages in our everyday lives—of
petrol, electricity, cooking gas, kerosene, fuelwood.

In our country, nearly half the energy is consumed not by industry or agriculture, but by
households—mainly for cooking food.

A significant feature of energy use in India is the substantial contribution of non-

commercial energy—nearly one-third of the energy used in India comes from non-
commercial sources. Firewood continues to be the major fuel for cooking energy in the
country. Where fuelwood is available, households prefer it to dung or crop residues.

Energy ladder
When faced with firewood scarcity, the rural poor shift to poorer quality fuels such as cattle
dung, crop residues, the woody parts of shrubs, roots, weeds and leaves. All these are less
efficient than wood and give off a lot of smoke. At the household level, people often use a
mix of fuels depending on the purpose. In urban areas, where firewood is used mainly by

(continued)
 ENERGY 109

(continued)
the poor, those who cannot afford to buy alternative commercial fuels sometimes turn to
non-fuels such as waste paper, discarded tyres and plastic wastes, especially for warmth on
cold winter nights.
A strong relationship exists between income and the type of fuel used. This relationship
manifests itself in an ‘energy ladder’. With an increase in income, people switch to higher
quality fuels, i.e. they shift to fuels that are more energy efficient as well as cleaner and more
convenient to use. (Fuel efficiency is a function of the proportion of the chemical energy in
the fuel which is converted to thermal energy, i.e. heat.)
The normal progression up the energy ladder is from solid to liquid to gaseous fuels to
electricity. For lighting, the normal sequence is from vegetable oil to kerosene to electricity.
For cooking, from fuelwood to charcoal to kerosene to LPG (liquified petroleum gas).

Electricity

Gas
Fuel choice

Kerosene

Wood

Crop residues

Dung

Development/income level

Illustration 5.2 Energy ladder

Energy efficiency of fuels

Fuel Amount Units of energy Output (units of energy) Efficiency (per cent)
Cow dung 1 kg 2.5 0.4 16
Wood 1 kg 5.5 1.0 18
Coal 1 kg 7.0 2.0 29
Petroleum based 1 kg 12.0 7.0 58
Electricity 1 kWh 1.0 0.7 70
Source: Urjapatra, January–December 1994, p. 19.
110 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR

Although statistics on commercial energy are easily available, the absence of accurate
statistics for non-commercial energy makes it difficult to precisely state how much each
category contributes to India’s total energy use. The share of commercial energy in India
is, however, expected to grow from an estimated 66 per cent in 1990 to 80 per cent in the
early years of the 21st century.

COAL: It is the largest of a mix of commercial energy sources India uses. Coal provides
39 per cent of India’s total energy requirements and is the source of 56 per cent of its com-
mercial energy. India is the fourth largest producer of coal in the world, and has large coal
reserves. Its proven reserves are nearly 68 bn t, but estimates indicate that there may be
three times as much. Most of India’s coal reserves are in the Gondwana Basin.

OIL: It accounts for 32 per cent of India’s commercial energy. The petroleum reserves
are mainly in the Arabian Sea in the offshore Bombay High and Cambay basins, and in
Upper Assam. India has proven and recoverable oil and natural gas reserves of 3.3 bn t.
This is small when compared with the reserves in the recognized oil-producing coun-
tries of the world. According to one source, Saudi Arabia has 35.6 bn t while Kuwait has
12.7 bn t.
India rapidly developed its oil resources in the 1970s and early 1980s to meet the
rising demand and reduce its dependence on foreign oil. Since 1985, oil production has
been relatively stagnant. India still has to import half of its requirements of crude oil. Oil
imports continue to be a heavy drain on the exchequer.

NATURAL GAS: It supplies 8 per cent of India’s current commercial energy needs, but its
contribution is growing. Natural gas in India occurs largely in the oil reserves. The current
production of natural gas far exceeds the country’s ability to transport it to where it
could be used. As a result, nearly 40 per cent of the gas produced, valued at Rs 100 mil-
lion per year, is flared (burned off) at source. However, the country’s future energy plans
include the use of natural gas in power plants.

HYDROELECTRIC POWER: It supplies about 3 per cent of India’s commercial energy and
18 per cent of its electricity. The potential for augmenting this capacity is great, but the
high capital costs and the long gestation periods of such projects, as well as the swelling
resistance against them on environmental and social grounds, have slowed development.
Interstate river-water disputes are another major reason for slow development.

NUCLEAR POWER: It provides 1 per cent of India’s commercial energy and 2 per cent of
its electricity. India has 14 nuclear reactors at six nuclear power stations producing
electricity. The first two reactors were commissioned at Tarapur in Maharashtra in 1969.
Subsequently, nuclear power plants were also set up at Rawatbhatta in Rajasthan,
Kalapakkam and Kudankulam in Tamil Nadu, Narora in Uttar Pradesh, Kakrapar in
Gujarat, and Kaiga in Karnataka.
 ENERGY 111

Figure 5.1
India: Sources of commercial energy (1997–98)

Source: State of the Environment, India (2001). UNEP.

THE PROBLEMS

The commercial energy resources that we currently depend upon are largely non-
renewable, making our growing demand for energy, our lifestyles and patterns of energy
use clearly unsustainable.
The per capita commercial energy consumption in India is still low when compared to
other countries, being less than 4 per cent of a developed country such as the USA.
However, we need to look at energy issues holistically and choose a way which, through
a mix of policy, institutional, and technological tools, is more sustainable and viable.
This section looks at some of the problems and issues associated with availability and
requirement, growing imports, inequitable distribution, inefficient technology, unsustain-
ability and environmental costs.

SHORTAGES
Like most rapidly developing countries, India suffers from energy shortages. Rising fuel-
wood prices and the dependence of the poor on low-quality crop residues and cattle
dung are indications of the shortage of fuelwood.
Coal is the primary fuel in power generation in India. Over the last decade, coal short-
ages and therefore electricity have steadily worsened, largely because of the low-energy
112 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR

prices set by the government, which provide neither adequate returns nor incentives to
producers. Until recently the price of coal was lower than its cost of production.
On a countrywide basis, electricity generation is about 10 per cent less than the potential
demand. In some regions the situation is much worse. This leads to frequent power
breakdowns, voltage fluctuations and planned and unplanned power cuts. Most power
companies are inefficient state monopolies. They are neither market driven nor account-
able to public or private shareholders. Economic losses due to power shortages are esti-
mated at 1 to 2 per cent of India’s national income. Many industries have invested in
diesel-driven back-up generators leading to greater demand for imported oil.

DEPENDENCE ON IMPORTED OIL

India’s demand for oil has been steadily rising. The persistent shortages of coal and power
supply have contributed to a more rapid rise in the consumption of petroleum products
than had been anticipated. In agriculture, at least 5.5 million diesel pumps are currently
in use for pumping irrigation water. The transport sector is a major user of oil. The use of
diesel in road and rail transport has increased significantly over the past few decades.
The rapid and unconstrained growth of cities, inadequate public transport and increase
in income levels have led to a phenomenal growth in the number of privately-owned
vehicles, especially two-wheelers. This in turn has led to a significant increase in the de-
mand for petrol and motor oil.
India has met this demand by importing oil as well as by developing its own oil
resources. In 1991–92, oil accounted for 25 per cent of India’s total import bill. However,
if current trends continue, by 2009–10, the oil demand is projected to reach 186 million
tonnes, i.e. more than three times the demand in 1992. The import requirement to meet
such a large demand could have a disastrous effect on India’s foreign exchange situation
and its external debt. Besides, India’s economy would continue to be vulnerable to the
volatility of the international oil market and of the political situation in the oil-producing
countries such as Iraq.

INEQUITIES
India has so far followed development policies that equate development with growth,
and economic growth with increased consumption of commercial energy. This approach
to energy planning has further magnified the existing inequities between rich and poor,
urban and rural, in Indian society. According to Ravindranath and Hall (1995):

Conventional wisdom in energy planning has led to the neglect of the crucial aspects
of the lives of the rural and urban poor, their basic human needs (drinking water
and cooking energy), their settlements (villages and slums), their fuels (fuelwood,
 ENERGY 113

crop residues, dung), the end uses (cooking and lighting), and their energy-using
devices (cooking stoves, kilns). Instead, the energy supplies of the elite—oil and
electricity—are overemphasized.

The decline in the availability of firewood is driving the landless poor, and marginal
farmers who cannot get adequate crop wastes from their small landholdings, to depend
on cattle dung. But the adoption of domestic biogas plants by many of the larger farmers
and cattle owners has deprived the poor of dung which they were earlier free to collect
from the streets and fields for fuel. In many parts of rural India, dung and agricultural
wastes are increasingly becoming market commodities. This has affected the rural poor.
These inequities also affect men and women unequally as poor rural women have to
bear the increased burden of spending longer hours and more energy searching for and
gathering fuel. It has been said that millions of poor women in rural India ‘are caught in
a vicious energy cycle: they eat food to get human energy and then spend all of this
energy in producing food and collecting the energy needed to cook it’.
The inequities of access to the various types of fuels exist not just between rich and
poor, but also between rural and urban areas. The rising demand for fuelwood by the
urban poor who cannot afford or access commercial fuels (for example, if they do not
possess a ration card, as is often the case with slum and pavement dwellers) has resulted
in a sharp increase in fuelwood prices in urban areas. This has led to truck- and wagon-
loads of firewood harvested from forests at ever-increasing distances, and hence increas-
ing costs, being sent to major cities. In some cases this reduces supplies in rural areas
where firewood has traditionally been a non-commercial resource. The urban demand
has contributed to the depletion of forest cover not only in areas near urban markets but
in distant areas as well. Delhi, for example, receives firewood from as far away as Assam,
a distance of nearly 2,000 km.
The government subsidizes some products such as kerosene and cooking gas while it
taxes others. The price for kerosene is subsidized with a view to protecting consumers,
but the benefit of the subsidy is not directed to the poor in particular. As a result, while
the relatively cheap kerosene is often used for adulteration in the transport sector, poor
consumers are unable to fulfil their total requirements of kerosene from the ration shop.
They have to depend in part on supplies from other sources where they pay significantly
higher prices.
The scarcity of firewood and other biomass fuels, and the increase in the time spent on
gathering them, reduces the time available for other tasks such as cooking. This, in turn,
can affect the choice of foods. It has been observed in some urban slums that the shortage
of firewood resulted in more nutritious but slow cooking and hence more fuel-expensive
cereals such as jowar, bajra and maize giving way to quicker cooking but nutritionally
poorer grains such as rice. The decline in nutritional intake makes people, especially
women who traditionally eat the last and the least in the household, more vulnerable to
disease. Their poorer nutritional status also makes women more susceptible to diseases
114 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR

caused by prolonged exposure to indoor air pollution, as they spend four to six hours
every day near the cooking stoves.

INEFFICIENCY
Widespread inefficiency in power generation, transmission, management and use intensi-
fies energy shortages. Some industries and power plants use outdated equipment and
processes. For example, the manufacture of steel in India requires twice as much energy
as that required in an industrialized country. Poor maintenance of equipment and
inadequate monitoring procedures also contribute to inefficiency. Some of the factors
responsible for inefficiencies in different sectors are given below.

THE POWER SECTOR: More than 20 per cent of the electricity generated in India is lost
during transmission and distribution (T and D). These losses occur because of too many
transformation stages, poor quality of wires and equipment, friction and heat loss, and
extensive rural electrification, which means carrying electricity over long distances from
the source of generation. India’s T and D losses are two to three times more than the
industrialized countries. In addition, losses because of pilferage, theft and unmetred
supply are also significant.

THE TRANSPORT SECTOR: In the transport sector both public and private vehicles are,
by and large, poorly maintained, which adds to their energy inefficiency. Ensuring fuel
economy is not a priority with automobile manufacturers.

THE DOMESTIC SECTOR: The combination of using inefficient fuels (only a small amount
of the chemical energy in the fuel is converted to heat) in inefficient stoves (that transfer
only 10 to 15 per cent of the heat to the pot in which the food is cooked while the rest
escapes as waste heat) is negative from the standpoints of energy, the health of the cook
and the environment. Such a combination requires a greater quantity of fuel for cooking
a meal and exposes the cook to more pollutants.

THE AGRICULTURE SECTOR: Subsidies by the central and state governments that keep
energy prices artificially low contribute to energy inefficiencies. In 1995, while it cost an
average of Rs 1.36 per unit to supply electricity for irrigation, farmers using it were
being charged barely 15 paise, and in some states electricity was, and still is, free. Low
tariffs on electricity for agricultural pumping continue to be in force as a populistic
measure by politicians—those in power and those seeking it. Promising cheap or free
electricity for agriculture (mainly for pumping water) is a way of seeking the support of
the large vote bank of farmers. But these subsidies have led to the wasteful use of
electricity and water, and have resulted in huge losses for the state electricity companies.
This has hindered the ability of the utilities to function efficiently.
 ENERGY 115

UNSUSTAINABILITY
By definition, the use of non-renewable energy sources in the long term is not sustainable.
Although biomass is a renewable resource, the current pattern of consumption of biomass
fuels is unsustainable. For example, the over-harvesting of forests, partly for timber and
other demands, and partly to meet the firewood demand in urban areas, is causing
deforestation. India currently uses about 227 mn t of fuelwood energy per year, and this
figure is growing with population growth.
Every million tonnes of cut wood requires the cutting of about 8,000 ha of forest. India
uses about 227 mn t of fuelwood per year. Even if 10 per cent of the fuelwood comes
from felling trees, about 180,000 ha (1,800 sq km) of forest and tree plantations would
have to be cleared for fuelwood alone, leading to significant deforestation.
Scarcity of fuelwood has increased the pressure on other biomass resources such as
cattle dung and crop residues. The use of these resources as fuel makes them unavailable
for other more appropriate uses as fertilizers and mulch.

ENVIRONMENTAL COSTS OF ENERGY USE

The use of any of the various conventional energy resources has some adverse envir-
onmental consequences at some stage—from its extraction, through processing and
transportation, to its end use and waste disposal. Here we look at some examples.

BIOMASS
Biomass is a renewable resource; but when it is consumed faster than it can regenerate,
biomass denudation (especially deforestation) results in soil erosion, loss of productivity
of the soil, disruption of streams and loss of habitats.
Biomass is considered to be a carbon-neutral energy source because green plants absorb
carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and give off oxygen, thus establishing an overall carbon
dioxide balance. But the burning of biomass-based fuels emits not only CO2 but also other
carbon-containing materials, namely, carbon monoxide, methane, other hydrocarbons,
and suspended particulate matter like soot and ash. It therefore causes air pollution and
contributes to the build-up of ‘greenhouse gases’ which cause atmospheric warming.
Of more immediate concern is the fact that the carbon monoxide, smoke and hydro-
carbons from open wood stoves in poorly ventilated dwellings affect the health of
the rural and urban poor, especially the women, who are the main users of biomass
fuels. According to one study, the average exposure to biomass smoke in three hours is
116 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR

equivalent to smoking 400 cigarettes. Even if we consider this to be an exaggerated figure,

biomass fuels have nonetheless been found to expose the cook to almost 10 times more
particulate matter than kerosene and 20 to 25 times more than LPG.

COAL
Coal is mined in two ways—underground mining and opencast mining. Both ways of
mining have specific environmental effects, but together they degrade forests and land,
pollute water and air, and affect the health of miners and people living near the mines.
Opencast mines are comparatively more efficient because they permit almost complete
recovery of the coal. In underground mines, 40 to 60 per cent of the coal has to be left in
place to hold up the structure. Yet, occasional roof collapses and explosions in the under-
ground mines kill miners. The enclosed, coal-dust-laden atmosphere affects the miners’
health. Pneumoconiosis, a serious lung disease, occurs with a high frequency among
coal miners. Under present practices, opencast mines are safer but destroy, often perman-
ently, the vegetal cover and soil. They also disrupt and pollute aquifers and streams. The
coal dust generated by mining pollutes the air for miles. After coal is mined, it is some-
times washed to remove impurities like clay. This uses and pollutes a lot of water.
The worst environmental problem associated with coal is the air pollution generated
when coal is burned. Coal is about the ‘dirtiest’ fuel and produces twice as much carbon
dioxide (the main greenhouse gas which leads to global warming) per unit of energy as
natural gas and 25 per cent more than oil. In India, coal combustion accounts for 66 per
cent of carbon emissions. India’s Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, requires emissions
from the smokestacks of coal-based power stations to be kept within prescribed limits.
However, only 50 per cent of power stations have installed devices like electrostatic pre-
cipitators to control emissions, particularly of suspended particulate matter (SPM). Coal
use in the country is projected to reach over 600 mn t by the year 2010.
Coal is also the primary source of oxides of sulphur and nitrogen which combine with
water vapour in the atmosphere to cause acid rain. The acidic nature of the pollutants
causes damage to buildings, monuments, metals, vegetation, animals, aquatic ecosystems
and human health. Although the sulphur content of Indian coals is low (1 per cent), in
terms of the total pollution load, the large amount of coal combustion in thermal power
plants offsets this advantage.
Indian coals contain high amounts of ash (25 to 40 per cent). The disposal of fly ash is
one of the biggest solid-waste disposal problems in India. For every megawatt (MW) of
installed capacity, approximately 0.04 ha of land is required to pile up the ash 8 to 10 m
high. The majority of the thermal power stations in India are of 200 to 210 MW units. So
you can work out how much land each coal-based power plant requires just to dump
the fly ash!
 ENERGY 117

Fly ash
Fly ash is a fine particulate, essentially non-combustible material, which is carried out in a
gas stream from a furnace as opposed to the ash that remains at the bottom.
In India, over 60 per cent of power generation is coal based, which produces nearly 80 to
100 mn t of fly ash every year. India stands second only to China in the quantum of fly ash
generated. Currently, nearly 90 per cent of the fly ash is dumped as slurry in ash ponds,
which requires huge amounts of water. It also results in the creation of wasteland and could
result in the leaching of heavy metals and soluble salts. Leaching from ash ponds to
neighbouring fields and waterbodies can lead to surface- and groundwater pollution.
Efforts are on to develop uses for fly ash. It has been used commercially for making bricks,
blocks and as an ingredient in cement. It has also been used to fill up old mines. But at
present, only about 3 per cent of the fly ash generated each year is being put to these uses.
Research at the University of Calcutta has found that fly ash is an excellent catalyst for
treating toxic and non-biodegradable chemicals in effluents from the pesticide industry.

OIL AND NATURAL GAS

The process of oil and natural gas exploration is very energy-intensive, and so is its ex-
traction. Both exploratory and commercial drilling, even if done with a lot of care, result
in the release of some toxic chemicals and in the pollution of water and air. Accidental
explosions and occasional leaks occur both during exploration and during production.
Today, all oceans are contaminated to some degree by oil slicks (thick patches of oil
floating on water) and petroleum residues. These come from offshore oil wells, ships
(from collisions, leaks, and flushing of tanks), and also as run-off from land-based oil
facilities and waste oil. When oil spills into a natural ecosystem on land or in water, it
kills creatures by cutting-off their air supply, enters the food chain and disperses in the
sediments and soils. In the sea, oil is especially harmful to life forms that cannot swim
away, such as coral.

Oil spills and accidents

A major blowout occurred in Pasarlapudi in Andhra Pradesh in January 1995, when a well
was being drilled. The fire raged for 66 days before it was finally put out. Besides the damage
it caused to drilling equipment and the smoke and other pollutants it added to the air, the
fire drove thousands of people from their homes and scorched crops and trees.
The infamous accident of the oil tanker Exxon Valdez in May 1989 spilled nearly 42 mn l
(equivalent to the contents of 17 Olympic-size swimming pools) off Alaska’s coast, along
1,930 km of the coastline. The spill killed at least 100,000 sea birds, 1,000 sea otters and
innumerable seals. In June 1989, an oil spill threatened the Indian coast when a Maltese
tanker, MT Puppy, collided with a British ship, spilling over 5,000 tonnes of oil into the open
seas off Mumbai.
118 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR

Oil is a ‘cleaner’ fuel than coal, but natural gas is the cleanest of the three. It is composed
mainly of methane which is a greenhouse gas that traps ultraviolet radiation more effect-
ively than CO2. Therefore, unusable gas at oil wells is flared rather than being allowed to
escape into the atmosphere.
The commercial processing of petroleum products produces solid wastes such as salts
and greases. After all the refining and processing, the oil is ready as a fuel. It is then used
in vehicles and furnaces. When burned, it produces air pollutants such as sulphur dioxide,
oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide, and of course, carbon dioxide.
The phenomenal increase in motor vehicles in India—from 11 million in 1986 to nearly
59 million in 2002—has resulted in a corresponding increase in the use of petroleum in
transportation. As this increase in vehicles has occurred mainly in urban areas, the air
quality in most Indian cities has deteriorated significantly. Smog is now a common feature
in many cities. Smog and other air pollutants lead to respiratory and eye problems among
urban dwellers. According to a recent World Bank report, every year 40,000 people die
prematurely in India because of air pollution.

HYDROELECTRICITY
About 18 per cent of the electricity produced in India is generated by turbines turned by
the force of falling water. Hydropower generation requires the building of dams behind
which water is impounded. Although the generation of hydroelectricity does not release
any carbon dioxide, rotting vegetation resulting from the submergence of forests, pro-
duces methane, which is a greenhouse gas.
Large dams are a controversial environmental issue in India. Vast tracts of valuable
forests, wildlife habitats (both terrestrial and aquatic) and biodiversity, as well as agri-
cultural land, are at stake due to submergence. The water table rises and often leads to
salinization and waterlogging due to poor management. When that happens on agricul-
tural land, the productivity of the soil is affected. Waterlogging also leads to a rise in
various diseases, notably malaria. Thousands of people are often displaced when a dam
is constructed. Large dams entail severe and often irreparable social and environmental
costs, including the displacement of people, submergence of valuable resources and
adverse impacts on downstream hydrology.
Another major concern is the threat of earthquakes, because impounding such large
volumes of water causes a build-up of tremendous stresses in the earth’s crust. There is
evidence of such occurrences all over the world. The Koyna Dam in India is an example.
It was built in 1962, in a stable area known neither for geologic faults nor for seismic
activity. In 1967, the area was rocked by an earthquake which killed 177 people, injured
2,300 and rendered thousands homeless. The threat of earthquakes in an area which
is known to be earthquake-prone is the most contentious issue in the case of the Tehri Dam.
 ENERGY 119

NUCLEAR POWER
In some respects nuclear power is the ‘cleanest’ of all energy sources. Its generation and
use do not emit any carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases. Nor does it cause acid
rain or urban smog. Yet it is the most controversial source of energy. The basic cause for
concern is the possibility of an accident. Although the probability of an accident is low,
should it happen, the consequences would be serious.
The accident at the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant in the USA in March 1979
and the explosion at the Chernobyl power plant in Ukraine (which was part of the former
USSR) in April 1986, both of which released large amounts of radioactivity into the atmos-
phere, have intensified the fear that human errors in operation and maintenance could
lead to major catastrophes (see box, ‘Chernobyl Disaster’). Critics believe that Indian
nuclear power plants are poorly maintained and that accidents, mostly unreported, occur
almost every year.
Another unsolved problem is the management and disposal of radioactive wastes.
Nuclear power plants use radioactive materials and produce radioactive waste. The
power plants have a life of 30 to 40 years after which they have to be decommissioned.
But they contain a lot of radioactive material. It takes from thousands to millions of
years for most of these materials to lose their radioactivity. During this time, humans
and other life forms exposed knowingly or unknowingly to nuclear radiation are at risk.
Exposure to radioactivity is known to cause cancer, genetic defects, and even death.
Several methods of dismantling ageing nuclear plants and managing the safe disposal
of radioactive waste have been suggested. All of them essentially deal with the safe
storage of radioactive materials over a geological time span. However, it remains an
intractable problem as we still do not know how to handle and dispose of these materials
one hundred per cent safely. The proponents of nuclear energy maintain that science
and technology have tackled many intractable problems in the past and will find a
solution for this one too.

Chernobyl disaster
‘Chernobyl’ is a chilling reminder of the far-reaching effects of a nuclear accident and the
long-term, insidious nature of its consequences.
On 25 April 1986, the nuclear power plant at Chernobyl in Ukraine suffered a tremendous
fire in the nuclear reactor, known as a ‘reactor meltdown’. A series of explosions blew up the
roof of the reactor building and scattered radioactive dust and debris all over northern Europe
and as far away as Canada and USA. The cause of the accident was pinned on the faulty
design of the building, poor maintenance, bad management and human error. Ironically, the
accident occurred when the engineers of the plant shut down the automatic safety devices
in order to conduct a safety experiment.
(continued)
120 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR

(continued)
While the accident killed about 30 people, millions were exposed to high levels of radiation
which subsequently caused several health problems. The worst hit by this accident were
children, most vulnerable to radioactive exposure. Surveys in Belarus of children born after
the disaster, whose mothers were exposed to radiation, revealed hardly a child not suffering
from some immune deficiency disease.
Radioactivity can be passed between forms of life along food chains. In England, sheep
which ate the grass growing in affected areas had to be destroyed as their meat was considered
unsafe for human consumption. Till 1994, there were reports that lambs in the English Lake
District were too radioactive to be sold. Many British farmers therefore lost money as a
result of the Chernobyl disaster. In Lapland, thousands of reindeer were affected by radio-
active caesium-137 in their food. As they are an important part of the diet of the Saami com-
munity living in the area, thousands of reindeer, too, had to be destroyed. Food restrictions
were imposed all over Europe as fruits, vegetables and grass for grazing livestock, and con-
sequently milk and milk products, were suspected to be contaminated.
The Chernobyl disaster raises a few questions: should we use this one example of a nuclear
accident to discredit the use of nuclear power? What is the track record of the other
approximately 500 nuclear power plants in the world? What are the alternatives available to
us? How safe and environment friendly are the alternatives?

OPTIONS FOR THE FUTURE

Although India uses much less commercial energy than industrialized countries, the
rapid industrial and commercial expansion, the projected growth of the population and
the increasing consumerism leading to greater per capita energy use point to substantial
increases in energy use in the future. Estimates predict a fourfold increase, compared to
the early 1990s, in commercial energy consumption in India by 2025. In the same period,
carbon dioxide emissions could increase sixfold as the use of traditional biomass fuels
gives way to greater use of fossil fuels.
To improve our energy future, we need to take steps to increase energy supplies sustain-
ably and reduce energy demand through efficient use. We need to shift towards renewable
energy resources that are more equitably distributed, more affordable and less environ-
mentally destructive than fossil fuels. At the same time, we must recognize that however
rapidly we move towards renewable energy sources, we will remain dependent on fossil
fuels for several decades to come. We therefore need to reduce the environmental im-
pacts of our current energy resources by finding ways of burning them more cleanly and
efficiently.
 ENERGY 121

CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

For long-term sustainable energy planning, it is necessary to move away from our depend-
ence on imported oil and towards greater use of renewable energy sources, environ-
mentally low-impact and efficient technologies, and greater self-reliance. A large-scale
shift to low-impact technologies based on renewable energy sources is, however, still a
distant goal. In the short term, technologies that will reduce the environmental impacts
of current energy sources need to be adopted, such as reducing emissions of sulphur
and nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and particulate matter. For example, experts believe
that by improving the petroleum-distillation process to reduce the levels of sulphur and
carbon in Indian petrol and diesel, vehicular pollution could be reduced by 30 per cent.
For the next few decades, fossil fuels will continue to cater to most of India’s and the
world’s energy needs. The Indian government plans to encourage the use of natural gas
to generate electricity. India’s natural gas supplies are more plentiful than its oil supplies;
gas-based electricity plants are cheaper, cleaner and faster to build than coal-based plants.
The government is also hoping that opening up the power sector to private companies
will boost the development of hydroelectricity. There is also tremendous potential in the
country for tapping small streams and canals to build mini- and micro-hydroelectric
plants.

RECOGNIZING THE POTENTIAL OF BIOMASS

Energy for cooking constitutes a large proportion of India’s total energy consumption.
The primary source of energy for cooking for the majority of India’s population is fire-
wood. Ninety-five per cent of the rural population and over 60 per cent of the urban
poor depend on non-commercial energy resources—primarily firewood, but also cattle
dung and crop residues. Firewood for cooking is one of the basic needs, therefore, it
must be a focus of development efforts. Biomass has great potential as an energy source
if its rate of regeneration can at least keep pace with its rate of consumption. In the case
of firewood, this can be done in two ways:

1. by increasing fuelwood production, thereby increasing the supply. This would

require increase in the productivity of land, and tree plantations through careful
management and afforestation on degraded lands, and
2. by improving the efficiency of firewood use, thereby reducing the existing
demand for firewood. This is concerned mainly with increasing the efficiency of
wood-burning devices—primarily the wood stoves or chulhas. Improvements
in the design of chulhas seek to improve the heating process, i.e. efficient gener-
ation of heat through efficient burning of the wood, efficient transmission of
heat to the cooking pot, and retention of heat in the chulha and minimization of
heat dissipation.
122 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR

ALTERNATIVE RESOURCES AND TECHNOLOGIES

The most promising solution for rural energy lies in replacing over-exploited and ineffi-
cient traditional biomass fuels and technologies with more efficient and sustainable alter-
natives. A promising technology that is likely to increase the efficiency of biomass energy
are the biogas plants which convert biomass into modern energy forms. A biogas plant
provides about 25 per cent more energy than burning cattle dung. In addition, the sludge
left behind in the digester can be used as fertilizer which is richer in nitrogen than
traditional dung manure.
To reduce the overwhelming environmental burden of our current energy resources
and technologies, it is necessary to move towards greater use of renewable energy options.
India has been developing technologies for the use of solar energy, biomass, wind energy
and hydropower. These alternative technologies include biogas plants, biomass gasifiers,
wind energy farms, solar thermal energy and solar photovoltaics, and mini-, micro- and
small hydel plants. Experiments on ways to generate electricity from household waste
are also underway.

Solar energy
Bright sunshine over most of the country for a major part of the year makes solar energy a
promising energy option. India receives about 6,000 billion MW of solar energy per year. If
only 1 per cent of this energy could be tapped at even 10 per cent efficiency, it would amount
to about 30 to 35 times India’s present electricity generation!
Solar energy technologies convert the sun’s radiant energy into heat (thermal conversion)
and electricity (photovoltaic conversion). Thermal conversion technologies use reflective
mirrors of different shapes and sizes to concentrate the sun’s rays to produce low-, medium-
and high-grade heat energy. This heat can either be used directly or it can be converted to
electricity.
Medium-grade heat (with temperatures between 100°C and 300°C) is used directly for
cooking. India has the world’s largest solar-cooker programme. Solar cookers reduce the
need for fuelwood, thus also saving the time and labour needed to collect it as well as reducing
indoor air pollution from smoky fires.
India has also commercialized the manufacture of photovoltaic (PV) or solar cells, which
convert sunlight directly into electricity. These cells are made of silicon wafers sandwiched
together. Solar radiation dislodges electrons from the silicon in the sequentially arranged
silicon cells on solar panels, causing electric current to flow. The current then passes through
a regulator into a storage battery where it is stored for future use, or into an inverter which
adapts the current for a number of uses. As a single solar cell produces a very small amount
of electricity, an array of cells is wired together to form a panel providing between 30 and
100 W. Depending on the requirement, several panels can be used.
The capital cost of solar photovoltaics per kilowatt of generation capacity, however, is still
prohibitively high. Therefore, it is not yet an option for large-scale use. Its use is currently
economically viable for small loads in remote locations.
(continued)
 ENERGY 123

(continued)

Another question being debated is how environment friendly are solar collectors and solar
cells as their production is very energy intensive. According to the proponents of solar energy
technologies, using energy and energy-intensive materials to make solar energy systems is a
good energy investment as the solar energy produced by these systems is many times greater
than the energy used in making them.

Photovoltaic cell

Silicon doped with

phosphorus which
produces free electrons

Silicon doped with

boron which makes When sunlight falls on
‘holes’ where the cell, electrons are
electrons are missing driven from one layer
to the other creating an
electric current

Based on The Dorling Kindersely Science Encyclopaedia (Dorling

Kindersley, London, 1993), p. 134.

Illustration 5.3 Solar panel

Before these new options can be adopted on a large scale, they must be proved to be
economically competitive with the conventional alternatives. At present the competition
is tilted in favour of the latter. This is mainly because the environmental and social costs
that accompany the use of conventional energy are not included in energy pricing. If
these external costs of the impact on human health, social well-being and environmental
damage were to be included in the price, renewable technologies would be found to be
more competitive.
The government is encouraging the development of these new technologies both
in the private sector and through the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources
(MNES) and the Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) set up by
MNES in 1987.
124 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR

ENERGY CONSERVATION
Energy conservation means using energy less wastefully and more efficiently. Con-
servation of energy is an important energy resource because a unit of energy saved is as
good as a unit of energy generated. Besides, it is cheaper to save energy than to produce
it, and the saved energy becomes available for some other use. In essence, it means ‘do-
ing more with less’.

AT THE SECTORAL LEVEL : A few sectorwise examples of energy conservation are

discussed below.

Industry: The largest consumer of commercial energy in India is industry. There-

fore, this sector can make the greatest contribution to energy conservation by using energy-
saving equipment and adopting more efficient and sustainable processes and practices.
In industrialized countries, a recent focus of the production process has been the ‘green’
product design and cleaner technologies. Products are being redesigned to use less ma-
terial or substitute it with new materials which require less energy in their manufacture
than traditional materials. Manufacturing processes are being made more efficient. Much
more attention is also being paid to product life cycle—cradle-to-grave environmental
impacts associated with production, use, distribution and disposal of products.
For efficient energy generation and distribution, the installation of cogeneration units
where possible is a useful option. Cogeneration means the production of two useful
forms of energy from the same process. In electricity production in India, at present,
nearly three-fourths of the energy input is lost as ‘waste heat’. This waste heat from coal-
fired and other industrial boilers, which is in the form of high temperature steam, could
be run through turbines to generate electricity. About 10 per cent of the electricity require-
ments of the textile industry could be met if mills that use steam install cogeneration
equipment. Agro-industrial wastes such as bagasse are often used for cogeneration of
electricity (see box, ‘Sugar-cane Power’).

Sugar-cane power
India is the world’s largest producer of sugar cane. In 1992–93, India produced 10.8 mn t of
sugar and 67.86 mn t of crushed sugar-cane stalks, or bagasse. This waste product is routinely
used in ‘cogeneration’, i.e. it is burned to produce steam and electricity which is utilized by
the sugar factories. This is done by sugar factories all over the world, but usually quite
inefficiently. The introduction of high pressure boilers and turbogenerators could produce
more power from the same quantity of bagasse. This would meet not only the needs of the
sugar factories but could also supply between 5 and 10 per cent of India’s electricity needs.

(continued)
 ENERGY 125

(continued)
The Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES) announced a national pro-
gramme to support bagasse-based cogeneration in 220 large sugar mills in the country which
crush more than 2,540 tonnes of sugar cane per day and have the potential to produce 5 to 20
MW of surplus power. This surplus power can be fed into the grid and supplied to nearby
rural areas.

Industry is essentially an economic activity guided by principles that make economic

sense. Manufacturers will, therefore, invest in energy efficiency only if it leads to economic
benefits by reducing energy or other quantifiable costs. For many industries, innovative
technologies that prevent or reduce pollution and lower the cost of complying with anti-
pollution laws also tend to decrease energy consumption. The industries that produce
the most pollution, such as chemicals, petrochemical, iron and steel, textiles, pulp and
paper, also consume the most energy. In the present scenario when the courts are coming
down heavily on industries for non-compliance, it would make economic sense to adopt
new technologies and improved practices aimed at pollution prevention and waste mini-
mization, which would reduce pollution remediation costs as well as the consumption
of energy.

Figure 5.2
India: Sectoral consumption of commercial energy (1999–2000)

Source: TERI Estimates http://www.teriin.org/energy/overvw.htm.

Transport: After industry, this sector is the largest consumer of energy. While
the entire transport system needs major restructuring to make it more efficient
operationally as well as in its use of energy, the focus here is primarily on the urban
commuter transport system.
126 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR

Vehicular traffic in cities and towns is the major source of air pollution, noise pollution
and road congestion. There is a need to develop energy-efficient motorized vehicles and
systems for their proper maintenance, to ensure fuel efficiency and less pollution. Im-
provements in public transportation, besides reducing pollution and saving energy and
money, would reduce the dependence on private vehicles and improve the quality of
transportation services available to the average citizen.

Agriculture: The efficiency of the water pumps used for irrigation in India, the
main consumers of energy in agriculture, needs to be improved. India has over 9 million
electric irrigation pumps and each uses 5,362 kWh per year. Studies have shown that
35 per cent of the electricity used by these pumps can be saved simply by replacing the
high friction components, such as foot valves, with low friction components. That means
a saving of 20,000 MW—the amount of power that it would take nearly 100 thermal
power plants to generate!

Power: It is the responsibility of power companies and state electricity boards to

meet the electricity requirements of their customers. A concept that has great value,
especially for the power sector, is demand side management (DSM). In this, the power
companies, rather than trying to meet the current shortages and also the rapidly increasing
demand for more power, help their customers to reduce the demand.
The Ahmedabad Electricity Company (AEC) has initiated a pilot project in which
energy-efficient water pumps have been installed in multi-storey apartment buildings
and more efficient motors in various industries. Several other areas have also been identi-
fied which include the replacement of conventional lighting with compact fluorescent
light bulbs (CFLs) and energy audits for industry. The AEC estimates that the potential
saving through DSM over a five-year period will be 25 MW, or nearly Rs 10 million in
the construction cost of new power-generating capacity.
A fundamental problem with the energy sector in India is the pricing policy. Consumers
pay much less than what it costs to produce and deliver the energy (electricity, LPG,
kerosene) to them. If consumers were to pay a more realistic price, they would use com-
mercial energy less wastefully and more carefully. A more rational energy pricing policy,
combined with incentives, would therefore encourage energy conservation.

Buildings and architecture: Traditional architecture all over the world uses ma-
terials and design features in ways that harness available energy sources such as the sun,
wind and water to lower or raise temperatures inside buildings. In both these respects,
buildings differ from region to region depending on the local climatic conditions. In
addition, local materials are used to avoid transport costs, in terms of energy as well as
money. Buildings constructed in recent times, however, ignore these simple strategies.
In importing western designs, we disregard the need to adapt them to local conditions.
Appropriateness of design detail, such as locating openings in buildings in a way that
 ENERGY 127

allows cross-ventilation, and shading windows with large overhangs to prevent sunlight
from directly falling on window panes are means of keeping the interiors cool.
Identifying and using appropriate material is also very important. A modern building
constructed with fired bricks for foundations and walls and a reinforced concrete roof
uses up to 400 kWh/sqm (or about 280 kg of coal) of energy, from the extraction of raw
materials to the manufacture of the building materials. However, the energy used in the
process of manufacture of a material varies depending on the technology used and the
material to be processed. The use of efficient technologies and low-energy alternatives
can bring down the use of energy by 25 to 30 per cent.
According to another estimate, using preventive measures and cutting down on the
use of air conditioning, installing efficient ventilation systems, orienting and planning
the building in a way that utilizes sunlight and wind direction for heating and cooling,
and using appropriate materials for building may make it possible to reduce the energy
demand of living in modern buildings by up to 70 per cent.

Retreat
RETREAT, a residential training facility for executives, is a part of TERI’s (The Energy and
Resources Institute) Gual Pahari campus, about 30 km south of Delhi. The beautifully land-
scaped 36-hectare site was barren a decade ago. The topsoil was badly eroded in some places
while at others the land was swampy. Today the site is transformed—green, productive, and
sustainable.
The facility is designed to be self-sufficient, and independent of any external power supply.
It has harnessed both traditional and modern means of tapping renewable sources of energy
to offer modern amenities such as lighting, air conditioning, cooking and laundry at sub-
stantially reduced costs.
As a model sustainable habitat based on new and clean technologies, the complex makes
full use of the most abundant source of energy, the sun, by tapping its energy both directly and
indirectly. Twenty-four solar water-heating panels provide up to 2,000 l of hot water every day.
Photovoltaic panels capture the sun’s energy and recharge their batteries during the day.
The energy generated by the panels is fed into a battery bank, which is the main source of
power at night. The source of power for the building during the day is a 50-kilowatt gasifier
that uses firewood, dried leaves and twigs, the stubble left in the field after a crop is harvested,
and other such forms of biomass fuel.
Specially designed skylights, energy-efficient lights, and a sophisticated system of
monitoring and controlling the consumption of electricity, light up the complex with less
than 10 kW; a comparable conventionally designed structure would require nearly
28 kW to provide the same level of lighting.
Effective insulation, shade provided by trees, and a network of underground earth air
tunnels circulating cool subterranean air throughout the residential block ensure that the
temperature in the complex remains more or less even all year round, at 20°C in winter, 28°C
in the dry summer, and 30°C in the monsoon. The system has been augmented by adding
chillers for dehumidification and additional cooling during the monsoon.
(continued)
128 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR

(continued)
A bed of reed plants (phragmytes) clarifies 5 cu m of waste water from the toilets and
kitchen every day; the recycled water is used for irrigation.
All these technologies help the complex save an estimated 570 tonnes of carbon dioxide
emissions per year. The complex saves 40 to 50 per cent in energy costs over conventionally
designed buildings at an additional investment of about 25 per cent.
The model sustainable habitat taking shape in Gual Pahari drives home the message to
visitors and guests that near self-sufficiency in energy is not a Utopian ideal but a reality
cast in brick and mortar.
www.teriin.org/case/retreat.htm.

AT THE INDIVIDUAL LEVEL: Energy can be saved in two ways:

Using energy-efficient equipment: Efficiency means getting the greatest possible

amount of output with the least amount of inputs—resources, effort and cost. Through
efficiency, we can use less energy to do the same amount of work and, in some cases, do
even more work; for example, using a pressure cooker, an energy-efficient model of a
refrigerator or a chulha, or a compact fluorescent light bulb.
Energy-efficient models or products may initially cost more than conventional ones,
but they save money in the long run by having a lower life-cycle cost, i.e. initial cost plus
lifetime operating costs. And the saving in energy is not a one-time saving because an
energy-efficient device goes on saving energy throughout its life. (See box: Energy-efficient
Products.) Energy conservation is often the cheapest, and perhaps the largest source of
energy available to us.

Energy-efficient products
‘Energy-efficient’ products such as compact fluorescent lightbulbs (CFLs) provide the same
amount of light as the less efficient incandescent bulbs, but they use less energy in doing so.
High efficiency CFLs last about 10 times longer than normal light bulbs, which use one-
fourth as much electricity to deliver the same amount of light. While a 75 W incandescent
bulb consumes 75 units for running 100 hours, a 15 W CFL, which gives the same amount of
light as a 75 W bulb does, consumes only 15 units. CFLs contain Krypton and Argon gases
which are safe and do not harm the environment. Many of us are not aware of the range of
energy-efficient products available in the market, and even those who are aware may not
adopt newer technologies. One of the reasons for this could be the higher initial cost of
energy-efficient products. However, using energy-efficient products helps save money in
the long run and saves energy throughout the lifetime of the product. According to one
estimate, if just 20 per cent of the more than 300 million conventional light bulbs in use in
India in 1990, were replaced with CFL bulbs, the country’s power requirement would be
substantially reduced. India could avoid building 8,000 MW of new power capacity. India
could also halve its firewood requirements just by doubling the fuel efficiency of wood stoves.
 ENERGY 129

Changing energy-wasting habits and lifestyles: Obvious examples from our daily life
include switching off a light when it is not needed, walking or riding a bicycle instead of
using a two-wheeler or a car for a short trip, regularly defrosting the refrigerator, or
turning off the tap while brushing our teeth—not only does it save water but also the
energy used for pumping the water. Such changes in habits do not cost any money.
Equally important is cutting down wasteful consumption in our day-to-day life. All
commodities require the input of energy at all stages of production, packaging and trans-
portation. Take a shirt, for example. The production of the fibre (whether natural or
synthetic), the yarn, the fabric and the shirt, all require input of energy. So do the plastic
bag and the carton in which the shirt is packed. Energy is used to transport all the raw
materials as well as the finished products. The shirt therefore has a certain amount of
energy ‘embodied’ in it. So, by not buying a shirt that we do not really need, we will be
saving more than just the energy spent on a trip to the store.
It is necessary for individuals in their personal lives and society as a whole, in every
sector of the economy, to adopt a combination of the two approaches if we are to meet
our energy requirements affordably and with a tolerably low environmental impact.

THE FUTURE SCENARIO

To improve our energy future, energy supplies have to be increased sustainably and
energy demand reduced through efficient use. There is a need to shift towards renewable
energy resources that are more equitably distributed, more affordable and less environ-
mentally destructive than fossil fuels. At the same time, though there is a rapid move
towards renewable energy sources, the dependence on fossil fuels will remain for several
decades to come. Therefore, in order to reduce the environmental impacts of current
energy resources, we must find ways of burning them more cleanly and efficiently.
The energy policies of the government aim to ensure adequate energy supplies at
minimum possible costs, achieving self-sufficiency in energy supplies and protecting
the environment from adverse impacts due to the utilization of energy resources.

The Energy Conservation Act

The Energy Conservation Act passed by Parliament in 2001, aims at promoting the efficient
use of energy and its conservation. It focuses on the enormous potential for reducing energy
consumption by adopting energy efficiency measures in various sectors of the economy.
The Act provides measures to establish a statutory authority called the Bureau of Energy
Efficiency. The bureau was established to effectively coordinate with designated consumers
and agencies for performing functions necessary for the efficient use of energy and its

(continued)
130 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR

(continued)
conservation. These functions include recommendations on the norms for process and energy
consumption standards for equipments and appliances, recommending the particulars
required to be displayed on labels on equipment or appliances and the manner of their
display, prescribing guidelines for energy conservation building codes, creating awareness
and disseminating information for the efficient use of energy and its conservation, promoting
innovative financing of energy efficiency projects, laying down certification procedures for
energy managers and preparing an educational curriculum on the efficient use of energy
and its conservation.

At the national level, we need to recognize that while India’s per capita consumption
of energy is low, energy efficiencies are also low. More energy-efficient technologies and
advanced fuel systems with near-zero emissions need to be promoted. Promoting clean
technologies and reducing energy demand are likely to also minimize local pollution
and even reduce carbon emissions.
Experience gained over the last two decades in India in the area of renewables—wind
power, small hydropower systems, biomass-fired plants and solar photovoltaic systems—
needs to be scaled up to respond to the emerging needs of sustainable development.

I QUESTIONS

1. Match the following:

A. Biomass a. Non-renewable
B. Electricity b. Renewable
C. Oil c. Renewable
D. Coal d. Commercial
E. Wind e. Non-renewable

2. Every million tonnes of cut wood requires the cutting of about 8,000 ha of
forest. India uses about 227 million tonnes of fuelwood per year. Even if
10 per cent of the fuelwood comes from felling trees, about 180,000 ha (1,800
sq km) of forest and tree plantations would have to be cleared for fuelwood
alone, leading to significant deforestation (Ravindranath and Hall 1995).
Calculate what this figure means when compared with the area of your
town or city.
3. What do you understand by the term ‘energy ladder’? Explain.
4. Imagine and describe, in about two pages, your life in a future scenario
where there is no oil (petrol, diesel, kerosene).
 ENERGY 131

5. Why is nuclear energy controversial? Do you agree with the concerns voiced
by its opponents? Is nuclear energy a viable option for a developing country
like India? If yes, why? If no, why not?
6. Government, as part of its development efforts, subsidizes several essential
commodities and services. The electricity rates charged by the state electricity
boards, for example, are much lower than what it costs to produce the electri-
city. What are the implications of this policy/practice?
7. Is there a relationship between materials and energy? Explain.
8. What steps do you plan to take to conserve energy in your everyday life?

II EXERCISES

1. Many types of non-fossil energy sources are already in use—solar photo-

voltaic, solar thermal heating, wind energy and biogas. What are the alter-
native sources of energy used in the neighbourhood of your college or home?
Which alternative sources of energy are available commercially in your
town? Describe the technology/appliance, draw diagrams to explain how
it works, state where it is available, what it costs and what are its benefits
and drawbacks?
2. Check your Energy IQ. Read the ‘Energy Questions’ below and state whether
each statement is ‘True’ or ‘False’. After you finish marking all the statements,
check the score sheet. Read the answers, which explain in detail the scientific
principles associated with each answer.

The Energy Questions

a. On winter afternoons, we should always leave the curtains on all west-
facing windows open, to allow the warm rays of the afternoon sun to
enter.
b. We should allow a lot of frost to accumulate in the freezer compartment
of our refrigerators, because cold frost cools the air inside the refrigerator
faster, thus saving energy.
c. Small appliances such as hand mixers, chutney grinders and juicers
generally use less energy for specific jobs than a food processor.
d. Driving faster uses less energy because operating time is reduced.
e. Fluorescent light bulbs and incandescent bulbs of the same wattage
produce the same amount of light.
f. On hot summer days, it is a good idea to get that little extra cooling into
the room by leaving the refrigerator door open.
132 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR

g. We will save energy by doing several small loads of wash in the washing
machine every day, rather than one large one on the weekend.
h. The freezer compartment of the refrigerator is least efficient when it is
half or three-fourths full.
i. It takes less fuel to restart a vehicle than to idle it for more than 60 seconds.
j. The less air in the tyre, the less fuel the vehicle will burn.

Score Sheet
Check your answers and rate your Energy IQ:
1. 9–10 Correct answers EXCELLENT! High Energy IQ
2. 6–8 Correct answers GREAT! Above Average Energy IQ
3. 3–5 Correct answers NOT BAD! You still need to learn more about
energy conservation
4. 0–3 Correct answers OH NO! Study the answers again. You are
probably throwing away money needlessly.

Answers
a. True The energy savings gained by keeping the curtains closed depends
on the time of the year. In winter, keep the curtains open and let
the sun’s rays into the room for extra warmth.
b. False A frosty refrigerator uses more energy than a defrosted refriger-
ator. Frost acts as an insulator. This is the principle on which igloos
are based. Don’t let frost accumulate to more than one-fourth of
an inch.
c. True Small appliances like hand mixers, chutney grinders, etc., often
use less energy than a food processor. They are designed to do
specific jobs, making the work easier and usually quicker.
d. False All vehicles have an optimum speed at which they give maximum
mileage. Refer to the vehicle’s booklet to find its optimum range.
For example, two-wheelers have an optimum speed range be-
tween 40 and 50 km/hr. This is the range in which they are most
fuel-efficient. Also, drive the vehicle steadily at the optimum
speed. Do not speed and brake often.
e. False Fluorescent and incandescent bulbs of the same wattage do not
produce the same amount of light. Fluorescent light bulbs produce
about three and a half times more light than incandescent bulbs
of the same wattage.
f. False Using your refrigerator is a very costly way to cool your room.
When left open for long periods of time, the refrigerator will in
fact make the room warmer than cooler!
 ENERGY 133

g. False A large-capacity washing machine saves energy by handling more

clothes in one load. It is better to collect clothes for one full-load
wash than do small loads of wash every day with fewer clothes.
h. False The freezer is most efficient when filled to capacity.
i. True It takes less fuel to restart than to let a vehicle idle for more than
one minute.
j. False Lower tyre pressure increases fuel consumption and also
decreases the life of the tyre. Check the air pressure in your tyres
regularly and ensure that it is as per specifications.

III DISCUSS

1. The energy consumption of a citizen of the USA is, on an average, 365 gigaj-
oules (Gj), whereas in India it is 15 Gj per citizen. Why do you think this is
so? How do India’s wealthy citizens compare with its poor in this regard?
Explain whether it would be fair, desirable or practical to expect Americans
and affluent Indians to reduce their energy consumption. Is it necessary or
desirable for Indians to increase their energy consumption? If yes, why? If
no, why not?
2. Read the following statements:

a. To encourage the adoption of alternative energy sources, policymakers will need

to reduce subsidies, raise taxes on fossil fuels, increase research funding on new
energy technologies, and provide incentives to private industry for renewable
energy development.
World Watch Institute
b. A society that improves the lot of the poor prudently needs less energy than the
one that makes no such dent in poverty.
Reddy and Goldemberg
c. Real wealth is knowing what to do with energy.
R. Buckminster Fuller
d. However carefully it [a nuclear plant] is designed, a piece of mechanical engineer-
ing can and will fail; however ‘foolproof’ the safety system, it cannot be made
proof, as the nuclear industry itself says, against bloody fools. The question is
not whether accidents can be prevented; they cannot. It is whether the public is
prepared to live with accidents like Three Mile Island. It is perfectly prepared to
live with air crashes, in which hundreds die, in exchange for mobility.
Nigel Hawkes
134 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR

e. It’s not what is in the pot, but what is under it, that worries you.
Jodi L. Jacobson quoting women in a fuel-deficient area of India.

Now do one or more of the following:

a. Choose the quotation you like best and write a paragraph explaining its
key idea or stating reasons for the choice of that particular statement.
b. Develop a short essay including one of the quotations in it.
c. Write a brief rebuttal to one or more of the quotations provided.
d. Draw a pictorial representation of one of the quotations.
e. Develop a cartoon or poster based on one of the quotations.

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———. 1996. TERI energy data directory and yearbook 1996/97. New Delhi.
———. (n.d.). Getting off this ‘fuelish’ path. New Delhi.
Voluntary Health Association of India (VHAI). 1992. State of India’s health. New Delhi.
World Resources Institute (WRI). 1988. Energy for development. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing
Co.
———. 1992. World resources 1992–93. New York: Oxford University Press.
———. 1994. World resources 1994–95. New York: Oxford University Press.
 CHAPTER 6

POLLUTION
HEMA JAGADEESAN

The word ‘pollution’ is derived from the Latin word pulluere, which means ‘to soil or de-
file’. Any alteration to air, water, soil or food that threatens the health, survival capability
or activities of humans or other living organisms, is called pollution. This chapter pro-
vides a brief overview of the sources and effects of various types of pollution. As several
human activities create pollution, discussion and several examples of different kinds of
pollution appear in almost every chapter of this book.
Pollution has been around for a long time—in fact, for as long as humans have been
around. In the past it was not a problem. Most of the waste from human activities could
be handled by the earth’s natural systems. Air and water were able to dilute and disperse
pollutants. Much of the solid waste thrown on land, being made of natural materials,
decomposed easily. Also, there were fewer people, so the total amount of waste created
was not too large.
Gradually, as settlements grew larger and turned into cities with large populations,
the wastes too increased. Technological inventions made life easier than before. Factories
sprang up and began producing goods in large quantities. But they also began to spew
their wastes into the air, into the water, and on to the land. Transportation was revolution-
ized with the invention of the internal combustion engine, which burned fossil fuels and
added to air pollution. More and more synthetic chemicals were invented. Plastics began
to replace almost every kind of natural material. Thus the amount as well as the kind of
waste generated changed a great deal.
A century ago, people were dealing with pollution which was mainly from animal
waste, household waste, and smoke and ash from burning coal and biomass. Today, pol-
lution is generated by many sources—from pesticides, fertilizers, fossil fuels, radiation,
and an army of new chemical and synthetic materials, to name just a few. Combined
with ever-exploding populations and ever-increasing consumption, pollution has become
a threat to the fragile life-support systems of the earth.
Today, almost every human activity—from how we get around, to how our goods are
produced, to how we grow our food—creates some type of pollution.
 POLLUTION 137

WHAT CAUSES POLLUTION?

Pollutants may be solid, liquid or gaseous. These pollutants enter the system as by-
products or as waste in the process of extraction of natural resources (mining), processing
of raw materials, manufacture of products, agriculture, generation of energy, etc. Pollution
also takes place in the form of the emission of excess noise, heat or radiation. Pollutants
may be:

DEGRADABLE POLLUTANTS: These are those pollutants that can be broken down or reduced
to acceptable levels by physical, chemical or biological processes. Most natural substances
are degradable; for example, vegetable waste.

NON-DEGRADABLE POLLUTANTS: These are those pollutants that cannot be broken down
by natural processes; for example, plastics, styrofoam. Once these are released into the
environment, it is difficult to get rid of them, and they continue to accumulate.

SLOWLY DEGRADABLE OR PERSISTENT POLLUTANTS: These are substances that take a

very long time to degrade, for example, aluminium cans, chemical insecticides like DDT,
and chemicals like CFCs. These linger on and have long-lasting and far-reaching effects
on the environment.
Much of the natural pollution (e.g. from a volcanic eruption) is generally diluted, dis-
persed or rendered harmless by natural processes. But the pollution caused by human
activities (e.g. burning of fossil fuels like coal or petroleum) occurs over a small area
(e.g. an urban or industrial area), and so the pollutants become concentrated in the air,
water and soil there. The quantity and quality of such pollutants do not allow for their
dilution or dispersal by natural processes.
Pollution may come from a single identifiable source such as the chimney of a factory,
or the drainage pipe of a mill, or the exhaust pipe of a vehicle. Such sources are described
as point sources. When the original source is difficult to pinpoint, it is described as a
non-point source; for example, chemical sprayed into the air, or fertilizer run-off from
various fields which enters a river or a lake. Controlling this kind of pollution is not easy
as the original source is often difficult to identify.

WHAT CAN POLLUTION DO?

Pollution can affect the very survival of our planet as its effects are felt not only
by humans, but by all the life-supporting systems of the earth—air, water, soil, flora
138 HEMA JAGADEESAN

and fauna. The effects of a pollutant may vary depending on a number of factors.
These are:

1. The nature of the pollutant, i.e., how active and harmful it is to living organisms.
2. The concentration of the pollutant, i.e, the amount per unit volume of air, water,
soil or unit of body weight. When there is too much of a pollutant, or when it is
piling up too fast, it starts having harmful effects.
3. The persistence of the pollutant, i.e., how long it stays in the air, water, soil or body.

TYPES OF POLLUTION

Depending on the component that is being polluted and/or the kind of pollutant, pollu-
tion may be classified as air pollution, water pollution, soil pollution, noise pollution
and radiation pollution. Let us look at the sources and effects of the various types of
pollution.

WHAT IS AIR POLLUTION?

Air is found everywhere. Air may get polluted by natural causes, for example, volcanic
activity, which releases ash, dust and sulphur compounds; forest or grass fires caused
by lightning; or by man-made causes such as industrial and vehicular emissions.

SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION: Air pollution consists of gases, liquids or solids present in
the atmosphere in high enough levels to harm humans, other organisms or materials.
(See box ‘Air Pollutants: Sources and Effects’.)
Pollutants in the air may be in the form of solid particles or gases. The solid particles
that remain suspended in the air are called suspended particulates. They may reduce
visibility or damage human health. Air can also be polluted by trace metals such as lead,
nickel, iron, zinc and copper. There are several types of gaseous pollutants which have
different impacts on human health and the environment.
Air pollutants are often divided into two categories: primary and secondary. Primary
air pollutants are emitted or discharged from the source directly into the atmosphere,
such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides from the burning of coal in thermal power
plants. Secondary air pollutants are the products of chemical reactions involving primary
air pollutants. For example, as the emissions from coal-based power plants are carried
away by winds, chemical reactions take place which convert the emissions into secondary
pollutants—nitrogen dioxide, nitric acid vapour, and droplets containing sulphuric
acid, sulfate and nitrate salts. The acidic chemicals come down to the earth’s surface as
acid rain.
 POLLUTION 139

The sources and effects of air pollution are varied and complex. Some sources of man-
made air pollution are vehicular emissions, industrial processes and the burning of fuels
in homes. Each of these is explained in the relevant chapters of this book.
Indoor air pollution is one of the largest health risk factors in the world. Research
shows that about 6 per cent of all deaths each year result from breathing elevated levels
of indoor smoke from biomass fuels. Over 80 per cent of the people in the rural areas of
India rely mainly on solid biomass fuels for cooking and heating. This produces large
amounts of smoke and other air pollutants in the confined space of the home, resulting
in high exposures.

Air pollutants: Sources and effects

Pollutants Sources Effects
Sulphur compounds Biological decomposition, Plants: Death of living tissues;
including sulphur smelting of sulphide decreased growth and yield
oxides, hydrogen containing ores, Humans: Paralysis; damage to lungs;
sulphide combustion of sulphur lowering of resistance to diseases
containing fuels like coal like pneumonia and influenza
Materials: Damage to materials
including corrosion
Carbon monoxide Automobile engines, Plants: Inhibition of nitrogen
incomplete combustion fixation; premature ageing;
of fuels in furnaces inhibition of cellular respiration;
initiation of roots, etc.
Humans: Affects central nervous
system; combines with the red blood
cells and affects their oxygen-
carrying capacity
Carbon dioxide Combustion of This gas has an insulating effect.
fossil fuels Increase in concentration leads to
the ‘Greenhouse Effect’ (See chapter
on Climate Change and Ozone
Depletion for more information)
Nitrogen oxides Power generators, Plants: Stunted growth; fires
vehicles, forest Humans: Nasal irritation;
lighting, etc. breathing discomfort;
pulmonary oedema and in
extreme cases, death
Hydrocarbons Vehicles, industries, Plants: Stunted growth
refineries Humans: Irritation of mucus of
respiratory tract; may lead to cancer
(continued)
140 HEMA JAGADEESAN

(continued)
Particulates Lead particles from Plants: Inhibits growth (the leaf is
automobile exhaust, covered with a layer of particles
soot, fly ash from which inhibit light penetration
power stations, from thereby reducing photosynthesis)
asbestos, fluorides, Humans: Interferes with maturation
aluminium metallic of red blood cells, disrupts
dusts, etc., and other functioning of cells and organs of
natural sources the muscular, circulatory and
nervous systems by binding with
cellular enzymes; lead damages
liver, kidneys and gastrointestinal
tract and induces abnormalities in
fertility and pregnancy; respiratory
disorders; asbestos dust leads to
lung scarring (asbestosis); fluoride
particles may affect teeth, and lead
to calcification of bones

WHAT IS WATER POLLUTION?

Water pollution may be defined as the introduction into a waterbody of substances of
such character and in such quantity that the natural quality of the waterbody is altered.
This alteration impairs its usefulness, affects the health of living organisms or renders it
offensive to the senses of sight, taste and smell. Water pollution includes surface water
pollution (rivers, lakes, ponds), groundwater pollution and marine pollution (see chapter
on Water for more information).

SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION: Some common water pollutants are:

Disease-causing agents: These include bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic
worms that enter the water from domestic sewage and animal wastes. They are the biggest
cause of water-borne diseases, some of which can be fatal.

Oxygen-demanding wastes: These are organic matter needing oxygen-requiring

bacteria for their decomposition. Large numbers of such bacteria, while oxidizing these
wastes, deplete the dissolved oxygen in water, causing fish and other aquatic organisms
to die.

Inorganic chemicals: These are chemicals which are soluble in water, such as acids,
salts and soluble compounds of toxic metals like mercury and lead, make the water
unfit to drink, harm fish and aquatic life, affect crops and corrode materials. A large
 POLLUTION 141

number of inorganic chemicals find their way into both surface water and groundwater
from sources such as industries, mines, irrigation run-off, oil drilling, and urban run-off
from storm sewers.

Inorganic plant nutrients: Nutrients such as water-soluble nitrates and phosphates

cause excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants. When these aquatic plants die
and decay, they decompose. This causes the depletion of oxygen in the water, which is
harmful for the life forms in it.

Heat and warm water: This water, when released from industries and power plants
as part of their cooling processes, raises the water temperature and affects the health
and life cycles of aquatic organisms.

Radioactive substances: These include the waste from the mining and refinement of
radioactive metals as well as the pollution caused by their use. Radioactive isotopes are
water soluble and capable of concentrating in food chains and can cause adverse health
effects.

Organic (carbon containing) compound S: These compounds, found in water, are

synthetic chemicals produced by human activities. These include pesticides, solvents,
industrial chemicals and plastics. Some organic compounds find their way into surface
water and groundwater through seepage from landfills, whereas others, such as
pesticides, leach downwards through the soil into the groundwater, or get into surface
water by run-off from farms and homes.

Sediment or suspended matter: These are insoluble particles of soil and other solids
that become suspended in water as a result of soil erosion, run-off from agricultural
fields, dumping of debris from building sites, solid wastes, forest soils exposed by logging,
degraded stream banks, overgrazed fields, strip-mining and construction, etc. Such
particles make the water turbid, reducing light penetration, thus affecting photosynthesis
and disturbing aquatic life. The sediments also carry pesticides and other harmful sub-
stances into the water.

WHAT IS SOIL POLLUTION?

Soil is polluted through contamination by chemicals, particulates and solid waste, and
mining activities. The main sources of soil pollution are agriculture, industrial activities,
mining and solid-waste dumping.

SOURCES OF SOIL POLLUTION

Agriculture: In earlier times, agriculture was less intensive. Both in shifting and
settled agriculture, land on which the crop was grown was allowed to lie fallow for
142 HEMA JAGADEESAN

different lengths of time, so that the soil could regain its fertility. Now with the increase
in population and urbanization and the resulting scarcity of agricultural land, land cannot
be left uncultivated for any length of time. The same piece of land is cultivated frequently
without giving it time to replenish on its own. Over-cultivation causes the soil to lose its
nutrients. Chemical fertilizers are added to increase the fertility of the soil, replenish the
lost nutrients and increase the yield. Pesticides are used to kill the plants and animals
that are harmful to the crops. The greater the use of these chemicals, the greater their
accumulation in the soil and waterbodies. (See chapter on ‘Agriculture’ for more
information on fertilizers and pesticides.)

Industries: Power plants produce huge amounts of fly ash, which is one of the
major causes of soil pollution in the surrounding areas. Other industries like paper and
pulp mills, oil refineries, chemical and fertilizer manufacturing, iron and steel plants,

Illustration 6.1 Industrial effluents

 POLLUTION 143

plastic and rubber-producing complexes, produce large amounts of solid wastes which
are dumped on land. These may contain chemicals which affect the quality of the soil
and the life in it.

Mining: Mines are another significant source of soil pollution. The area around
mines is usually contaminated with metals such as cadmium, zinc, lead, copper, arsenic
and nickel, which are toxic to plants and inhibit their growth. Their accumulation in
plants makes them unsafe for human and animal consumption.

Urban solid waste: Another major pollutant is garbage. In urban areas, most of the
pollution is caused by sewage and household garbage. The attitude of ‘use and throw’
and a disposable culture have increased the quantity of waste and also changed the
composition of the waste generated. In urban areas, most of the waste generated in
the house is not biodegradable and so it remains on the land for a long time. This waste
contaminates the air, water and land with toxins. During the rains, toxic leachates (toxins
released from the toxic waste when it comes into contact with water) run-off into near-
by waterbodies and also percolate into the groundwater table polluting both sources
of water.
The problem of solid wastes can be reduced if the five ‘Rs’, refuse, reduce, reuse, repair
and recycle, are seriously adopted. This will result in less garbage being generated. The
excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides can be reduced by educating farmers about
organic fertilizers and biological pest control and integrated pest management.

Activities which help generate waste

Activities Waste generated
Agricultural Plant remains, processing wastes, animal wastes
Domestic Paper, plastic, glass, metal, rags, food, fruits, vegetable peels, garden litter,
packaging
Municipal Sweepings from streets, schools, colleges, offices, factories, hospitals, clinics,
petrol bunks, shops, etc.
Industrial Wastes generated from mining operations, manufacturing, construction
work, thermal stations, chemical industries, paper-making units, textile
mills, cement factories, factories manufacturing engineering goods, etc.
Health care Health-care establishments generate wastes like needles, syringes and other
potentially infectious wastes

Biomedical wastes: These wastes are generated from all types of health-care facilities,
such as hospitals, clinics, medical laboratories, nursing homes, dental and veterinary
clinics, and are termed as biomedical wastes.
144 HEMA JAGADEESAN

Biomedical wastes include ‘sharps’ like needles, broken glass, slides; soiled dressings;
pathological wastes, which include culture plates, tissue, blood and other body fluids;
and chemicals. The proper disposal of biomedical wastes is of paramount importance
because of their infectious and hazardous nature.
The Government of India has promulgated the Biomedical Waste (Management and
Handling) Rules, 1998. These are applicable to all persons who generate, collect, receive,
store, transport, treat, dispose, or handle biomedical waste. They are also applicable to
any institution generating biomedical waste.

Illustration 6.2 Biohazard symbol

The biohazard symbol

The Biohazard symbol is used throughout the world to identify biomedical waste. In India,
it is a must for facilities involved in the generation, collection, reception, storage, trans-
portation, treatment, disposal or any other form of handling of biomedical waste, to affix the
biohazard symbol on the containers. It is mandatory to use the symbol so that it is readily
visible on containers of regulated waste (any liquid items that would release blood or other
potentially infectious materials like pathological and microbiological wastes); refrigerators
and freezers containing blood or other potentially infectious material; other containers used
to store, transport, or ship blood or other potentially infectious materials, and bags used to
dispose of regulated waste.
These labels should be red, fluorescent orange, or orange-red in colour, and should be
affixed in a very prominent manner.

WHAT IS NOISE POLLUTION?

Noise pollution may be regarded as unwanted sound dumped into the atmosphere
without regard to the adverse effects it may have. Noise pollution could occur indoors
or outdoors.
 POLLUTION 145

SOURCES OF NOISE POLLUTION: The main sources of noise pollution are the many
modern electrical gadgets we use in our day-to-day life. Inside the house, we use products
like mixers, vacuum cleaners, washing machines, coolers, air conditioners, and play radio
and music systems at high volumes. The noise produced by the machinery inside factories
is another source of noise pollution and is a major occupational health hazard. Outdoor
noise pollution is usually from vehicular horns, festivities with loud bands, loud-speakers,
and five-crackers. (See chapter on ‘Industry’ for more information on occupational
hazards.)

Table 6.1
Decibel levels of common sounds and effects of prolonged exposure
Sound source Sound level (dB) Effects of prolonged exposure
Jet plane at take-off 150 Eardrum rupture
Live rock music 120 Human pain threshold
Auto horn, 1 m away 110 Hearing damage
Busy city street 90 Hearing damage
Average factory 80 Possible hearing damage
Conversation in average office 60 Disturbance
Rustling leaf 20 None
Breathing 10 None

Noise pollution inside the house can be reduced by keeping gadgets in good working
order. Outside, noise levels can be reduced by reducing the use of vehicular horns.
Industries should be located away from residential areas, so that the effects of noise
pollution as well as air pollution on humans can be reduced.

WHAT IS RADIATION POLLUTION?

Radiation pollution is caused by radioactive substances, either natural or man-made.
We are exposed to various kinds of radiation in our day-to-day life. Radiation causes an
increase in the occurrence of cancers and other disorders. Apart from direct effects, it
can cause genetic defects in living organisms.

SOURCES OF RADIATION POLLUTION: Human beings receive natural radiation from cosmic
rays. Other sources are exposure to X-rays, radium-dial wristwatches, television, etc. All
these are sources of ionizing radiation, which, from these sources is usually not high
enough to cause serious damage to health. The main source of radiation pollution is the
nuclear waste from nuclear power plants and other installations related to them. The
other potential source is the fallout of a nuclear bomb explosion.
Radiation pollution can be reduced by improving the safety measures taken for storage
and to prevent accidents in reactors and storage facilities, and by minimizing nuclear-
weapons’ testing.
146 HEMA JAGADEESAN

Did you know?

All technicians and radiologists who are constantly exposed to radiation are supposed to
wear a lithium badge called the Thermal Luminescent Dosimetry (TLD) badge. The badge
absorbs X-rays and measures the exposure level of the individual who wears the badge to
X-rays. This badge is sent to BARC (Bhaba Atomic Research Centre) once every three months
to monitor the individual’s exposure to X-rays. If the person has crossed the permissible
limit of exposure, then he/she needs to be shifted out of the radiology section for some time.
BARC is the only licensee authorized to provide this badge in India.

POLLUTION DUE TO WARS

Wars and terrorist attacks cause tremendous destruction of property and of the natural
habitats of various species. During wars and terrorist attacks, various pollutants, some
very hazardous ones, are released into the environment.
A study done by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) on the State of
the Environment in occupied Palestinian territories, revealed that war had resulted in
the dumping of wastes, pollution of groundwater, loss of natural vegetation and contam-
ination of coastal waters in the region. In Afghanistan, where agriculture is the mainstay
of nearly 85 per cent of the population, only 15 per cent of the land is suitable for farming.
However, war has affected agriculture because landmines laid on this land prevent its
cultivation. Further, 75 per cent of the land where the mines have been laid is actually
grazing land, and cannot be used because of the dangers of mine explosions. According
to the UNEP study, water resources in Afghanistan are also threatened by contamination
from waste dumps and chemicals. The 1991 Gulf War resulted in several oil spills. Three
hundred unburned pools of oil left in the desert contaminated some 40 mn t of soil,
while 736 burning oil wells gave off huge amounts of carbon dioxide and hydrocarbons
(Gobar Times, 15 April 2003, p. 68).

DEALING WITH POLLUTION

Pollution clean-up or pollution control in the past has been the primary approach to
tackling the issue. This approach looks at ways by which the effects of pollution that has
already occurred can be mitigated. The common measures include steps to clean or treat
waste water and gaseous emissions from industry, the introduction of emission and efflu-
ent standards, etc. Of late, it is becoming increasingly clear that such measures are only
 POLLUTION 147

ways of reacting to situations with solutions that are not sustainable. They fail to tackle
the root cause of the problem.

Pollution under control

Pollution Under Control (PUC) certificates are required to be obtained every six months for
all categories of vehicles. In the case of petrol vehicles, idling CO measurements are taken,
while in the case of diesel vehicles, free acceleration smoke is measured. RTOs, and some
petrol and service stations, are authorized to issue PUC certificates. These certificates
indirectly serve as a guide to the performance of the vehicle and the maintenance needed. If
below standard, the vehicles need to be serviced to be brought up to the proper operating
level. (Based on www.giteweb.org/iandm/senguptapresentation.pdf.)

POLLUTION PREVENTION
Today, it is being increasingly recognized that ‘end-of-pipe’ solutions are not adequate.
The need is for pollution prevention or input pollution control; that is, reducing or elimin-
ating the release of pollutants and wastes into the environment. Pollution prevention
involves changes at many levels in all areas of production—industrial or agricultural,
and use—domestic or commercial.
The new strategies focus on the entire production process, examining where wastes
are generated and exploring how they can be reduced. This could involve numerous
possibilities—changing manufacturing processes, using different raw materials, finding
substitutes for hazardous substances, improving the operations and maintenance of units,
and recycling and reusing waste materials.

ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING PROGRAMMES

Monitoring programmes are needed to continuously assess the quality and quantity of
the pollutants released into the environment. This helps in making informed decisions
for pollution control, and also in reviewing the status of pollution in our environment.

CONSERVING ECOFRIENDLY TRADITIONAL PRACTICES

Often pollution-related problems have cropped up because of a shift from a traditional
occupation or practice to a modern one. For example, traditional farming practices did
not depend on chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Today, we can see a shift from
agriculture dependent on chemicals to organic farming, which is more eco-friendly and
148 HEMA JAGADEESAN

sustainable. Hence, banking on traditional knowledge and innovating to make it suit

present needs is one way of preventing pollution.

TECHNOLOGICAL SOLUTIONS
Technologies often have to be improved for pollution control as well as prevention, which
would involve research into problems and finding suitable solutions.

The importance of biotechnology

Biotechnology is an important tool for improving waste management methods, degradation
of toxic pollutants, sewage treatment, etc. Dr Anand Chakraborty, a scientist based in the
USA, was successful in synthesizing an oil-eating bacteria. The bacteria can degrade different
types of hydrocarbons. This was first used in 1990 for cleaning up an oil spill in the waters in
Texas. Technologies like bioremediation can help in cleaning up and converting hazardous
waste to non-hazardous or less hazardous waste. For example, a microbe referred to as GS-15
can utilize uranium and can be used in a bioreactor to treat uranium-containing waste from
nuclear plants.

LAWS
The Government of India in its efforts to reduce pollution, has introduced various laws
from time to time, depending on the need of the hour and keeping sustainable develop-
ment in mind. The various Acts and Rules required for the implementation of the laws
are expected to make industries more responsible as they are liable to be fined or may
even be closed down if they are found to violate emission or pollution standards. (See
Appendix 1 ‘Environmental Laws in India’.)

Environment acts and rules

The Environment Protection Act (1986), is an umbrella legislation put forward by the Ministry
of Environment and Forests to create comprehensive legal measures for safeguarding the
environment through the framing of rules, notification of standards, notification of environ-
mental laboratories, delegation of powers, identification of agencies for the management of
hazardous chemicals, setting up of environmental protection councils in the states, etc.
The Environment (Protection) Rules (1986), lay down procedures for the setting of
standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants. Broadly, there are three
types of standards: source standards which require the polluter to restrict at source the emis-
sion and discharge of environmental pollutants; products’ standards which fix the pollution
norms for new manufactured products such as cars; and ambient standards to set maximum
pollutant loads in the air, and to guide regulators on the environmental quality that ought to
be maintained for healthy living.
 POLLUTION 149

EDUCATION AND AWARENESS

There is a vital need to educate citizens about their rights and responsibilities for a
pollution-free environment. This awareness will lead to a strong citizen action against
erring industries or persons and may, in the long run, help create a pollution-free
environment. It will also lead to each and every citizen playing his/her role in reducing
pollution.
Some types of pollution can be controlled by individual action, for example, reducing
vehicular pollution or garbage dumping. There are others which would need many
instruments (policies, laws, financial, technological) and the involve-ment of various
sections of society including policy makers, industrialists, etc.
The effective implementation of pollution-control measures requires the cooperation
of different people and agencies. It has to start at the policy level. Once the government’s
policies are in place, laws are made. Implementing the laws is the next step. The challenge
is also to find ways to make the implementation economically viable.
Every action towards controlling pollution is like a drop in the ocean ... and every
drop counts.

I QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference between primary and secondary pollutants?

2. How do natural processes take care of pollution?
3. ‘Dilution of pollution is the only solution’. Do you agree? Why or why not?
4. Why is biomedical waste a cause for concern?
5. Name five ways of dealing with pollution?
6. What are the different types of standards for the setting of which the Environ-
ment (Protection) Rules (1986) lay down procedures?

II EXERCISES

1. A. Identify and name five polluting units—workshops (e.g. automobile

garage, carpentry workshop, electrical workshops, etc.), kiosks, shops
(tea stalls, restaurants, grocery stores), etc.—in your neighbourhood.

a. ______________________
b. ______________________
c. ______________________
150 HEMA JAGADEESAN

d. ______________________
e. ______________________

B. Record the type of waste being generated by each type of establishment:

(e.g. automobile garage would generate waste engine oil, lubricants,
petrol, diesel, etc.). Also, estimate the quantity of waste being generated
by each unit and the total waste generated by all the units present in a
1 km2 area around your house. Note these in the table given below.

Type of Types of Quantities of No. of Establishments

Establishment Waste Generated Waste Generated in 1 km2 Area

C. Identify the health impacts of some of these pollutants. You may need to
carry out library research to get this information.

Name of the Pollutant Health Impacts

Engine oil
Smoke
Sawdust
Kitchen waste

2. From your local State Pollution Control Board, or the Central Pollution Con-
trol Board data (posted on the Internet or published), find out the ambient
air quality of your town or city, or of the city located closest to you, based
on the following parameters: sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and sus-
pended particulate matter. Is it within the permissible level as per the
Environment Protection Act? How does the data compare with the national
averages? Plot the data available for the last 10 years. Do you perceive any
trend?
 POLLUTION 151

Also, collect information on

a. the number of vehicles registered in your town/city; and,
b. respiratory health problems reported at the local hospitals.

Is there any relationship of either one with the air quality data?

III DISCUSS

1. There is no pollution if there are no environmental laws or regulations that establish

specific environmental quality standards. Discuss this statement.
2. Turning the corner on air pollution requires moving beyond patchwork, end-of-
pipe approaches to confront pollution at its sources. This will mean reorienting
energy, transportation and industrial structures toward prevention.
Hilary F. French

Do you agree with this statement? What are some of the steps that would be neces-
sary in each of the three sectors mentioned, towards the prevention of pollution?

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———., ed. 1994. State of the world, 1994. New York: WW Norton and Company.
Diwan, P., ed. 1987. Environment protection: Problems, policy administration, law. New Delhi: Deep &
Deep Publication.
Gosh, G.K. 1992. Environmental pollution: A scientific dimension. New Delhi: S.B. Nangia.
Khopkar, S.M. 1995. Environmental pollution analysis. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Ltd.
Mehta, S., S. Munale and U. Sankar. 1997. Controlling pollution: Incentives and regulations. New Delhi:
Sage Publications.
Miller, G. Tyler, Jr. 1996. Living in the environment: Principles, connections and solutions, 9th ed. Belmont:
Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Ministry of Environment and Forests. 1998. Annual report (1997–1998). New Delhi.
Nath, Kamal. 1995. India’s national and global environmental concerns. New Delhi: Ministry of Environment
and Forests.
Prasad, D., M.L. Choudhary. 1992. Environmental pollution—radiation (Environmental pollution and hazards
series). S.G. Misra, ed. New Delhi: Venus Publishing House.
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Rajashekhara, C.V. 1992. Environmental administration and pollution control, Vol. 2 (Global environment
series). New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House.
Sethi, I., M.S. Sethi and S.A. Iqbal. 1991. Environmental pollution: Causes, effects and control. New Delhi:
Commonwealth Publishers.
Sharma, A. and A. Roychoudhury. 1996. Slow murder: The deadly story of vehicular pollution in India,
Vol. 3 (State of the Environment). New Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment.
Srivastava, Y.N. 1989. Environmental pollution. New Delhi: Ashish Publishing House.
TEDDY 1997/98. New Delhi: Tata Energy Research Institute.
 CHAPTER 7

AGRICULTURE
KALYANI KANDULA

From a nation once dependent on food imports to feed its population, India today is not
only self-sufficient in food-grain production, but has also built up substantial reserves.
The progress made in agriculture during the last four decades has been one of the biggest
success stories of independent India. Agriculture and allied activities are the single largest
contributor (almost 33 per cent) to the gross domestic product (GDP). About two-thirds
of the workforce in the country depends on agriculture as a means of livelihood.

EVOLUTION OF AGRICULTURE

It is generally believed and accepted that agriculture originated in the river valleys of
the subtropical regions of the world. The earliest known domestication of crops occurred
in the river valleys of the Tigris and the Euphrates in Mesopotamia (now Iraq), the Nile
in Egypt, the Huang Ho in China, and the Indus in ancient India. Small human groups
settled in compact areas with access to water and fertile soil, where food could be grown
and some animals domesticated. Over time, with assured food supply, these clusters of
settlements evolved into villages. The surplus food that could be produced in these
favourable locations supported the growth of urban centres, and led to the establishment
of early civilizations.
Agriculture flourished in ancient India in the Indus valley. It supported the develop-
ment of ancient urban centres such as Harappa and Lothal. Among the ruins at Harappa
are huge granaries which indicate that surplus food was produced by agriculture during
that time.
While agriculture may be defined as the practice of cultivating the soil, harvesting
crops and raising livestock, the process involves a complicated, interwoven mesh of
factors—soil, plants, animals, implements, human labour, other inputs and environmental
influences. Over time, a variety of agricultural systems developed throughout the world.
154 KALYANI KANDULA

CLASSIFICATION OF AGRICULTURE

Agricultural systems may be broadly classified as traditional and modern.

TRADITIONAL AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS

There are two main types of traditional agriculture: traditional subsistence agriculture
and traditional intensive agriculture. Traditional subsistence agriculture produces
enough crops or livestock and livestock products for a farm family’s survival, and a sur-
plus to sell or put aside for hard times; and Traditional intensive agriculture involves
increased inputs of human labour, fertilizer, and water to get a higher yield per area of
cultivated land to produce enough to feed a farm family and a surplus for sale.
In traditional agriculture, the control over farming lies with the farmers—they collect
the seeds, decide which crops and which varieties to grow, what and how much of the
produce to keep for themselves, and what and how much to sell.
Traditional systems can be further classified as irrigated agriculture; forest-based
agriculture; livestock-based pastoral systems; and, crop-based livestock-rearing systems.

IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE: This form of agriculture originated in the river valleys. It can be
subsistence or intensive (or productive) agriculture. The crops grown are basically food
crops, but some cash crops are also grown.

FOREST-BASED AGRICULTURE: From the river valleys agriculture spread to forest areas.
It was not easy to practise agriculture in areas covered by dense jungles. Agriculture,
therefore, developed a new form known as shifting, or slash and burn, agriculture. The
crops grown are basically food crops. This form of agriculture is known as subsist-
ence agriculture.

Shifting agriculture
Shifting agriculture is a system of agriculture in which the land cultivated is rotated. A patch
of forest land is cleared and cultivated for one or a few seasons, after which it is vacated and
allowed to lie fallow for several years, while the cultivator shifts to clear and cultivate another
plot of land for the next season’s planting. This pattern of farming is continued till the farmer
returns to the original piece of land, when its fertility has been restored.
This type of cultivation has also been called ‘slash and burn’ agriculture because it involves
chopping down trees or bush cover, and setting fire to the fallen vegetation. The burning of
the vegetation releases nutrients that can be used by crops for one or two years before the
soil is exhausted. The return of the natural vegetation prevents erosion and repairs the damage
done by temporary agricultural use.
(continued)
 AGRICULTURE 155

(continued)

This traditional method was practicable when populations were small. With the increase
in populations the pressure on land also increases; the rotation cycles shorten as farmers
return to a patch of land without allowing it to adequately regenerate. As a result, this form
of cultivation is not practical any more. This method of agriculture is still practised in parts
of north-east India where the rotation cycles have come down from approximately 20 years
to three to four years.

LIVESTOCK-BASED PASTORAL SYSTEMS: A large number of animals were domesticated

around the grasslands of West and Central Asia. These were mainly herbivorous species
that ate grass: sheep, goat, cattle, horse and camel. In these areas, because of the climate
and physical environment, crop farming was risky and uncertain, but raising livestock
proved a suitable alternative. Early cattle, sheep and goat rearers were largely migratory,
who herded their animals from place to place in search of grasslands. When the pressure
on grasslands became excessive they moved out in search of fresh pasture or invaded
fresh territory. Breeds selected by these herders were essentially those that could with-
stand the stress of migration, drought and periodic food and nutritional shortages. This
form of agriculture is still practised in parts of India; for example, by the Rabaris in
Gujarat, and the Gujars in Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.

CROP-BASED LIVESTOCK-REARING SYSTEMS: A major revolution in livestock farming took

place many centuries ago when crop farming and livestock rearing were brought together
under the mixed crop-livestock farming systems. Under these systems, by-products from
agriculture, namely crop residue and straw, could be used to feed the animals. In exchange
the animals could be put to work on the land, and animal waste, namely, dung, could be
used to fertilize the field. The main products from agriculture (grain, seed and fruit) and
livestock (milk, meat and wool) were used for human consumption. It was this great
revolution that led to the generation of food surpluses and helped societies go beyond
the level of mere subsistence.

MODERN AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS

Modern systems of agriculture use large amounts of fossil-fuel energy, water, chemical
fertilizers and pesticides to produce huge quantities of crop or livestock. The different
kinds of modern agriculture include mechanized and chemical-based farming, com-
mercial farming, contract farming, and genetic farming using biotechnology.

MECHANIZED AND CHEMICAL-BASED FARMING: In this kind of farming, animal power,

manure and traditional methods of pest control are replaced by mechanization and
chemicals. While the original intention was to enhance food production, with increased
water availability, people shifted to cash crops and monocropping.
156 KALYANI KANDULA

COMMERCIAL FARMING: Under this form of agriculture, farmers grow cash crops to cater
to external markets. Monocropping is the norm. This kind of farming is mechanized and
uses chemical fertilizers and pesticides.

CONTRACT FARMING: This form of agriculture includes horticulture and floriculture.

The demands of the market determines what crops are to be grown. To that extent, farmers
lose control over what they can grow on their own land. Markets also dictate and deter-
mine price in addition to what should be grown.

GENETIC FARMING USING BIOTECHNOLOGY: The propagation of plants in this form of

agriculture takes place in laboratories. All control is in the hands of corporations or
scientists. Farmers are dependant on external agencies for seed, growing technology,
markets, etc.

AGRICULTURE AS A PRODUCTION PROCESS

Like any other production activity, agriculture, too, has three basic components: the in-
puts, the processes or the technology used, and the outputs and consequences. The inputs
include all things that are necessary to make production possible. In agriculture, the in-
puts usually are seeds, water, fertilizers, pesticides, human labour and energy (for running
tractors, irrigation pumps, etc.).
The processes refer to the pattern of agriculture. For example, do farmers raise three
crops each year or do they leave the land uncultivated for a certain period of time to
allow it to regenerate? Do farmers cultivate only one kind of crop or do they grow a mix
of different crops?
The outputs and consequences are the things that result from the production process.
These will include: (a) the desired outputs, which in the case of agriculture are food grains,
fruits, vegetables, etc., and (b) the related outputs and consequences, which include wastes.
Certain wastes are unavoidable in the production process. For example, when crops
are grown for oilseeds, only the seed may be the desirable part of the plant. Some parts
of the plant such as the leaves may be used as fodder. But some other parts of the plant,
the stem, the roots, etc., do not have direct utility and may have to be disposed of as
waste. Certain other wastes are created by the production process. For example, if the
farmer applies excessive quantities of fertilizer, some of it may not be absorbed by the
plant, and may remain in the soil. This may find its way through run-off to nearby water-
bodies and affect their well-being as well as that of the organisms that inhabit or depend
upon them.
The scientific and technological developments of the 20th century brought about major
changes in the way food is grown. Chemical fertilizers, for example, made possible
 AGRICULTURE 157

massive increases in the amount of grain that could be produced per unit area of cultivated
land. Chemical pesticides and weedicides ensured that plant and animal species harmful
to crops were killed. The use of machines made it easy for large tracts of land to be brought
under cultivation. Building dams and reservoirs, constructing canals and diverting river
waters brought more land under irrigation and made it suitable for cropping.

POST-INDEPENDENCE AGRICULTURE IN INDIA

Agricultural practices have probably changed faster in the past 200 years than ever before.
Modernizing agriculture in the country has successfully made India self-sufficient in
food grains. This was made possible by the improved productivity of high-yielding
varieties. In 1996, Indian farmers harvested more than 60 mn t of wheat, as compared to
6 mn t at the time of Independence.
This revolution in agricultural production is popularly known as the Green Revolution.
Spanning the period from 1967–68 to 1977–78, it changed India from a nation deficient
in food to one of the world’s leading agricultural nations.

THE GREEN REVOLUTION IN INDIA

The Bengal Famine of 1943 was the world’s worst recorded food disaster. An estimated
4 million people died of hunger that year alone in eastern India (including what is today
Bangladesh) under British rule.
Achieving food security was a paramount item on the agenda of the newly independent
India. Until 1967, efforts were largely concentrated on expanding the farming areas. But
deaths due to starvation and a population increasing at a much faster rate than food
production were some of the factors that called for drastic action to increase the yield.
The action came in the form of the ‘Green Revolution’, a term coined by Dr William
Godd of the US in 1968, when India brought about a great jump in wheat production by
taking up the cultivation of high-yielding varieties of seeds.
Dr M.S. Swaminathan, often referred to as the ‘Father of the Green Revolution’, made
a significant contribution to the introduction of the dwarf Mexican varieties of wheat
into India. These varieties had been developed by agriculture scientist, Dr Norman
Borlaug, as part of a programme to increase crop yields in Mexico. He produced high-
yielding wheat varieties by adopting some new concepts in plant breeding. The most
important concept was that of an efficient plant type that would expend less energy in
growing tall stalks and use the free energy to produce higher yields. To achieve this he
cross-bred a dwarf variety of wheat from Japan with Mexican and Colombian wheat
varieties. The newly developed dwarf varieties were released in 1962. By 1965, Mexican
158 KALYANI KANDULA

wheat production showed a per-acre yield increase by as much as 400 per cent as
compared with the yield levels in 1950.
The three basic elements of the Green Revolution in India were:

1. Continued expansion of farming areas: Expansion of land under farming was

continued, but this was not enough to meet the rising demand for food. While
this was not the most striking feature of the Green Revolution, the expansion of
cultivated land continued.
2. Double-cropping of existing farmland: Double-cropping was a primary feature
of the Green Revolution. Instead of a one-crop season per year, a practice which
depended on the monsoon which brought rain in one season of the year, a shift
was made to two crops per year. This was made possible by setting up huge
irrigation facilities. Several large dams and canal systems were constructed to
impound and distribute water for irrigation, and also to generate hydroelectricity.
3. Using genetically improved seeds: The Indian Council for Agricultural Research
developed new strains of high-yield variety (HYV) seeds, mainly of wheat and
rice and also of millet and corn. The most noteworthy HYV was the K68 variety
of wheat. The credit for developing this strain goes to Dr M.P. Singh who is also
regarded as a hero of India’s Green Revolution.

The impacts of such interventions yielded the desired result of increasing food pro-
duction; but there were also some unanticipated and undesirable consequences. The
latter, including environmental impacts, however, became known only later. For example,
hybrid seeds require intensive irrigation and the use of high quantities of inorganic fer-
tilizers and pesticides, which, over time, have resulted in the depletion of soil nutrients,
contamination of surface and groundwater, increasing cost of production, and disinte-
gration of the economic and the social conditions in rural communities (see section on
Environmental and Social Consequences). There are also health impacts of using chemical
fertilizers and pesticides—both on the farmers and on the consumers of such crops.
There were other impacts too. It is believed that the nutritive value of crops (protein,
vitamin, minerals, etc.) grown using such practices is less than that of crops grown by
traditional methods. However, not much scientific research related to this problem has
been done.

SOME ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES: The Green Revolution’s environ-

mental and social consequences are increasingly becoming known as these have been
clearly manifested in Punjab, which was the seat of the Green Revolution in India.

How green was the revolution? The story of Punjab: The Green Revolution was
essentially based on a seed and fertilizer package. Since the inception of the Green
Revolution, fertilizer consumption in Punjab has increased thirtyfold because the new
 AGRICULTURE 159

seeds were bred to be high consumers of fertilizers. After some years of bumper harvests
in Punjab, crop failures at a large number of sites were reported, in spite of liberal appli-
cations of NPK (nitrogen-phosphorus-potassium) fertilizers. The fact is that plants need
more than just NPK. They need micronutrients such as zinc, iron, copper, manganese,
magnesium, molybdenum, boron, etc. Zinc deficiency is the most widespread of all micro-
nutrient deficiencies in Punjab. As a result, increased NPK application has not shown a
corresponding increase in the output of rice and wheat. In fact, the productivity of wheat
and rice has been fluctuating and even declining in most districts in Punjab.
The Green Revolution has also resulted in soil toxicity caused by an excess of trace
elements in ecosystems. For example, fluoride toxicity is an unintended consequence of
irrigation in various parts of India. In some places, large-scale groundwater extraction
for irrigation caused water levels to drop and hit fluoride-bearing rocks in the aquifers,
leading to a rise in the fluoride content in the water to levels higher than those considered
safe for human consumption.

Change in land-use patterns: In Punjab, a very rapid change in the pattern of land
use took place. Since the start of the Green Revolution, the area under wheat has nearly
doubled and the area under rice has increased five times. During the same period, the
area under pulses (legumes) decreased by half. Wheat and rice are considered soil-
depleting crops, while pulses are considered soil-building crops. Reducing the cultivation
of leguminous crops means depriving the soil of a natural fertilizing agent. Repeated
cultivation of wheat and rice crops means draining the soil of nutrients.

Loss of genetic diversity: Traditional agricultural systems encourage diversity in

crop breeds. The Green Revolution displaced genetic diversity in two ways. First, it
brought in monocultures of wheat and rice which replaced the existing mix and rotation
of diverse crops like wheat, maize, millets, pulses, and oilseeds. Second, even with rice
and wheat, the Green Revolution encourages growing single varieties derived from exotic
dwarf varieties, to maximize grain production. This is at the cost of the diverse native
varieties of rice and wheat that are suited to the different soil, water and climatic con-
ditions. It is dangerous to depend only on a couple of crop varieties to meet the food
supply of hundreds of thousands of people. All the wheat and rice varieties grown in
Punjab since the beginning of the Green Revolution are derived from the genetically
narrow base of the Borlaug wheats and the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)
rice. This makes the crop more vulnerable to outbreaks of disease and other adverse
natural conditions.
The cropping pattern in Punjab has witnessed a major shift towards wheat in the rabi
season and rice in the kharif season. Wheat has spread at the cost of gram, barley, rapeseed
and mustard, which were usually sown as mixed crops along with traditional wheat
varieties. Similarly, the area under rice has increased at the cost of maize, kharif, pulses
like moong and masoor, groundnut, green fodder and cotton. While this practice deprives
the rice crop of the nitrogen-fixing capacities of the displaced leguminous crops, it
160 KALYANI KANDULA

demands artificial fertilizer inputs for the cultivated paddy. In addition, it narrows the
availability of different foods with different nutritional benefits.

Irrigation-related problems: Intensive irrigation is a major component of the Green

Revolution. The Green Revolution increased the need for irrigation water at two levels.
First, it prompted a shift away from crops which require less water, such as millets and
oilseeds, to monocultures and multi-cropping of wheat and rice, which require water in-
puts throughout the year. Second, the crop varieties promoted by the Green Revolution
need much more water than indigenous varieties. High-yielding varieties of wheat, for
example, need three times as much irrigation as traditional varieties.
The demand for water has put a lot of pressure on Punjab’s groundwater resources.
Ninety per cent of Punjab’s groundwater extraction is for agriculture. This is 20 per cent
higher than the national average. Research shows that for every 3 l of groundwater used
for agriculture, only 1 l is replenished.
Irrigation without proper consideration for the drainage of excess water can be danger-
ous. Land gets waterlogged when the water table is within 1.5 to 2.1 m below the ground
surface. The water table rises if water is added at a rate greater than the rate at which it
can drain out. Waterlogging is associated with another problem–salinization. In regions
of scarce rainfall, the soil contains a large amount of unleached salts. Excessive irrigation
brings those salts to the surface and leaves behind a residue when the water evaporates.
It can also cause unleached salts to accumulate in the upper layers of the soil. This exces-
sive salt build-up in the soil is called salinization. Salinization diminishes the productivity
of the soil and, in extreme cases, ruins it forever. Both these conditions, waterlogging
and salinization, can lead to desertification. The rich alluvial plains of Punjab suffer
seriously from desertification caused by the introduction of excessive irrigation water to
make Green Revolution farming possible.

Intensification of inequity: The Green Revolution type of agriculture requires inten-

sive inputs and technologies as, for example, new seeds, more fertilizers and pesticides,
tractors and other agricultural machinery, and irrigation. Traditionally, access to many
agricultural inputs was free, or was locally traded in non-monetary ways, or was available
at prices affordable by most farmers. But when such inputs had to be necessarily bought
from the market, poorer farmers could not afford them. So the existing inequities grew.
The Green Revolution technology also demanded landholdings of a substantial size,
to make the use of these inputs and technologies viable. For instance, employing a tractor
is not economically viable on small landholdings. Due to these factors, farmers with
smaller landholdings and less capital were unable to compete with farmers with larger
holdings. For example, small farmers with land up to 5 acres constitute 48.5 per cent of
the cultivating households in Punjab. In 1974, each small farmer in Punjab was annually
running at a loss, whereas farmers with land between 5 and 10 acres made a profit. Un-
able to maintain their landholdings, many small farmers sold their land to larger farmers.
Between 1970 and 1980, there was a 25 per cent reduction in smallholdings in Punjab
 AGRICULTURE 161

due to their economic non-viability. Some of the newly landless farmers became agri-
cultural labourers working for the more affluent farmers.
Looking back, it seems that the gains from the Green Revolution were not spread
evenly across society. Only particular crops, regions and farmers actually benefited from
the Green Revolution because of the requirement of large landholdings, irrigation facil-
ities, high inputs of fertilizers and pesticides, and intensive irrigation. Rather than a boon
for all, the Green Revolution intensified inequities in rural society.
Recent studies and research at the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) show
that the growth in rice yield has slackened, and is failing to outpace population growth
in many countries. Cereal productivity in yield per hectare has been declining: it went
down from 2.2 per cent per year in 1967–82 to 1.5 per cent per year during the 1980s and
early 1990s. These trends, combined with rapid population growth and environmental
degradation, have already affected 40 per cent of cropland, and cleared 20 to 30 per cent
of forests. It is clear that agriculture must be made more productive and its adverse
impacts must be reduced.

AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT

Some facts
l About 60 per cent of India’s cultivated land area suffers from soil erosion, waterlogging
and salinity problems.
l It is estimated that between 4.7 and 12 bn t of topsoil is lost each year as a result of soil
erosion.
l About 30 mn ha of fragile land now under cultivation is progressively degrading.
l Our livestock requires 932 mn t of green fodder and 750 mn t of dry fodder annually. But
only 250 and 414 mn t, respectively, are available. Inadequate fodder affects the
productivity and health of livestock.

The inputs, processes and outputs associated with modern agricultural systems have
influenced our environment in many ways. Some of the factors that impact the
environment are discussed here.

FERTILIZERS
Fertilizers are used to increase the fertility of the soil by adding nutrients which help in
plant growth. Fertilizers are of many different kinds and give different kinds of nutri-
ents to the soil. They are divided into broad two groups—organic fertilizers and chemical
fertilizers.
162 KALYANI KANDULA

Organic fertilizers are natural fertilizers; for example, cow dung and compost. They
are made up of natural components which are biodegradable. Organic fertilizers are
used in traditional agriculture.
Chemical fertilizers are essentially chemicals produced in factories, and are sold in
the market. These fertilizers are beneficial in increasing crop yields, but their prolonged
usage can have a detrimental effect on soil health. Excess fertilizer from agricultural
fields finds its way into ponds, lakes and rivers through run-off water from the fields.
These run-off fertilizers speed up the growth of algae in the pond, lake and river waters.
When these algae die they begin to decompose and their decomposition causes depletion
of the dissolved oxygen that is very important for aquatic life. This depletion may harm
or even kill aquatic life, including fish. This phenomenon is known as eutrophication.
Chemical fertilizers also create nitrate pollution in groundwater when they dissolve in
water and seep into the soil.

Biofertilizers
Intensive use of chemical fertilizer is not only costly but has [a] detrimental effect on the
natural resources like rivers and soil. Agricultural run-off pollutes water as well as soil.
Hence, there is [a] need to find alternatives. Biofertilizers are one such alternative. They are
efficient nitrogen-fixing, phosphate solubilizing (dissolving), cellulose-decomposing micro-
organisms, which when applied to seed or soil, enhance availability of nutrients to plants
and offer an eco-friendly, economically viable and socially acceptable means of reducing
external input of chemical fertilizers. These include Rhizobium and Azotobacter.
Rhizobium are the most important biofertilizers which fix atmospheric nitrogen by forming
nodules on legume plants which convert nitrogen into ammonia. Azotobacter are
non-symbiotic micro-organisms. They produce growth-promoting substances and chemicals
which are inhibitory to certain root pathogens. The response of Azotobacter depends upon
the amount of organic matter in the soil. (Indian Farmers Digest, May 2001.)

PESTICIDES
Pesticides are used with the intention to kill certain species or control populations of un-
wanted fungi, animals or plants because they harm the crops. For example, some insects
that feed on crops are pests; others, like bees, are beneficial as they help to pollinate plants.
Unwanted plants are generally referred to as weeds. Pesticides can be divided into several
categories based on the kinds of organisms they are used to control.
Insecticides are used to control insect populations by killing them. Unwanted fungal
pests that can weaken plants or destroy fruits are controlled with fungicides. Mice and
rats are killed by rodenticides. Plants’ pests are controlled with herbicides.
A perfect pesticide kills or inhibits the growth of only the specific pest organism (target
organism) that causes the problem. However, most pesticides are not very specific and
 AGRICULTURE 163

kill many non-target organisms as well. For example, most insecticides kill both beneficial
and pest species; rodenticides kill other animals as well as rodents; and most herbicides
kill a variety of plants, both pests and non-pests. Less than one out of 1,000 kinds of in-
sects is a pests but insecticides kill indiscriminately. Pesticides also adversely affect other
species such as frogs, snakes and birds, which are natural pest control mechanisms. They
destroy earthworms which are highly beneficial to agriculture. Also, exposure to pesti-
cides over long periods can harm the health of humans and animals. Thus, pesticides do
not just kill pests, they can also kill a large variety of living things, including humans.

Pesticide pollution
Recovering from the euphoria of the Green Revolution, India is now battling the residual
effects of the extensively used chemical fertilizers and pesticides in the soil.
The decade from 1980 to 1990 alone saw the area under pesticides in India increase a
whopping twentyfold, from 6 mn ha to 125 mn ha. After a high annual consumption of
nearly 75,000 MT reached in the early 1990s, interventions in the form of Integrated Pest
Management (IPM) practices have only now started to show a declining trend in the use of
pesticides in India.
Interestingly, India’s consumption of pesticides per hectare is low when compared with
world averages—0.5 kg/ha against Korea’s 6.60 kg/ha and Japan’s 12.0 kg/ha.
Yet, despite a comparatively low use of pesticides in India, the contamination of food pro-
ducts in the country is alarming. About 20 per cent of Indian food products contain pesticide
residues above the tolerance level compared to only 2 per cent globally. No detectable residues
are found in only 49 per cent of Indian food products compared to 80 per cent globally.
(http://www.teri.res.in/teriin/news/terivsn/issue31/pesticid.htm.)

The effectiveness of a pesticide is found to go down when it is used over a period of

time. There has been an alarming increase in the number of cases of resistance to pesticides
in insects, plants, pathogens, vertebrates and, to some extent, in weeds. For example,
resistance in insects has risen from seven species resistant to DDT in 1938 to 447 species
which are now resistant to almost all the principal classes of pesticides.
In India, of the 133 pesticides for regular use, 34 are those that are either banned or
restricted in some other countries but are still used here. Some of the hazardous pesticides,
like DDT and benzene hexachloride which are proven carcinogens (cancer causing), even
though they are banned in India for agricultural use, still continue to be used and also
find their way into waterbodies. It is believed that one of the effects of the accumulation
of high levels of pesticides such as DDT is that the shells of birds’ eggs are much thinner
than normal. When the parent birds sit on the eggs to incubate them, the eggshells break,
killing the chicks developing inside. Hawks, eagles and other fish-eating birds are
especially affected by such pollution.
Pesticides from agricultural lands run down with rainwater and enter local streams
or lakes. People who use this water for bathing, washing, etc., are obviously affected.
164 KALYANI KANDULA

Pesticides affect the health of farmers who use them. They can enter the body in small
quantities through the skin and eyes, or through the nose and mouth. In Punjab, where
high quantities of fertilizers and pesticides were applied in the fields, breast-milk samples
collected from the women in the area were found to contain high levels of pesticides.

Biopesticides
Biological Pest Control is a method of pest control in which pests are suppressed by their
natural enemies such as birds, spiders, mites, fungi, bacteria, viruses or plants, some examples
of which are discussed here.
Farmers plant bamboo stalks in paddy fields so that predatory birds can use them as sup-
ports while they pick and eat insect pests from rice plants. Farmers in Telangana, Andhra
Pradesh, light bonfires in fields during Deepawali and Sankranti to attract and destroy flying
insect pests. Neem contains several chemicals, including azadirachtin, which affect the repro-
ductive and digestive processes of a number of important pests. Neem also acts as a repellent
and antifeedant, and its oil is effective against leaf folders/borers, aphids and bollworms. In
addition to being environmentally safe, neem is effective against a wide range of pests. About
200 species of insects are known to be controlled by neem.
Biological control is sensitive to external factors like climate, type of crop, size of the plot,
etc. Biological control is not new to agriculture. Even the earliest farmers practised it by
rotating their crops and fertilizing them with organic manures. These and many other trad-
itional practices provide effective disease control by giving enough time and opportunity
for the biological destruction of disease organisms.

GENETIC DIVERSITY
Agricultural practices affect and are affected by the genetic diversity of the crop plant
and of the livestock. This diversity refers to the number, variety, and variability of crop
plants and livestock. These include traditional and modern varieties of crops and live-
stock, their wild relatives and other wild species that can be used now and in the future
for food and agriculture. Genetic diversity is vital for the maintenance and improvement
of agriculture.

VALUE OF CROP GENETIC DIVERSITY: Only about 30 crops feed the world. These are the
crops that provide 95 per cent of the dietary energy (calories) or protein. Wheat, rice and
maize alone provide more than half of the global plant-derived energy intake. A further
six crops, sorghum, millet, potatoes, sweet potatoes, soybean, and sugar (cane/beet),
bring the total to 75 per cent of the energy intake.
While the number of plant species which supply most of the world’s energy and protein
is relatively small, the diversity within such species is often immense. For instance, with-
in the rice species (Oryza sativa), there are an estimated 100,000 distinct varieties. Rice
 AGRICULTURE 165

originated in India and then spread throughout Asia. Rice grows in many places where
other food crops are difficult to grow. This is possible because the rice plant has a very
flexible genetic make-up and the ability to adapt to the local environment. According to
Dr Richharia, a well-known rice scientist, 400,000 varieties of rice existed in India during
the Vedic period. Even today, 200,000 varieties of rice exist in India. This means that even
if a person were to eat a new rice variety every day of the year, he could go on for over
500 years without reusing a variety! That is the genetic diversity within one species.

Table 7.1
Diversity of agricultural crops in India
Groups No. of species
Cereals and millets 51
Fruits 104
Spices 27
Vegetables and pulses 55
Fibre crops 24
Oilseeds 12

With this astounding diversity of crops, it helps to classify them on some basis. Gener-
ally, crop varieties can be classified into modern varieties and farmers’ varieties. Modern
varieties are the products of plant breeding by professional plant breeders in private
companies or publicly-funded research institutes. These varieties are sometimes called
high-yielding varieties (HYVs). They typically have a high degree of genetic uniformity.
Farmers’ varieties, on the other hand, are products of breeding or selection carried out
by farmers over many generations. Farmers’ varieties tend not to be genetically uniform
and contain high levels of genetic diversity. Because of this genetic diversity, farmers’
varieties are the focus of conservation efforts.
Genetic diversity provides stability for farming systems. It enables farmers to adapt
crops suited to their own ecological needs, culture and traditions. It also provides self-
sufficiency and security during difficult times. Losses due to the failure of a particular
crop or variety are compensated for by the yield of other crops or varieties. Genetic di-
versity is an insurance against future adverse conditions. While we may not be aware of
the potential use of genetic resources today, they may in future provide useful character-
istics, such as resistance to new diseases, or adaptability to changed climatic conditions.
Genetic diversity represents a treasure chest of potentially valuable but as yet unknown
resources. This is the reason for maintaining both the wild ecosystems and the traditional
farming systems, as plants in these habitats are likely to contain and develop new and
valuable genetic characteristics. For example, in India, cassava yields have increased up
to 18 times with the disease resistance provided by the genes from the wild Brazilian
cassava.
166 KALYANI KANDULA

Table 7.2
Diversity of domestic livestock breeds in India
Groups No. of species
Cattle 30
Sheep 40
Goats 20
Camels 8
Horses 6
Donkeys 2
Poultry 18

LIVESTOCK GENETIC DIVERSITY: The focus of modern farming is on increased productiv-

ity. This single focus has led to the selection of a few breeds of animals disregarding several
other significant characteristics of other breeds. This narrow genetic base selected for a
particular trait may be completely unsuited to other local conditions such as the ability
of a breed to withstand drought, or to emerging future problems such as diseases. A wide
genetic base makes possible sustainable livestock farming under diverse conditions.

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs): A bane or a boon to Indian agriculture?

Ever since the Agreement on Agriculture of the World Trade Organization (WTO) began to
be debated in India, increasing agricultural productivity and improving food quality are
being tossed [about] as the only solutions for farmers’ survival. One way being promoted is
the improvement in crop productivity through genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
GMOs can be a boon to Indian agriculture in many ways. Crop damage can be significantly
minimized with the development of genetically reprogrammed seeds designed to resist dis-
ease attacks (while minimizing or eliminating costly and hazardous pesticides), and adverse
abiotic factors. Since the arable land available for agricultural expansion in India is limited,
enhancing stress tolerance in crop plants will permit productive farming on currently unpro-
ductive lands. Also the shelf life of fruits and vegetables can be prolonged. Human and livestock
health can be improved through genetically modified crops with enhanced nutritional quality
traits and through the production of edible vaccines and other pharmaceutical products.
GMOs are, however, also perceived as possible threats to human health and the environ-
ment. The concerns raised about the safety of genetically modified crops must be taken very
seriously. Reports from Cornell University have shown that butterflies fed on pollen from
genetically modified corn showed retarded growth and very high mortality. Swiss scientists
have also shown that insects useful in agriculture as biocontrol agents for pest management
were damaged seriously in areas where transgenic corn was being grown. The culprit in
both cases is Bt corn, a genetically engineered variety of corn using the same system of dis-
ease resistance as used in the notorious Bt cotton planted by Monsanto in India.
The incorporation of GMOs into the human food chain is a major issue and needs to be
discussed in a common forum of scientists, researchers, policy makers, non-governmental
organizations, progressive farmers, industrialists, and representatives of the government.
(continued)
 AGRICULTURE 167

(continued)
Two major questions that need to be debated are:

1. Are genetically modified organisms (GMOs) safe for humans and the environment?
2. Will GMOs help Indian farmers to improve the productivity and take them out of the
cycle of poverty?
(www.envirodebate.net as viewed on 8 December 2003.)

WHAT IS SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE?

Agriculture is sustainable when it is ecologically sound, economically viable, socially just,
culturally appropriate and based on a holistic scientific approach. Sustainable agriculture
integrates three main goals—environmental health, economic profitability and social and
economic equity.
Sustainable agriculture implies:

l incorporation of natural processes such as nutrient cycling, nitrogen fixation,

and pest–predator relationships;
l minimization of the use of external and non-renewable inputs that damage the
environment or harm the health of farmers and consumers;
l participation of farmers and rural people in all the processes of problem analy-
sis, technology development, adaptation and extension, and monitoring and
evaluation;
l more equitable access to productive resources and opportunities;
l greater productive use of local traditional knowledge, practices and resources;
l incorporation of a diversity of natural resources and enterprises within farms;
l increase in self-reliance amongst farmers and rural communities; and,
l economic viability of farm operations.

Some elements of sustainable agriculture are:

PROPER SELECTION OF SITE, SPECIES AND VARIETY

Preventive strategies adopted early on can reduce inputs and help establish a sustain-
able production system. For example, in a dry region, where rainfall is scarce and un-
certain, crops like bajra and jowar which require little water are suitable. Bringing in
extensive irrigation in such areas may make it possible to grow water-intensive crops
like rice or cotton, but this may lead to other problems such as waterlogging and salin-
ization. Similarly, choosing pest-resistant crop varieties reduces the need for applying
external pesticides.
168 KALYANI KANDULA

DIVERSITY
Farms with more diversity are more economically and ecologically resilient. Monoculture
cropping is advantageous in terms of short-term efficiency and ease of management.
But the onslaught of a pest or a disease could wipe out the entire crop any one year, and
could put a farmer out of business and/or seriously disrupt the stability of a community
dependent on that crop. When several varieties of crops are grown in the field at one time,
even if one or two fail, the impact is not as severe. Also, practices such as crop rotation,
i.e. growing different crops on a particular field over a period of time, can suppress
weeds, pathogens and insect pests that depend on and affect specific crops.

SOIL MANAGEMENT
Healthy soil is a key component of sustainability. Healthy soils produce healthy plants
that have vigour and are less susceptible to pests. Crop-management systems that impair
soil quality often also need greater inputs of water, nutrients, pesticides, and/or energy
for tillage to maintain yields. In sustainable systems, the soil is viewed as a fragile and
living medium that must be protected and nurtured to ensure its long-term productivity
and stability. Methods to protect and enhance the productivity of soil include using
compost and/or organic manures, reducing tillage, avoiding traffic on wet soils, and
maintaining soil cover with plants and/or mulches. Regular additions of organic matter
or the use of cover crops can increase soil aggregate stability, soil tilth, and the diversity
of microbial life in the soil.

EFFICIENT USE OF INPUTS

Sustainable agriculture relies heavily on natural, renewable and on-farm inputs. It also
places equal importance on the environmental, social, and economic impacts of a particu-
lar farming practice. But this does not mean that the use of inorganic inputs is completely
forbidden in sustainable agriculture. A judicious combination of organic and inorganic
inputs may be used, to ensure that this strategy is the least toxic and least energy-intensive,
and yet maintains productivity and profitability.
An interesting example of sustainable agriculture, which illustrates the use of several
of the principles discussed here, is described below.

SAVE OUR SEEDS

Jardhargaon is a typical Himalayan village in the Tehri Garhwal district of Uttranchal
state. After the Green Revolution of the 1960s in India, farmers in these hilly regions also
 AGRICULTURE 169

started using high input-intensive techniques of farming to increase productivity. New

improved seeds of high-yielding varieties were introduced, along with a range of pesti-
cides, fertilizers and other external inputs. In the race for modernization, the farmers
began to rapidly lose their traditional systems of sustainable agriculture. Ironically, de-
spite increasing investments and inputs, soil fertility, and hence land productivity, began
to gradually decline. This realization initiated a movement away from the new methods
and a return to the traditionally more sustainable ways of farming. The movement, known
as the Beej Bachao Andolan (Save the Seeds Movement) is not only about conserving trad-
itional seeds but also about promoting agricultural biodiversity, sustainable agriculture
and local traditions.
It has not been easy. Several indigenous practices and seeds had already been lost.
One of the key needs was to revive these. This was the basis of the Save the Seeds Move-
ment. A group of villagers, led by farmer and social activist Vijay Jardhari from Jardhar-
gaon, began visiting remote villages in search of varieties of traditional seeds. After
intensive travelling, the group collected as many as 250 varieties of rice, 170 of kidney
beans and many others which had been presumed lost in the region. In the course of this
search, a wealth of information was documented for the first time. For instance, during
their search, the Beej Bachao Andolan activists found that in the valley of Ramasirain,
farmers grew a distinctive variety of red rice called chardhan (four grains). The rice was
nutritious and did not require huge external inputs. The farmers also grew other indi-
genous varieties of rice, known locally as thapchini, jhumkiya, rikhwa and lal basmati.
Agriculture was totally free from the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, yet good
yields were obtained.
Another remarkable traditional system of cropping which came to light was baranaja
(literally meaning 12 grains), where 12 crops are simultaneously grown in the same field.
This not only avoided monoculture, but also helped restore soil fertility and ensure food
security. In the baranaja system of traditional mixed farming, there is intercropping of
12, or sometimes more, crops. A combination of cereals, lentils, vegetables, creepers, and
root vegetables is grown. The 12 crops are those that can grow in harmony with each
other. The creepers of legumes use the stems of grain plants as a natural support, while
the roots of the plants grip the soil firmly, preventing soil erosion. Due to their nitrogen-
fixing abilities, legume crops return nutrients to the soil, which are used by other crops.
No external chemical inputs are given, and pest control is achieved through the use of
the leaves of the walnut and neem, and the application of ash and cow’s urine. This
system of biofarming helps maintain the ecological balance and enables the farmer to
benefit from certain varieties even if there is damage to some crops. Moreover, the di-
versity of crops also provides for nutritional security. Millets are rich in calcium, iron,
phosphorus, and vitamins, while legumes are a rich source of proteins.
170 KALYANI KANDULA

THE CHALLENGE AHEAD

In a scenario of shrinking land available for cultivation and depleting water resources,
the challenge is to increase biological yields to meet the increasing demands for food,
fibre, etc., of the ever-growing population without destroying the ecological foundation
or compromising the long-term well-being of the environment. Some measures towards
this system are:

1. Agricultural systems should be designed so as to match the environmental char-

acteristics (soil, water, climate and pest populations) of the region. For example,
water-demanding crops should not be grown in arid and semi-arid areas. Also,
in such areas livestock grazing should be limited. Water conservation should be
encouraged by using irrigation systems that minimize water wastage and prevent
salinization.
2. Whenever possible, relying on locally available, renewable biological resources
and know-how, and using resources in ways that preserve their renewability are
good agricultural practices, for example, using organic fertilizers from animal
and crop wastes (green manure and compost), building simple devices for captur-
ing and storing rainwater for crop irrigation, and cultivating crops adapted to
local growing conditions.

Good agricultural practices also include:

l maintaining the vegetative cover on cropland;

l using organic fertilizers, crop rotation and intercropping, which increase the
organic content of soils;
l maintaining a diverse mix of crops and livestock, instead of monoculture;
l reducing the use of fossil fuels in agriculture by using locally available, perpetual
and renewable energy resources such as the sun, wind, and flowing water, and
by using more organic fertilizers instead of energy-intensive chemical fertilizers;
and,
l emphasizing biological pest control instead of chemical pesticides.

Government policies that encourage farmers to grow food for local consumption in-
stead of encouraging the export of cash crops, which reduces the food available to local
people, and provide incentives to farmers for adopting responsible practices would help
to promote sustainable agriculture.
Today, with the impacts of the highly mechanized, heavily artificial input agriculture
becoming evident, there is a growing realization that agricultural processes and practices
need to be rethought. In the words of Dr M.S. Swaminathan, ‘what is needed is an Evergreen
 AGRICULTURE 171

Revolution, one that achieves sustainable productivity, and is rooted in the principles of
ecology, economics, social and gender equity, and sustainable livelihoods.’

I QUESTIONS

1. What were some of the gains of the Green Revolution?

2. What were the problems caused by the Green Revolution?
3. What are the alternatives to chemical fertilizers? What are their advantages?
4. Why is it desirable to maintain genetic diversity in agriculture?
5. What is Sustainable Agriculture? What are its major components?
6. What are the essential differences between the livestock-based pastoral system
and the crop-based livestock rearing system? Which of these evolved first?

II EXERCISES

1. Given below is the comparative analysis of the output of paddy in a half-

acre area in Kalpvruksh Farm in Umargaon, using two methods: Method
A: Crop grown using organic inputs and through sustainable agricultural
practices; and Method B: Crop grown using chemical fertilizers and pesticides.

Table 7.3
Paddy output from a half-acre plot
Using organic inputs (Method A) and chemical fertilizers and pesticides (Method B)
Method A Method B
Gross production 50 kg 100 kg
Gross income Rs 50 Rs 100
Cost of production
a. Chemical fertilizer Rs 0 Rs 15
b. Water (irrigation using electric pumps) Rs 6 Rs 25
c. Pesticide and weeding expenses Rs 4 Rs 40
d. Total cost Rs 10 Rs 80
Net profit Rs 40 Rs 20
Taste Sweet Bitter
Proportion of toxic substances in paddy None High
Source: Kalpvruksh Farm, Bhaskar Save, Umargaon.
Note: The result is applicable to a particular case and may vary with conditions.
172 KALYANI KANDULA

Based on Table 7.3 answer the following questions:

a. The gross production in Method B (i.e. using chemical fertilizers and pesti-
cides) is more than that of Method A (i.e. organic farming). But the net profit
by Method A is more than that of Method B. Why?
b. On an average, a 25 per cent subsidy is available on fertilizer and 80 per
cent on electricity. The figures given in the table include these subsidies.
Assuming that there is no subsidy either on fertilizers or on electricity, calcu-
late the cost of production and the net income using both methods. (See
answer below.)
c. Find out the cost of leasing land in your area. If this is included as part of
the cost of production, what would be the net income?
d. The calculation assumes that the market price of the crop grown by both
methods is the same. But wherever there is awareness regarding the health
and environmental benefits of organic crops, its market price is around 1.5
times that of crops grown using chemical fertilizers. If the crop is marketed
in such a market, what would be the net income from organically grown
paddy? (See answer below.)
e. If you were a farmer, which method would you like to adopt and why? You
need not restrict your answer only to the factors discussed above.

Answers:
2b. In method A, the cost of water would increase to Rs 30 and the total cost to
Rs 34. This method would thus result in a profit of only Rs 16. In Method B,
the cost would increase to Rs 20 for fertilizer and Rs 125 for water. Thus, the
total cost would increase to Rs 185, thereby incurring a loss of Rs 85.
2d. The selling price of crops grown organically (Method A) would increase
to Rs 75. Thus, even without government subsidies for fertilizer and electri-
city, the profit would be Rs 41.

2. Read the story given below carefully and answer the questions that follow.

Maganbhai’s Story
In the 1980s, Maganbhai, a farmer in the Saurashtra region in Gujarat, was
engaged in growing babario, a local variety of bajra. He used seeds from his
own farm. He used no chemical fertilizers or pesticides and very little irri-
gation. He used the by-products of the crop as fodder for cattle, and as fuel,
thatching material and organic manure. The taste of the bajra was sweet.
The ears of bajra were of the open type—exposed, without any natural cover.
Lots of birds were seen on the farm feeding on the ears. The birds ate some
of the grain, but also ate the insect pests that could damage the crop. This
 AGRICULTURE 173

acted as a natural pest-control measure. The crop left over after the farmer
had put away enough for his family’s consumption for the year was sold in
the local market.

Five years later

Following what other farmers in the region seemed to be doing, Maganbhai
bought seeds of a hybrid variety of bajra from a private company. The culti-
vation of this variety required expensive inputs such as chemical fertilizers
and pesticides. It also needed intensive irrigation. The total grain production
increased. But as it was a dwarf variety, it did not produce much biomass.
So, in addition to having to buy the pesticides and the chemical fertilizers,
which he now needed instead of the organic manure, Maganbhai also had
to buy fodder for his cattle, fuelwood and thatching material from the local
market, all of which he could earlier get as residue from his crop.
Because the ears of grain were of the closed type, birds could no longer
feed on the grain and so were rarely seen on the farm. So there was no na-
tural mechanism to keep the pests under control. As the total production
was higher than that of the local variety that he had been cultivating for
years, Maganbhai was happy at first. But at end of the year of slogging in
the field, he did not have any savings.

Now imagine ...

Maganbhai has been growing the hybrid now for 10 years. What do you
think would have happened to Maganbhai in these 10 years, and why?

What actually happened to Maganbhai in ten years?

Maganbhai has been growing the hybrid for 10 years now. Last year, the
entire crop was destroyed due to the spread of disease and pests on his farm.
He had borrowed a huge sum of money to buy a variety of pesticides,
weedicides and fertilizers. But these inputs did not help as the pests had
become immune to the chemicals.
Maganbhai also borrowed money last year to buy fodder, fuel and thatch-
ing material, as now he did not have enough crop residues to use for these
purposes.
He had thought that he would clear all his debts when he got a good crop
yield. But it was his bad luck; he could not even repay the interest on the
borrowed money.
While applying chemical insecticides and pesticides in the field, Magan-
bhai would also inhale some amount of the chemicals. This resulted in
headache and nausea. But he does not have any money to pay the doctor’s
fee or to buy medicines.
174 KALYANI KANDULA

This year, Maganbhai was seen sowing the local bajra variety babario, but
as a daily-wage labourer on the farm which once used to be his own.

Now think ...

What can Maganbhai do to improve the situation? How many years do you
think it would take him to come out the tangled‘hybrid net’?

(Exercise developed by Ramesh Savalia and Gopal Kumar Jain)

III DISCUSS

1. Discuss the pros and cons of GMOs, which are increasingly becoming a
part of modern agricultural practices. Should foods manufactured from
genetically modified crops be labelled as such?
2. What are the major economic and ecological advantages and disadvantages
of pursuing traditional agricultural practices and trying to save traditional
knowledge?

REFERENCES AND SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

Agarwal, Anil and Sunita Narain, eds. 1985. State of India’s environment 1984–85: The second citizens’
report. New Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment.
Dudhani, A.T. and J. Carr-Harris. 1992. Agriculture and people. New Delhi: South-South Solidarity.
Food and Agriculture Organization. 1996. The state of the world’s plant genetic resources for food and agri-
culture. New Delhi.
Ghotge, Nitya S. and Sagari R. Ramdas. 2003. ‘Livestock and livelihoods.’ Unpublished paper. Pune:
ANTHRA.
Indian Farmers Digest. May 2001.
‘Land of Five Tears.’ 1998. Outlook, 28 December.
Randhawa, M.S. 1986. A history of agriculture in India, Vol. 4. New Delhi: Indian Council of Agricultural
Research.
Reijntjes, C., B. Haverkort and A. Water-Bayer. 1992. Farming for the future. London: Macmillan.
Shiva, V. 1989. The violence of green revolution. Dehra Dun: Research Foundation for Science and Ecology.
www.teri.res.in/teriin/news/terivsn/issue31/pesticid.htm.
www.envirodebate.net as viewed on 8 December 2003.
 CHAPTER 8

THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT

VIVEK S. KHADPEKAR AND SUNIL JACOB

The earliest humans depended on hunting and food gathering for their survival. They
moved in small groups in search of food. Over time, they found that food could be culti-
vated and some animals domesticated. This discovery, assuring survival in a fixed place,
marked the beginning of human settlement and built shelter.
The early villagers fulfilled most of their survival needs through their own efforts,
growing food, building shelter, hunting, and making the implements needed for these
activities. As they prospered, some of them started producing surpluses, which they
could exchange and trade with other communities. This offered a greater choice of things
to use and consume.
With the variety of goods available through trade, it was no longer important for each
village to produce everything it needed. An important development followed: some vil-
lages which were located centrally emerged as markets. Their main activity was not
agriculture, so their land could be intensively put to non-agricultural uses and could
support high densities of population.

ADVENT AND EVOLUTION OF URBAN PLACES

Thus began urban places or towns. With bigger populations, diverse occupations and
many visitors, they became important as places of exchange of goods and commodities,
of contacts with a wider world, and of ideas, information and knowledge. They became
centres of wealth, power, enterprise, patronage and opportunity.
Towns consumed more material and energy than villages, leading to more waste. In
rural areas, there was space for wastes to be disposed of and to decompose, getting as-
similated back into the natural environment. Not so in towns, which needed special
efforts to manage waste. They also needed facilities for the storage and security of their
wealth. From this evolved the institutions to regulate and protect people, their possessions
176 VIVEK S. KHADPEKAR AND SUNIL JACOB

and commerce—policing and taxation. Specialized occupations which emerged with

the first settlements now became more complex and numerous.
These essential features of urbanization—the process by which a society acquires urban
characteristics—have survived over a few thousand years, but their scope, pace and
complexity have increased. The early towns were relatively small. Over time, some
centrally or strategically located towns grew in size and complexity to become cities.
Sizeable hinterlands with a range of material and human resources were needed for
cities to emerge and survive. Therefore, cities developed at locations easily accessible
from these hinterlands, usually at important junctions on trade routes, or at places where
rivers could be easily crossed. Assured water availability was crucial for cities. The earliest
great civilizations arose on the plains of major rivers, which provided adequate water
and deposited silt during floods, which made the land fertile. Such civilizations flourished
along the Nile (Egypt), the Tigris–Euphrates (Iraq), the Huang Ho (China) and the Indus
(Pakistan and India) between 4000 and 1500 BC. Each of them produced an urban culture,
with outstanding artistic and technological achievements.
The Indus Valley Civilization was the first to address the environmental problems of
managing urban sanitation and hygiene. Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Lothal and other cities,
dotting a vast area across today’s Pakistan and north-western India, had covered drainage
channels along their streets to remove waste water and sewage from houses. This is a
key contribution of that civilization. But it also teaches another environmental lesson.
Some scholars believe that its decline was due to the excessive exploitation of forests—
mainly for wood to fuel kilns that produced huge amounts of building bricks—leading
to deforestation, loss of wildlife, and irreversible environmental degradation. This opinion
may be debatable, but there is evidence that 4,000 years ago, this area had high rainfall,
forests and abundant wildlife. Today it is largely semi-arid or arid.
In the 3,000 years after the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization, civilizations and
big cities emerged in different parts of the world, shaped by forces as varied as religion,
trade, the advent of nation states, empire-building, and colonization. Each made cultural,
economic and technological contributions to civic life, some of which survive to this day.
After the 15th century, colonization by Europe played a major role in shaping cities
and patterns of urbanization in the colonies, the influences of which still survive. Britain
had the largest empire, including India where, by the late 18th century, it had established
new cities such as Madras (Chennai), Calcutta (Kolkata) and Bombay (Mumbai), on sites
where there had been no previous urban settlement.
Many considerations determined the location of these new cities. They had to serve as
points of control over vast areas of land and sea; as ports for global trade; and as ware-
houses for large quantities of goods in transit. The British needed local people to handle
some aspects of their trade. In due course they also encouraged the setting up of small
and large industries for various utility items, shipbuilding and textiles, among others.
All this attracted migrants from the hinterland in search of business and employment,
and the cities had to provide for their needs too.
 THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 177

URBAN GROWTH PICKS UP PACE

These developments set a pattern of urban growth in India that has continued at a quick-
ening pace to this day, not only in the ‘new’ British cities but also in extensions of important
old urban centres such as Delhi, Ahmedabad, Hyderabad and Pune. Worth special men-
tion here are two events that caused major spurts in Delhi’s growth—the shifting of the
capital of British India from Calcutta to Delhi in the early 20th century, and the influx of
refugees from Pakistan after Partition in 1947. The latter, in fact, affected several cities,
but its effect was most pronounced in Delhi.
The critical issues in urban areas accompanying their growth since the mid-19th century,
have been the steady increase in crowding and congestion; problems of sanitation, drain-
age, water availability and supply, and solid waste management; pollution of water, air
and soil leading to environmental health stresses; problems of traffic and transport; de-
gradation and loss of public open spaces, greenery, wooded areas, waterbodies and other
natural environmental assets; growth of crime and violence; emergence of the informal
sector of the urban economy and of slums, and many more. Before embarking on a dis-
cussion of these issues, let us examine what the terms ‘Urban’, ‘Urban Growth’ and
‘Urbanization’ mean in today’s context, particularly with reference to India.

CLASSIFICATION OF URBAN PLACES

Different disciplines have their own ways of categorizing and classifying urban places.
The most widely used across disciplines, is that of the Census of India. This defines as
‘Urban’ (a) all places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board, notified town
area committee, etc., and (b) all other places with a minimum population of 5,000; at
least 75 per cent of the male working population in non-agricultural occupations; and a
population density of at least 400 persons per square kilometre.
Urban places are grouped into six classes based on population size:

Class Population
Class I (city) 100,000 or more
Class II 50,000–99,999
Class III 20,000–49,999
Class IV 10,000–19,999
Class V 5,000–9,999
Class VI* Less than 5,000
Note: * Class VI includes places which, despite a population less than 5,000, qualify as urban by virtue of the
occupations of the majority of the working population, density, etc. They include townships in remote
areas, evolved around manufacturing, power generation, mining or other similar activities.
178 VIVEK S. KHADPEKAR AND SUNIL JACOB

Besides the above classes, the Census also lists Urban Agglomerations—cities which,
together with the areas adjoining them, accommodate spillover urban land use and func-
tions from the formally designated urban area, or areas in which two or more adjacent
cities have merged to form, for all practical purposes, a large, single urbanized spread.
Terms not used by the Census of India but employed by some official agencies include
metropolis (population of 1 million or more) and megacity (population of 4 million and
above).

URBANIZATION AND URBAN GROWTH

The terms ‘urbanization’ and ‘urban growth’ are often erroneously used interchangeably.
In fact, although the two are generally interrelated, their dynamics are distinct from
each other. Urbanization is the process by which a society becomes urban in terms of oc-
cupations, land use, population density, etc., graduating from primary sector (agriculture,
animal husbandry, hunting, etc.) to secondary sector economic activities (manufacturing)
to tertiary sector occupations supporting them (provision of services such as trade, bank-
ing, transport, etc.). Urbanization is expressed as the percentage of the total population
of a large area such as a country, or one of its divisions, living in urban areas.
On the other hand, if we say that a particular city—or cities collectively in a country or
region—increased in population over a number of years, we are referring to urban growth,
not urbanization. Urban growth can happen in one of basically three different ways:

1. by net natural increase (excess of births over deaths in the resident population);
2. by net migration (excess of people migrating into the city over the number migrat-
ing out of it); and
3. by reclassification of city limits (the inclusion in them of contiguous populated
areas with urban characteristics, which previously lay outside), or of rural places
becoming urban.

Urban growth is possible without accompanying urbanization; but for urbanization,

urban growth is a must (except in the far-fetched scenario of a calamity selectively deci-
mating the rural population without affecting the urban). To understand this difference
quantitatively, let us see how India grew between the censuses of 1991 and 2001. In that
decade, the combined rural and urban population increased by 21 per cent to cross
1 billion. The urban population increased 31 per cent (urban growth). But the urbanization
of India as a whole grew by just two percentage points, from about 26 per cent to 28 per
cent. The absolute growth in the urban population during the decade was 67 million—
more people than the entire populations of major countries such as the UK, Italy or
France. In relative terms, it was negligible for a large developing country such as India.
 THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 179

The overall increase in urbanization levels over the decade was not dramatic, but the
distribution of the population across urban places of different sizes is significant. In
2001, about 38 per cent of it lived in cities of populations of more than 1 million. The
remaining 62 per cent lived in some 3,600 small and medium towns in the population
range of 5,000 to 100,000. Of the former 38 per cent, nearly 15 per cent lived in three
Urban Agglomerations (UAs) of over 10 million each, about 9 per cent in five UAs in the
range of 3 to 6 million, and nearly 15 per cent in cities or UAs of 1 to 3 million. This has
been a persistent trend since the 1950s, as is evident from the following chart, which
shows that the share of metropolitan centres in both the urban and total population has
been growing at a higher rate than that of small towns and cities with populations of
less than 1 million.
Thus, India’s urban growth and urbanization are increasingly due to large cities. Small
and medium towns are declining in relative importance and stagnating. Most of them
cannot function adequately as central places to their hinterlands, which would ensure
180 VIVEK S. KHADPEKAR AND SUNIL JACOB

their own prosperity and growth. On the other hand, large cities are growing more rapidly
than they can cope with, straining civic amenities and services. In both cases, the net
result is the degradation of the urban environment. The small towns suffer from neglect;
the cities suffer from overload.

MIGRATION INTO CITIES

To go back to early urban growth in the British period, it was driven not only by the pre-
sence of opportunities in the cities (the pull factor) but also by their absence in rural areas
and small towns (the push factor). Colonial trade policy was mainly to procure raw
materials from India for processing in British factories into finished products (for example,
cotton from India was converted to yarn and cloth in England), to be sold all over the
world including India. Being mass-produced, many of these products, even after adding
costs of raw material, transport, processing, duties, commissions and other charges, were
cheap in India compared to those produced locally by cottage industries. Rural artisans
facing diminishing sales and income were forced to migrate in search of livelihoods, for
which cities with growing economies offered options. Small farmers, at the mercy of
poor yield from land, uncertain rain, or exploitative landlords, also migrated to cities to
improve their chances of survival.
Such migration of the rural poor increased with the rise in manufacturing industries
in cities. Those lacking skills needed for urban employment took up the most menial
jobs. They continued to be poor, but with a degree of assurance of survival and hope of
a better future. Unlike better-off urban dwellers, they had no security of shelter. They
built their own crude shelters, often lacking even basic amenities. Thus they created
what is a very misunderstood and maligned part of urban environment, the slum, typically
overcrowded, with a degraded environment, inadequate sanitation, and lack of basic
amenities—conditions that diminish the quality of life of its inhabitants. Slums play a
key role in the ‘informal sector’ of the urban economy.

THE INFORMAL SECTOR AND SLUMS

Slums normally develop on low-lying or marginal land unfit for legally acceptable build-
ing, or neglected by its owners, in locations near places of potential gainful employment.
By building slums, the urban poor provide their own shelter which is low on costs of
construction and travel to work. Often situated near or in wealthy localities, they have
no share in this wealth, even though they participate in creating some of it.
 THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 181

In India, owing to low incomes, high rents, lack of affordable housing of prescribed
standards and increasing costs of living, the slum population is growing four times faster
than the growth of the country’s population. Already, in India’s large cities, nearly a
third of the population lives in slums, and this proportion is growing (see Table 8.1).
According to Census of India 2001 estimates (which are more recent than the figures
given in the table below), nearly 49 per cent of Mumbai’s population lives in slums!

Table 8.1
Slum population of selected million plus cities, 1991 and 2001
(In million)
1991 2001 (estimated)
Total Slum Percentage of Total Slum Percentage of
City population population total population population population total population
Greater Bombay 12.60 4.32* 34.30 17.07 5.86 34.30
Calcutta 11.02 3.63* 32.93 13.11 4.31 32.90
Delhi 8.42 2.25 26.70 12.22 3.26 26.70
Madras 5.42 1.53 28.13 6.98 1.96 28.10
Hyderabad 4.34 0.86 19.78 6.30 1.25 19.80
Bangalore 4.13 0.52 12.50 6.36 0.79 12.50
Ahmedabad 3.31 0.67* 20.23 4.36 0.89 20.31
Pune 2.49 0.41* 16.44 3.53 0.58 16.30
Kanpur 2.03 0.42 20.55 2.49 0.51 20.60
Source: Central Statistical Organisation (1997), Compendium of Environment Statistics, M/o Planning &
Programme Implementation, GOI, New Delhi.
Note: * Based on the percentage identified slum population of 1981.

In the urban informal sector, slums are beehives of activity. They provide important
but undervalued services to the city: cheap labour beyond the scrutiny of labour laws;
services such as garbage collection, small-scale repair of appliances, washing and ironing
of clothes, and many more. They also manufacture a fair amount of utility items of daily
use—from handkerchiefs and shirts to room coolers and steel almirahs—occasionally
sub-standard but usually much cheaper than branded versions. With training for skill
upgrading and quality control, the informal sector has also demonstrated its ability to
produce and assemble components of sophisticated engineering and other products for
large, formal-sector industries. Many of these, such as some upmarket readymade gar-
ment manufacturers, routinely outsource part of their manufacturing operations to
ancillary units in the informal sector, saving themselves high overheads.
Slums are often seen as parasites on the fabric of a city, the habitats of people who
exploit urban resources and amenities without paying for them. In fact, slum dwellers
do pay indirect taxes (e.g. octroi or entry tax, levied on most of the basic necessities of
life entering a city) which, as a fraction of their low earnings, can be substantial. In return,
they normally do not get even a fraction of the minimum civic services due to them as
citizens (assured water supply, sanitation, health services, education).
182 VIVEK S. KHADPEKAR AND SUNIL JACOB

By building their own shelter, slum dwellers indirectly help to save public funds.
They effectively reduce the burden the government might otherwise have to bear to
provide them with housing. Moreover, it has been observed in many cities over several
decades that if slum dwellers have a reasonable, implicit assurance that they will not be
arbitrarily evicted from the lands they occupy—even a notional security of tenure—
they do progressively invest their own resources in improving the quality of their shelter
as and when they can afford to. What is beyond their capacity is to provide infrastructural
services such as sewerage, drainage and water supply. This is the area in which the city
really needs to intervene and invest.
A common perception is that slums grow because the rural poor migrate to cities. This
was true in the early stages of urban growth which accompanied industrialization
(roughly from the mid-19th to the third quarter of the 20th century) in large cities such
as Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai. Today, the growth of slums is due more to a natural
increase in the local population than it is to migrants. This must be remembered by
citizens, administrators or politicians who advocate permits for people (implicitly the
poor) entering cities.
It is not possible to visualize cities without slums in the foreseeable future. As emerging
market trends, with their emphasis on outsourcing, reduce secure jobs with steady in-
comes, more and more of the self-employed may move into the informal sector. Future
slums could house people from classes and occupations that hitherto lay outside their
scope. Their economic importance will continue to be significant. Hence, urban policy
must accord high priority to the environment and management of slums, recognizing
the value of their contributions, and integrate them into the planning and management
of urban services.

IMPLICATIONS OF PRESENT-DAY URBANIZATION IN INDIA

From the viewpoint of quality of life, several aspects of the urban environment—pollution,
crowding, high energy use, social and psychological tensions, conflict—may be seen as
disadvantages that outweigh the advantages. Cities draw heavily, directly or indirectly,
on resources such as water, forest, fuel and land, which they return to the environment
as waste and pollutants. Unsustainable development with rapid urbanization adversely
affects both the immediate and the remote surroundings. The implications of this impact
for the environment and the people must be given adequate consideration. Urban con-
gestion not only creates unhealthy living conditions, it also trains the infrastructure. The
urban environment in general is deteriorating rapidly. The crucial supports for healthy
environment and living conditions—air, water, and land—are degrading.
The above arguments do not seek to deny the merits of urbanization. India still has a
long way to go before it can fulfil the basic development needs of its people. To that end,
 THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 183

urbanization is necessary. But the path it takes does not have to be the same as that taken
by the already developed countries. A different course of development may also signify
a new kind of urbanization and urban growth. This requires a review of the critical issues
in our urban environment, and of our urban planning and management practices.

ISSUES IN URBAN ENVIRONMENT

The key issues of urban India today have to do with the quality of life of the people.
Several factors are involved—health (both physical and mental), education, nutrition,
livelihood security, protection from exploitation, fulfilment of cultural and creative
aspirations, social justice, harmony and peace, and what are commonly seen as basic
democratic freedoms and human rights. In principle these are guaranteed to all Indians.
In practice, however, there are several aberrations regarding which of them are available
to whom. They afflict both rural and urban society, but the urban environment brings
them into closer contact and confrontation. Some of these aberrations and issues are
discussed below.

INCREASING RESOURCE CONSUMPTION AND WASTE

With economic growth, the purchasing power of the people increases, leading to higher
consumption of resources. While the urban population is smaller than the rural, it corners
more resources. This is starkly evident in big cities such as Delhi and Mumbai. City
dwellers consume more per capita, and generate more waste. Today, many of these wastes
are non-biodegradable. Nature’s mechanisms to break down degradable organic wastes
are less effective in cities due to the reduction of soil cover—and the micro-organisms it
contains—with most of the space taken up by buildings, roads, etc.

PRESSURES ON INFRASTRUCTURE
Population density in urban centres has been increasing more rapidly than the infra-
structure and services needed to sustain it, such as housing, water supply, garbage
disposal and sanitation. This has led to polluted, overcrowded and unhealthy living
conditions for many urban dwellers, and it affects the quality of life of rich and poor
alike. The poor may be more vulnerable to disease due to poor sanitation, but if the dis-
ease becomes an epidemic, it does not recognize the boundaries of economic class. Thus,
if sewerage is provided only to those who can pay and denied to those who cannot,
everyone suffers.
184 VIVEK S. KHADPEKAR AND SUNIL JACOB

PUBLIC SPACES AND ASSETS

People living in densely inhabited areas need spaces to which they can go without having
to pay, for recreation, exercise, meetings, peaceful contemplation, or even simply to get
away from the hustle and bustle of crowds and noise. To serve these needs, cities have
public spaces and assets such as parks and gardens, wooded areas, waterbodies, wetlands
and several others. They also provide valuable ecological services such as recharging
groundwater. With the increasing demand for land, many such assets face the threat of
conversion to commercial use. Protecting them is a critical issue in the urban environment,
its planning and management.

LOSS OF CULTURAL HERITAGE

Cultural heritage, both material (such as monuments, crafts, landmarks) and non-material
(such as cuisine, festivals, institutions), is an important aspect of people’s identity and
self-esteem. Rapid urbanization often tends to erode it. The built heritage—an integral
part of a city’s identity—is sacrificed in favour of new, commercially ‘viable’ develop-
ments, depriving citizens of the cherished symbols of civic pride. The original functions
for which old buildings were designed are often replaced by new uses. For example,
when single-family houses in pols in the walled city of Ahmedabad are replaced by high-
rise flats, or converted into warehouses, the fabric of the pol gets disrupted by the increase
in people and vehicles which these changes attract (see box Pols). An environment origin-
ally meant for a culturally homogeneous community to live in safety and neighbourly
bonding, gets destroyed. Many old urban neighbourhoods that have evolved a distinct
lifestyle and cultural identity face this threat with the onslaught of mindless urban devel-
opment lacking in appropriate conservation measures.

A pol is a typical built neighbourhood in the old walled city of Ahmedabad. Its residents are
generally of one community, often related to one another, and share social and cultural values
and practices. Unlike modern neighbourhoods in which the residents are usually from similar
classes by income, pols have residents with diverse levels of wealth. The less affluent, in
times of need or crisis, are helped by community trusts or similar other mechanisms endowed
by the better-off members.
Neighbourhoods similar to pols are common in hot arid areas. The streets and alleys are
shaded from the scorching sun through most of the day by the houses lining them, which
typically have long shared side walls and narrow fronts with shading devices such as jharokhas,
chhajjas, overhanging storeys and balconies to minimize the entry of heat. Internal courtyards
keep the interiors cool by removing the warm indoor air by convection.
 THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 185

AIR POLLUTION
Polluted air is a growing problem in cities and a major cause of respiratory ailments.
This is mainly due to the exhausts and emissions from motor vehicles and industries
which do not conform to the prescribed pollution-control standards. Poor maintenance
and adulterated fuels aggravate the pollution. People such as traffic police and industrial
workers, whose occupations involve sustained exposure to such pollution, are at
particular health risk (see Table 8.2).

Table 8.2
Level of air pollution in selected cities

Range of levels of air pollution (micrograms/m3)

City SO2 NOx SPM
NAAQ standards 15.0 – 80.0 15.0 – 80.0 70.0 – 360.0
Mumbai 6.1 – 111.7 5.4 – 115.8 60.6 – 473.2
Calcutta 6.0 – 122.0 6.0 – 73.1 77.3 – 833.3
Delhi 10.1 – 85.1 20.1 – 104.5 145.3 – 929.8
Hyderabad 5.1 – 70.7 7.5 – 124.1 59.3 – 458.0
Ahmedabad 5.4 – 110.9 3.6 – 70.0 72.4 – 575.4
Pune 17.1 – 29.0 10.1 – 34.0 112.0 – 166.5
Kanpur 8.2 – 22.4 7.7 – 63.0 233.7 – 809.2
Source: Indian Economic Survey (1998–99), A Pre-budget 1999–2000 Document, Special Supplement
No. 1 of 1999, News from Govt. Gazettes, GoI, New Delhi.
Notes: NAAQ–National Ambient Air Quality.
NOx–Nitrogen Oxides (as NO2).

A second, often neglected, fact is indoor air pollution in the homes of the poor arising
from the use of imperfectly combustible ‘dirty’ kitchen fuels (coal, biomass residues and,
in extreme cases, even plastic and rubber wastes) and the poor ventilation of the houses.
It is not easy to quantify the extent to which this contributes to overall urban air pollution,
but it is a major health hazard for the women who spend considerable time in such
kitchens, and for their infants who have to be with them under constant care and attention.
Some kinds of air pollution are due partly to natural phenomena, but get aggravated
in urban areas by man-made pollution. These include respirable suspended particulate
matter—dust and other particles in the air from vehicle exhausts and industrial activ-
ities—which are minute enough to enter the respiratory tract past its natural filtering
mechanisms (hair, mucus, etc.).
Thermal inversion, a phenomenon which often occurs in winter, is another cause of
air pollution. Cold air, unable to rise by convection, settles near the ground after sunset,
especially when there is no breeze. In urban areas, where there is more polluted air, it
forms a smog which causes eye irritation, running noses and, for some people, breathing
186 VIVEK S. KHADPEKAR AND SUNIL JACOB

difficulties. In Delhi, the number of people, especially children, suffering from respiratory
diseases has registered a significant increase. A study conducted in 2000 revealed that
11 per cent of the schoolchildren in the city suffer from asthma. Another study estimated
that in 1995, Kolkata alone suffered monetary losses worth Rs 9.59 billion as a result of
premature deaths and sickness due to suspended particulate matter!

cooler air

cool air

warm air

Normal pattern

cool air

warm inversion air

cool air

Thermal inversion

Illustration 8.1 Thermal inversion

WATER AVAILABILITY AND POLLUTION

Access to safe drinking water is a problem in most urban areas. Rivers running through
many large cities with high population densities and industrial activity carry untreated
sewage and industrial effluents in concentrations which inhibit the natural biochemical
processes that cleans flowing water. The Ganga, regarded as the holiest of Indian rivers,
has the longest stretch (1,760 km) that is polluted in terms of biological oxygen demand
(BOD). As the Yamuna flows through the city of Delhi, 15 drains discharge waste water
into it, turning it into almost a sewage drain.
 THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 187

About 135,000 polluting industries in India generate about 13,000 mn l a day of waste
water of which only 60 per cent generated from large and medium industries is treated.
Most of the rest finds its way into the rivers. The most important pollution source
contributing pathogens, the main source of water-borne diseases, is domestic sewage. In
the absence of adequate or proper methods of treating or handling it, sewage stagnating
within the city provides breeding grounds for mosquitoes. Domestic sewage also con-
taminates groundwater, the only source of drinking water in many cities. Because of the
corrosion of underground lines over time, piped drinking water, too, is often contaminated
by the sewage leaking into it. The release into the domestic sewage system of untreated
chemical wastes by industries hastens the corrosion and adds to the pollution of water-
bodies and soil.
With water becoming scarce, huge amounts of energy are used to transport it from great
distances or lift it from underground sources. Piped supply by local government bodies
cannot keep pace with urban growth. Tube wells sunk arbitrarily and excessive lifting
from underground sources is rapidly lowering water levels over large areas. In the western
parts of Ahmedabad, the water table went down from 20–25 m in 1965 to 80–90 m in
1990. It is now declining at an average of 3 m per year. As buildings and paved roads
dominate cities, the percolation of surface water to recharge groundwater has reduced
to negligible levels. Rainwater is lost as surface run-off, and causes further problems by
flooding low-lying areas.

SOLID WASTE
Unplanned garbage disposal is a major cause of pollution in urban areas, with serious
public health implications. The economic growth of a place is reflected in the kind of
waste it generates. Earlier, the waste from human settlements was mainly organic and
biodegradable (leftover food, vegetable and fruit peels). Today, there is more waste and
it includes high proportions of non-biodegradable materials (plastics, fused materials
such as tetrapacks and paan masala pouches in which more than one material—plastic
and paper or paper and aluminium—are combined), toxic substances, etc. These remain
in the environment for a long time, and can contaminate the air, water and land. Table 8.3
gives a partial picture from a period when increasing consumerism, though well under-
way, was not as overwhelmingly evident as it is today.
What the table reveals in terms of the ratio of compostable to inert (i.e. non-biodegradable)
waste generated between large and small cities is even sharper today, eight years down
the line. It is equally important to note that large cities generate more waste per capita
than small cities and towns (Table 8.4).
Solid waste disposal is a challenge for urban authorities. New landfill sites are needed
as old ones get filled up over time. The new sites are usually far from the city. The waste
has to be transported longer distances, using more fuel and adding to vehicular air pollu-
tion. There is also the possibility of spillage en route. More critically, this method merely
transfers the pollution and its consequences to human habitations outside city limits.
188 VIVEK S. KHADPEKAR AND SUNIL JACOB

Table 8.3
Physical characteristics of municipal solid wastes in Indian cities
Population range (lakh) 1–5 5–10 10–20 20–50 >50
No. of cities surveyed 12 15 9 3 4
Composition (% on wet weight basis)
Paper 2.91 2.95 4.71 3.18 6.43
Rubber, leather & synthetics 0.78 0.73 0.71 0.48 0.28
Glass 0.56 0.56 0.46 0.48 0.94
Metal 0.33 0.32 0.49 0.59 0.80
Total compostable matter 44.57 40.04 38.95 56.67 30.84
Inert material 43.59 48.38 44.73 40.07 53.90
Source: NEERI (1995). Strategy Paper on SWM in India (August).

Table 8.4
Indian cities: Waste generation per capita
Population range (in lakhs) Average waste generation (gm./capita/day)
1–5 210
5–10 250
10–20 270
20–50 350
>50 500
Source: NEERI (1996). Strategy Paper on SWM in India (February).

The waste is not segregated at source and its mixed composition inhibits degradation.
Often, when it rains, toxic substances from waste, which come in contact with water leach
into and contaminate surface and underground waterbodies. The impact of such pollution
on the quality of food crops using the contaminated water for irrigation, and on human
and animal health, may be felt even at places far away from its source.

NOISE POLLUTION
The increasing numbers of vehicles on the road, the proliferation of industrial activity
within the city, and the use of loudspeakers at religious, public, and social events are
some factors resulting in the increasing ambient (i.e. general, not point-specific) noise
levels of the city. Noise intensity is measured in decibels (dB). On this scale, each one-dB
rise indicates a tenfold increase in intensity. Thus, a rise in sound intensity from 1 to 3 dB
means a hundredfold increase in noise. Noise levels in some major Indian cities vary
from 60 to 90 dB. The maximum levels legally allowed in the daytime (6 a.m. to 10 p.m.)
are 55 dB in residential areas, 65 in commercial areas and 75 in industrial areas. At night,
they are, respectively, 10 dB lower for the first two area categories and 5 dB for the third.
Continuous exposure to high levels of noise leads to both mental and physical health
problems. Some of the effects are irritability, aggressiveness, rise in blood pressure,
 THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 189

headache, insomnia, hearing loss, etc. (See Table 6.1 in the chapter on pollution for the
intensity of sound levels from different sources.)

CHANGE OF LAND USE

As they grow, urban areas spread out into adjacent rural areas, consuming cropland for
buildings and roads. Thus, agricultural lands, dynamic by nature due to their reusability,
get converted forever to static urban use. It is not only the land which changes; even the
livelihoods and lifestyles of the inhabitants are disrupted as an area urbanizes. With
agriculture becoming more difficult, farmers tend to sell their land. Once the quick money
thus earned is used up, they are left without gainful employment. Lack of a water and
sanitation infrastructure in the newly urbanized areas causes health problems. The quality
of the environment, and of life, of both old and new residents, gets degraded.
Often, natural waterbodies such as wetlands and lakes are reclaimed for building pro-
jects, resulting in the permanent loss of catchments for rainwater and natural sinks for
surface run-off. This in turn causes floods in the cities in heavy rains. Such reclamations
also disrupt a vital means of groundwater recharge. Along with the wetlands, ecosystems
which harbour a host of life forms—mainly resident and migratory birds that have to
find new areas for nesting and breeding—are lost. The change can also drastically affect
the lives of the people in different ways. For example, the reclamation of 4,000 ha of wet-
lands in east Kolkata resulted in an annual loss of some 25,000 tonnes of the fish catch,
jeopardizing the livelihoods of fishing communities and depriving the city of a major
source of inexpensive nutrition. The city also lost a major chunk of two important civic
amenities provided by nature—storm-water sinks and natural oxidation ponds for
sewage.

VEGETATION
Shrubs, grasses, trees and other forms of natural vegetation are usually the first victims
of urbanization. Vegetation is crucial for absorbing air pollutants, releasing oxygen, cool-
ing the air as water evaporates from the leaves, mitigating noise pollution, providing
habitats for wildlife, and enhancing environmental aesthetics. It also helps to reduce soil
erosion.

PLANNING FOR URBAN AREAS

Unregulated and rapid urban growth causes unintended and undesirable environmental
conditions which cannot be remedied by a firefighting approach. Comprehensive plan-
ning is crucial to make urban areas more liveable and sustainable. Traditionally, urban
190 VIVEK S. KHADPEKAR AND SUNIL JACOB

planning consists of developing master plans which lay down broad guidelines on aspects
such as land use (residential, commercial, industrial, institutional, recreational, etc.) and
densities (number of households or persons per unit area). Assuming that these guidelines
will be followed exactly, the plans provide for infrastructure such as roads, main lines
for water supply and storm-water drainage, and for sewage and its end-of-the-line treat-
ment. In recent years, the management of urban solid wastes has also begun to rate greater
attention than before.
There are limitations to the efficacy of such physical planning. It does not directly
address what already exists (beyond minor modifications), nor the details of transport,
waste collection, or the provision of particular civic amenities. These are generally treated
as add-ons—either as details to be looked into after the master plan has been frozen or
as ad hoc decisions to be made as and when problems arise. Thus, if the number of private
vehicles shoots up to more than what is projected (which has happened in India since
the 1990s), their movement and parking becomes a major problem. The space allocated
for vehicle parking in urban residential and commercial areas is no longer adequate for
the number of vehicles now in use. Parked vehicles occupy space meant for pedestrians,
who then risk their lives by walking on carriageways meant for vehicular movement.
A major challenge for urban planning and management is to find a solution to this
problem.
Figure 8.2
Total number of motor vehicles in India (1951–2001)

Source: Government of India, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways

<http://morth.nic.in/motorstat/>.
 THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 191

Planning urban transport

As cities grow, transport assumes a pivotal role and often becomes the key tool in shaping
the face of the city. The natural shift from simple non-motorized modes to motorized vehicles
fuels the demand for wider and newer roads and other infrastructure, like flyovers and
parking lots, which in turn encourages further growth of auto vehicles on the roads.
The real purpose of transport is to move people in adequate numbers, at affordable cost,
in reasonable time with minimum adverse impact on the environment of the city. It is not to
encourage more and more auto vehicles to drive at faster and faster speeds.
Only when we refocus on the mobility of people rather than of vehicles can we see the
futility of the approach that relies unduly on expensive infrastructure (roads, flyovers parking
lots) as a solution to traffic problems such as road congestion, air pollution and road accidents.
We need to recognize that the purpose of traffic planning is to improve and increase the
mobility options for the majority of the citizens, so that they can travel in minimum discomfort
to their place of work, education, shopping, recreation, etc., without excessive delays, costs
and danger to their health. Presently, auto vehicles contribute to over 65 per cent of the total
air pollution in our cities, which threatens the health of citizens exposed to auto emission,
road rage, driving stress and road accidents. Auto-vehicle dominated traffic also threatens
the natural and built environment of the city, as roads, flyovers and parking lots devour
open areas, natural sites and heritage structures which inevitably come into conflict with
road-widening plans.
Auto-vehicle dominated traffic planning depends on building more and more roads and
widening the existing ones. Unfortunately, road widening is very often accompanied by the
destruction of healthy shade-giving roadside trees, reduction in the width of pedestrian pave-
ments, elimination of front margins of buildings and gobbling up of public spaces to make
room for moving or parked auto vehicles. What is worse, when new roads and road-widening
projects begin to symbolize a city’s development, even priceless heritage structures of archi-
tectural, historic or cultural value can face the threat of destruction. The historical Mujumdar
Wada, and the Aga Khan Palace, both Grade I listed heritage structures in Pune city, are
threatened by proposed road-widening schemes, as are hills, river beds and other natural
heritage assets of the city.
Invariably, the poorer sections of society pay a much higher price for such development,
having to spend up to 30 per cent of their income on transport.
What then is the alternative? Are there ways to manage traffic and transport that can
minimize these adverse impacts on the city and the citizens? Have such options been tried
elsewhere and what is the result?
Cities that have successfully dealt with the growing need for mobility of people without
damaging the city’s environment and health have, without exception, succeeded in creating
an efficient public transport system. Public transport can carry many more people in fewer
vehicles, with less energy consumption, less air pollution and fewer road accidents (per
person) than private transport—cars and two-wheelers.
Along with an adequate and efficient public transport system, urban traffic and transport
planning also needs to include measures to optimize existing infrastructure, which is usually
created at considerable expense to citizen taxpayers. This must not only include facilities

(continued)
192 VIVEK S. KHADPEKAR AND SUNIL JACOB

(continued)
that encourage walking, cycling and other non-motorized modes of travel, but also help to
reduce or eliminate travel altogether—such as better land-use planning and communication
technology (Internet shopping/banking etc). Providing safe and adequate cycle tracks should
be a priority for most growing cities in our country because cyclists still make up a fair pro-
portion of road users in most of our cities, and yet their needs get very low priority in the
planning of transport. In contrast, cities like Amsterdam, Berlin and many others in Europe
and South America now encourage cycling as an environment-friendly mode of travel which
can play a significant role not only in reducing road congestion and air pollution but also in
making the communities more humane. In Pune city, for instance, there are about 800,000
bicycles but no cycle tracks.
An ideal traffic and transport plan for urban areas will thus recognize the role played by
all the different modes of transport—non-motorized (walking and cycling), intermediate
public transport (autorickshaws, taxis and minibuses), public transport (buses, trams, sub-
urban rail), and private transport (personal two- or four-wheelers) in meeting the needs of a
whole range of citizens. This can only come about when the strength of each mode is properly
understood and utilized to its full potential.
Several cities in the industrialized as well as the developing world have initiated steps in
this direction and succeeded in improving the mobility options for all citizens, while at the
same time improving the environment of these cities. Curitiba in Brazil is the most celebrated
example of planning transport along environmentally sustainable lines. Curitiba has an excel-
lent rapid-bus public transport system with modern buses, exclusive bus routes and disin-
centives on the use of private vehicles. The city has many parks, gardens and public spaces,
and large areas reserved for pedestrians/cyclists. Inspired by Curitiba’s pioneering work in
transport planning, Bogota in Colombia has an even more impressive rapid-bus system called
Transmillenio, which meets the travel needs of over 70 per cent of the city’s commuters. In
addition, it has over 300 km of exclusive cycling tracks and large public areas where auto-
vehicle traffic is prohibited.
From February 2003, London has introduced a stiff congestion charge of £ 7 per car entering
the central business district and benefited by a reduction of about 17 per cent in road traffic
in this area. Singapore has Area-Licensing Schemes (ALS) for restricting the number of vehicles
in the Central Business District, and offers excellent public transport by way of rapid buses,
taxis and suburban trains. In addition to this, it has a vehicle permit system that controls
the total number of new vehicles registered in the city. Paris has introduced heavy parking
charges to discourage the use of private vehicles and to encourage the use of its public
transport system, which has been improved and modernized.
We need to shift our policies to such environment-friendly and sustainable means and
move away from the present auto-vehicle dominated policies if we are to save our cities and
improve the mobility options of our citizens.
(Contributed by Sujit Padwardhan and Sanskriti Menon)
Consider and review the transportation scene in your own town/city. Is the public transport
adequate? Is it efficient? How many roads in your city/town have footpaths or cycle tracks?
 THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 193

In planning a city, environmentally sensitive features such as natural drainage channels,

waterbodies, wooded areas and hills must be identified and earmarked for protection
and enhancement of their quality. The likely pattern of urban growth must be anticipated
as well as influenced by the plan. Citizens, especially the poor, must have shelter which
provides healthy living and working conditions. Residential areas should be as close as
possible to places of work so that the least amount of energy, time and money is spent on
transport. The commercial activities of the informal sector, typically represented by street
and itinerant vendors, must be accommodated and provided for in the planning process.
Efficient, reliable public transport facilities must be provided, which minimize the need
for private vehicles and achieve a rational balance between the use of these two forms
and of intermediary public transport (autorickshaws, taxis, etc.).
Public outdoor spaces are necessary within reasonable distance of homes, for children
of different age groups to play in safety. The informal sector of housing and economic
activity, indispensable well into the foreseeable future, must be proactively provided for
in city plans. In reality, these desirables are difficult to achieve. But there are examples of
innovative experiments such as the Slum Networking Project in Indore described in the
following Box, which show that it is possible to achieve the desirables such as a significant
improvement in the conditions in slums, and more.

Initiating change: Slum networking in Indore

Indore is one of the largest cities in Madhya Pradesh. With a population approaching 1 mil-
lion, the city’s slums were proliferating. Their inhabitants were exposed to the hazards that
go with poor living conditions. In response to this, the Indore Development Authority took
up the Indore Habitat Project in 1990, to reduce the city’s deficit in urban shelter and services.
Over eight years, the project demonstrated, in 183 slums, the potential for improving rather
than clearing slums.
The major components of the project were physical infrastructure improvement, health
care, and community development. The provisions under physical infrastructure included
water supply with individual or community taps, sanitation with individual or community
toilets, paved streets, street lighting and solid-waste management. The health segment focused
on preventive care, environmental awareness and primary services. Community development
involved creating neighbourhood groups, vocational training for women, adult literacy, pre-
school and non-formal education, and community savings’ mechanisms.
The unique feature of the project was the concept of Slum Networking (SN) as an approach
to providing infrastructure. This concept provides a framework for integrated upgradation
of the entire city, in which the slum areas are viewed not as individual settlements but as an
urban network. The network links the city’s low-lying areas along natural drainage channels
and waterways where most of the slums are located, and which offer the potential for instal-
ling services and environmental and aesthetic improvement.
(continued)
194 VIVEK S. KHADPEKAR AND SUNIL JACOB

(continued)
SN also gave Indore trunk sewers and a treatment plant. Housing colonies and slums had
been releasing untreated sewage directly into the watercourses and the river Khan flowing
through the city. The sewers intercept the flow along affected banks and convey it to the
treatment plant. This basic grid has converted the whole city from open drains into an under-
ground sewage system following natural slopes that enable flow under gravity. It provides
direct linkages from and through the slums, avoiding expensive and time-consuming land
acquisitions and demolitions.
SN benefited not only 450,000 slum dwellers but the entire city. Sewage was diverted
from river stretches flowing through the city centre, the banks were landscaped and pedestrian
paths and gardens were laid along them. The project planned individual toilets connected to
the sewers and individual water supply from a piped network. Cost-effective individual
toilets, built for about 80,000 families, gave their users greater dignity and responsibility for
maintenance than community toilets had.
Some innovative economy measures were adopted. For water connections, existing sources
were integrated with the main supply lines. For drainage, contrary to normal engineering
practice, roads were laid at a lower level than the built areas around them so that they drained
most of the storm water, reducing flooding during heavy showers. This also reduced the
cost of the storm-water drains. Their length and depth could be reduced as the roads partly
took over their function. Soil from the excavation was used to fill up low-lying areas, giving
them a slope towards the roads and storm-water drains, thus helping to prevent them from
becoming waterlogged. Soft landscaping was adopted in a big way. Only some open spaces
were paved and the rest left for landscaping by the community. Many of these areas were
planted with grass, giving clean and firm surfaces at a fraction of the cost of hard paving,
and helping to regulate peak flows into the drains.
The SN project is a partnership between the administration, community and private stake-
holders. The direct beneficiaries have contributed significantly. All of them contribute part
of the sewerage costs by paying for house connections from the main line. Beneficiaries do
earthwork and landscaping through self-help groups. Community volunteers run the health,
educational and social components. Cooperative groups operate revolving funds. Linkages
have been formed by individual families and societies with established institutions such as
the Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA), among others, while the Housing and
Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO) has financed housing and environmental
improvement.

The project demonstrates the effectiveness of slum upgradation in keeping with the
Draft National Slum Policy which states that ‘Slums are an integral part of urban areas
and contribute significantly to their economy, both through their labour-market contribu-
tions and informal production activities.’ The policy thus endorses an upgrading and
improvement approach in all slums. It does not advocate slum clearance except under
strict guidelines.
 THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 195

MANAGEMENT OF URBAN AREAS

Local government bodies such as municipal corporations, municipalities, nagar pan-

chayats, cantonment boards and special area development authorities, are responsible
for the administration and upkeep of an urban area. Their functions may include some
or all of the following:

1. Essential or core functions:

l Regulation of land use and construction of buildings.

l Construction of roads and bridges.
l Provision of water supply for domestic, industrial and commercial purposes.
l Public health, sanitation, conservancy and solid-waste management.
l Provision of urban amenities and facilities such as parks, gardens, playgrounds.
l Burials and burial grounds, cremations, cremation grounds, electric
crematoriums.
l Cattle pounds, prevention of cruelty to animals.
l Vital statistics including registration of births and deaths.
l Public amenities including street lighting, parking lots, bus stops.
l Regulation of slaughterhouses and tanneries.

2. Environment management functions

3. Planning functions
4. Other functions

The rest, namely public transport, fire services, promotion of cultural, educational and
aesthetic aspects, depending upon state policies and traditions, could be the responsi-
bility of municipal agencies. They may be performed locally but their costs may be under-
written by the higher levels of government. Alternatively, they may be listed as municipal
functions.
Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) traditionally generate their income through taxes and cesses
for the services they provide. Their main sources of revenue are property tax and octroi
(a levy on goods and commodities entering municipal limits). Both are unpopular for
various reasons, and cannot entirely cover the costs of providing and managing municipal
services. While they have the advantage of being totally under the control of the ULBs,
they also have their disadvantages. Property tax, a politically tricky matter, cannot be
hiked frequently to meet expenses. Octroi is unpopular because of the cumbersome
method of collecting it, which involves stopping and checking vehicles, causing delays
196 VIVEK S. KHADPEKAR AND SUNIL JACOB

and traffic jams and opening up opportunities for harassment and corruption. Almost all
the states in India (excepting Gujarat and Maharashtra, two of the most industrially ad-
vanced) have abolished octroi, replacing it with an entry tax collected by the state govern-
ment and passed on to the ULBs. In this, the fiscal autonomy of the latter is compromised.
It becomes a sensitive issue when mutually opposed political parties are in power at the
state and ULB levels.
Thus, the financial autonomy of the ULBs is apparently diluted. But on the other hand,
a path-breaking legislative measure by Parliament seeks to vest them, through the states,
with more powers and responsibilities, and also seeks to involve citizens more directly
in the planning and management of urban services.

The 74th Constitution Amendment Act

The Government of India took the initiative to strengthen local self-government in cities and
towns in the form of the 74th Constitution Amendment Act of 1992. This ‘empowers the
State Legislature to endow the municipalities with requisite powers to enable them to function
as an institution of local self-government.’ Under this Act, ‘the local elected bodies have
been empowered to assume larger roles in planning, financing and management of urban
services.’
This Act, through its provisions, attempts to ensure that citizens are involved in the planning
and management of municipal services, and that the poor, women and minority groups are
represented adequately in local bodies. It seeks to increase transparency in governance at all
levels, and to ensure a voice for the people to communicate their needs to planners and
urban managers.

The implications of these seemingly contradictory developments—the dilution of the

financial autonomy of the ULBs on the one hand, and their empowerment for a larger
role in planning, financing and management on the other—are still in the process of
being resolved. What it may effectively mean is that citizens will be required to pay
more for a better quality of urban life, but they will also have a greater say in deciding
what constitutes that quality, and be able to demand it. However, this does not satis-
factorily answer the question of how the urban poor fit into the scheme of things.
Numerous studies around the world in recent years have concluded that the poor are
willing to pay for minimum essential amenities such as water supply and drainage.
These are unarguably the most basic constituents of quality of urban life, but they are by
no means all. And whether the poor can really pay for all that is needed—minimum
sound shelter, health services, education, nutritive food, transport and much more—is a
moot question.
 THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 197

ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH

A healthy environment is a prerequisite for a healthy body. In many cases, poor environ-
mental conditions are the reason for the health and related problems of the citizens.
Poor sanitation, water-borne diseases and congested living conditions result in the rapid
spread of contagious diseases, respiratory problems due to air pollution, etc. Most of the
official time, effort and resources are spent on curative solutions for health and other
problems. On the other hand, if we look at the causes of these problems and strike at
their root through preventive measures, the resources could be used more rationally to
deliver more and better services. If the water we drink and the air we breathe are clean,
and the surroundings are hygienic, we would be able to lead a healthy life. With every
person-day lost to illness, the economy of the city is affected.
A healthy city would also mean a healthy economy, not only by reducing loss of work
output and productivity but also by reducing medical expenditure. That transforming a
dirty city into one of the cleanest in the country is possible is borne out by the case of
post-plague Surat.

Participatory management of urban wastes: The story of Surat’s transformation

Surat, on the banks of the Tapi, is Gujarat’s second and India’s twelfth most populous city,
famous for its diamond polishing and power loom trade. As in all large cities, rapid urban
growth resulted in slums, garbage and overflowing drains. In September 1994, there was an
outbreak of plague in Surat, causing close to 200 deaths, widespread panic and a mass exodus.
Besides the human tragedy, it dealt a severe blow to Surat’s economy, which lost several
crore rupees a day, and also to the country’s economy and image, affecting industrial produc-
tion, tourism, export and many other activities. International flights to India were temporarily
suspended and the export of food grains from Surat was banned.
The pestilence was triggered by heavy rains which lashed the city for several days, causing
flooding and waterlogging in low-lying areas and killing hundreds of animals. The primary
reason for this was the faulty drainage system. The floods brought to a crisis point the risks
inherent in inadequate urban-waste management. The Surat Municipal Corporation (SMC)
swung into action to restore normalcy at the earliest, with an action plan involving the govern-
ment, non-governmental agencies, civil society, and the private sector working together.
Doctors in public and private hospitals joined hands with civic authorities. Top priority was
given to clearing dirt and debris, disposing of carcasses, pumping stagnant water, spraying
pesticides and rodent control.

(continued)
198 VIVEK S. KHADPEKAR AND SUNIL JACOB

(continued)

Environmental hygiene became the foremost concern. To sustain the initial momentum, a
major programme to clean up the city was launched in May 1995. It gave top priority to
monitoring, regulating and streamlining garbage collection and disposal, integrating it with
sanitation, and public health. The city was divided into 52 sanitary wards under six adminis-
trative zones. Meticulous ward-level planning was undertaken, addressing the special needs
of critical spots like vegetable markets, eateries, and congested areas. Environmental hygiene
instructions were given to households, industries and eateries, with separate garbage-
collection methods designed for each category.
Initially, the private sector volunteered trucks and excavators to clear 4,000 tonnes of
garbage. Later, the hiring of vehicles for garbage collection, road cleaning, and transporting
municipal waste was privatized. The contractors worked under municipal supervision and
were charged penalties in the event of non-performance of their assigned tasks. Within a
year these measures dramatically improved garbage collection from 50 per cent to almost
94 per cent of the 1,100 tonnes generated daily. This was a morale-booster for the civic em-
ployees, officials and citizens. The Suratis, who had earlier accepted filth and dirt as a part
of life, were now proud of their city and concerned about its well-being.
The SMC’s health department took up some initiatives with help from NGOs such as
Sulabh International and Paryavaran, including ‘public health mapping’, strengthening the
health services’ infrastructure, reviving a work ethic among health workers, and an exten-
sive sanitation drive. These measures dramatically improved the city’s health indicators. The
SMC began to regularly monitor these indicators, to act as an early warning system for pos-
sible future outbreaks of epidemics. Sanitation in slums was an important focus. Strategies
for in-situ development and relocation were adopted. Emphasis was given to the provision
of community facilities such as water taps, pay-and-use toilets, drains and paved roads.
Within 18 months Surat was transformed from a dirty, garbage-strewn city to one of the
cleanest in the country. This change was led by SMC’s swift and striking initiatives, strength-
ened by the positive, proactive participation of other stakeholders in the city. Death and
infant mortality rates in Surat have declined dramatically. Community participation played
a key role in the rapid change. There was a change in the attitudes of the citizens; they began
to participate actively in improving living conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

Historically, cities have been the engines of development and will continue to be so well
into the foreseeable future. Therefore, with more people aspiring to a better life, urban
populations will continue to grow. This has serious implications for the urban environ-
ment and the well-being of people living and working in it. With the possibilities offered
by modern technologies of communication and transport, and the changing nature of
 THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 199

economic activities, it is possible that the physical form of the city may, in some aspects,
change radically from what we are familiar with. At the same time, the challenges of
survival and livelihood faced by large parts of the population will ensure that the essence
of the city will retain its familiar character.
While economics and technology may suggest a new logic for the future shape of the
urban environment, the social and cultural dimensions that make cities viable will not
change as readily. As places of opportunity, socialization, learning life skills, intellectual
stimulus, cultural enrichment, interaction and discourse, the advantages of density and
the physical proximity of people in an urban environment far outweigh all its disadvan-
tages. The positive values of these must not be lost; and planning and management efforts,
as well as new technologies, must be addressed for the amelioration of the disadvantages.
In order to enjoy the benefits of urbanization, we have to be prepared to pay not only
in monetary terms but also in terms of disciplining ourselves and foregoing some of the
‘freedoms’ of urban life that we seem to take for granted: littering; driving and parking
our vehicles as we please; encroaching on public spaces and streets, whether to extend
our shops and homes or for social and religious celebrations; wasting water (in the not-
too-distant future we may have to use water recovered from drains and sewers for
washing, bathing, cooking and drinking. The technologies for its extraction have already
been developed for USA’s space programmes; it is only a matter of time before they
become affordable—or have to become affordable—for use in our cities); wasting energy;
chopping down mature trees to make way for road widening.
At the same time, a serious effort is needed to reverse the negative consequences of
urban growth and urbanization—alienation of people from the natural environment,
unsustainable exploitation of natural resources, environmental degradation, social conflict
and tensions. In the ultimate analysis, how the urban environment develops must be
determined in partnership with citizens, and not by the visions of bureaucrats, technocrats
and policy makers.

I QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference between ‘Urbanization’ and ‘Urban Growth’?

2. What are the main causes of urban air pollution?
3. What is the proportion of the slum population in your town or city? How
does it compare with the national average of 26 per cent?
4. Can you list any heritage structures or any natural heritage features (like
rivers, lakes, hills, urban forest, etc.) in your city that are likely to come
under the threat of destruction because of urban development projects (such
as road widening, construction of flyovers or buildings) in the near future?
200 VIVEK S. KHADPEKAR AND SUNIL JACOB

5. What are the major elements of the 74th Constitution Amendment Act?
6. What were the factors responsible for the transformation of Surat from a
dirty, garbage-strewn city to one of the cleanest in the country?
7. How many new vehicles are being added to your city each year? How much
additional space would they need?

II EXERCISES

1. From reference books or from the Internet, try to find answers to the
following:

a. Since when have regular censuses been conducted in India?

b. Through the period covered by these censuses, what has been the growth
of the total and the urban population of the country? Represent this on a
graph.
c. Plot on a graph the population growth of the four largest cities of India
from the beginning to the end of the 20th century. For any one of them,
trace the important developments that may have influenced the course
of their growth during the century.
d. Plot the population growth of your own town/city from 1951 to 2001.
Try to find out the corresponding growth in its area. What significant
infrastructure, institutions, businesses and industries were established
during these 50 years, and when? What was the population when these
events happened?

2. Research the history of your town by interviewing people who have lived
there a long time: what was the town like when they arrived, or in their
childhood and youth—if they were born there? What significant changes
have they witnessed? What milestones are particularly memorable? What
changes would they like to see? Write up this oral history project as a report.

III DISCUSS

‘The slum is the “solution” rather than the “problem” of urban living.’
Do you agree with the above statement? Discuss.
 THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 201

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
Agarwal, Anil. 1996. Slow murder: The deadly story of vehicular pollution in India, Vol. 3 (State of the
environment series). New Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment.
Agarwal, Anil and Sunita Narain, eds. 1985. State of India’s environment, 1984–85: The second citizens’
report. New Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment.
Centre for Environment Education. 1990. Essential learnings in environmental education. Ahmedabad.
Gallion, Arthur B. and Simon Eisner. 1984. The urban pattern: City planning and design, 4th ed. New
Delhi: CBS Publishers and Distributors.
Manorama Yearbook. 1997. Kottayam: Malayala Manorama.
Maurya, S.D. 1989. Urbanization and environmental problems. Allahabad: Chugh Publication.
National Institute of Urban Affairs. 1994. Urban environmental maps for Delhi, Bombay, Ahmedabad,
Vadodara. New Delhi.
Parikh, Kirit S., ed. 1997. India Development Report 1997. Delhi: Indira Gandhi Institute of Development
Research, Oxford University Press.
Raghunathan, Meena and Mamata Pandya. 1994. Puzzling out pollution. Ahmedabad: Centre for Environ-
ment Education.
Ramachandran, R. 1989. Urbanization and urban systems in India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Sarin, Madhu. 1982. Urban planning in the Third World: The Chandigarh experience. London: Mansell
Publishing Limited.
Shelter. 1997. New Delhi: Human Settlement Management Institute, Housing and Urban Development
Corporation (October).
Tata Services Limited. 1996. Statistical outline of India 1995–96. Mumbai: Department of Economics and
Statistics.
The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. 6, 15th ed. 1985. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
World Bank. 1997. World Development Report. New York: Oxford University Press.
World Resources Institute Home Page (www.wri.org). 1997.
 CHAPTER 9

INDUSTRY
MEENA RAGHUNATHAN

It is a significant achievement that India is one of the 10 most industrialized nations of

the world. Industrial activity is essential to generate goods for the development of the
nation, to meet the needs of the people, and to generate employment. At the same time,
it must be accepted that industrial activities release pollutants that contaminate air,
waterbodies and land, and adversely affect the quality of human and other life.
While industries are vital for development, it is equally important to be aware of the
impacts of industries on environment. A proper understanding of this can help ensure
that these impacts are minimized.

HOW INDUSTRIES AFFECT THE ENVIRONMENT

The first and most obvious way in which industries affect the environment is the pollution
caused by factories. The most visible are the water, solid-waste and air pollution that
can be felt and seen. The nature and composition of industrial waste and pollutants vary
widely from industry to industry and even within the same industry. The waste generated
depends on the raw materials, processes, and operating factors. Different industries gener-
ate different types of pollutants. For example, food processing industries produce organic
wastes that are readily decomposed but have high biological oxygen demand (BOD);
pulp and paper mills produce toxic compounds and sludge; the electronic industry pro-
duces high levels of heavy metals such as copper, lead, manganese, etc. Apart from the
pollution that they produce, industries affect the environment in other ways too. What
are these other kinds of environmental impacts? Let us examine some of these factors.

Raw materials: A most basic need of any industry, be it the paper industry, the
textile industry, the cement industry, etc., is raw material. A factory can turn out anything,
 INDUSTRY 203

aeroplanes or cloth or paper. But it needs raw materials; for instance, aluminium to make
an aeroplane, natural or synthetic fibre to make cloth, wood pulp to turn into paper.
The extraction and mining of raw materials, and the processing of the raw material,
e.g., ores into metal, have major environmental impacts. For instance, if limestone is to
be mined for cement production, large areas of land will get degraded. If cotton is to be
grown for making cloth, hectares of agricultural land may have to be made productive
with chemical fertilizers, and heavily sprayed with chemical pesticides to get a good
crop. If wood is to be fed to a paper factory, hectares of trees or bamboo will have to be
cut down.

Transport of raw materials: Getting the raw material from the site or field from
where it is extracted and other inputs to the factory, involves transportation. This takes
its own toll on the environment in terms of the fossil fuels consumed and the pollution
caused by the transport.

Other inputs: In addition to the raw materials, most production processes need
water and power. They may draw water either from surface water sources in the neigh-
bourhood (e.g., river, lakes, etc.), or they may tap groundwater. In either case, there are
serious environmental impacts to be considered, especially if the operation is large scale
or water-intensive. For example, if a factory comes up in a semi-arid area, where ground-
water levels are already low, it may draw so much water that the availability of drinking
water for the local communities might reduce. After all, it is the same limited ground-
water that both would be trying to draw out. The other essential input for any production
process is power. Power, whether generated in a hydel plant, thermal plant, nuclear
plant, or by any other means, has serious impacts on the environment. So every kW of
power that the factory draws has environmental impacts. (See chapter on Energy for
more information on impacts of power plants.)
Increased industrial activity since the Industrial Revolution is one of the main causes
of air pollution. With growing populations and industries, the need for energy has in-
creased multifold. To meet this increased power requirement, mega-power projects have
come up. The use of coal in thermal power stations has led to the increase in air pollutants
such as various oxides of carbon, sulphur and nitrogen. Apart from these, thermal power
stations produce large quantities of fly ash as a by-product, which covers large areas of
land with a fluffy, sooty layer.
The great leaps in industrial production have been achieved by the mushrooming of
industrial establishments such as steel and chemical plants, paper plants, refineries, petro-
chemical plants, power plants and more. With this has come an increase in the pollutants
discharged by industries. The emissions from these contain not only smoke and soot,
but also other particulate as well as gaseous pollutants. Table 9.1 shows the contribution
of different kinds of pollutants by some sectors of industry in India. These pollutants
can have serious consequences not only on human health, but also on flora and fauna,
soil, water and man-made structures.
204 MEENA RAGHUNATHAN

Table 9.1
Industrial contribution of pollution by subsector in India

Share of Share of total industrial pollution (%)

Sector industrial output Toxic BOD Particulates Sulphur Nitrogen
Iron and steel 12.5 23 0 23 2 5
Industrial chemicals 7.5 44 29 8 11 15
Non-ferrous metals 2.1 6 10 3 1 0
Other chemicals 6.8 6 1 1 0 1
Food products 15.3 1 38 11 4 8
Paper and pulp 2.0 2 19 4 15 11
Non-metallic mineral products 3.4 1 0 32 3 10
Petroleum refineries 6.8 6 2 6 31 21
Textiles 11.1 3 1 6 30 23
Total 67.5 92 100 94 97 94
Source: State of the Environment, (2001) UNEP.

Production processes: Of course, the production process itself has impacts on the
environment. It may generate pollutants and waste material in the form of liquids, solids,
gases or even noise or heat. Some of this may be toxic or hazardous and long lasting.
Some of it may pollute the immediate environment; some may travel hundreds of miles
into another state or country. Industries also often contribute to noise pollution through
the production process, e.g., from the running of motors. This also is a form of pollution.

Packaging: After the production process, the product has to be packaged and trans-
ported. This again impacts the environment. Packaging is getting more and more resource-
intensive, e.g., biscuits are packed in a whirl of corrugated paper and then in a plastic
sheet, which may then be put into a cardboard carton. Each of these packing materials
has gone through its own processing cycle. After packing, the ready product has to be
transported to the various, far-flung markets. Transportation also uses up resources and
creates pollution.

Environmental impact of use: When a product is used, it affects the environment.

For instance, when we buy a scooter, we will need a large amount of fossil fuels to run it.
Similarly, a washing machine will need water, detergent and electricity to run it. This
process will continue throughout the life of a product.
Thus, a manufacturing industry takes in raw material, processes it, and puts out both
the product (which is the desired result of this production process), and the by-products
(including pollution), which are a necessary but undesired outcome of the production
process.
 INDUSTRY 205

Hazardous waste
Maharashtra: The Thane–Belapur industrial area in Maharashtra, where about 1,200 indus-
trial units are housed on a 20-km stretch close to New Mumbai, creates more than 100 tonnes
of solid waste every day. About 85 per cent of this waste is either acidic or alkaline in nature.
The area also produces 5 tonnes of waste every day which is difficult to treat because of its
halogen content. The bulk of hazardous waste in this area is disposed along with municipal
waste in dump sites. The waterbodies in the vicinity of this industrial area are polluted.
Ulhas river empties into Thane Creek at its northern end. The sediment in the Ulhas river
has registered high levels of mercury and arsenic. As a result, Thane Creek is one of the most
polluted sea waters in the country.
Gujarat: The Ahmedabad–Vadodara–Surat industrial belt has over 2,000 industrial units in
the organized sector and more than 63,000 small-scale units manufacturing chemicals like
soda ash, dyes, yarns and fertilizers. Vapi in Valsad district has around 1,800 units of which
450 fall in the category of polluting industries. Industrial units in all these areas usually
dump their wastes in low-lying areas within a 2-km radius. As a result, a major illegal dump
yard has sprung up on the banks of river Daman Ganga. The Indian Petrochemical Corpor-
ation Limited (IPCL) at Vadodara, dumps 1,800 tonnes of hazardous wastes every month at
a site near Nandesari. The IPCL dump site is on a hill. During the rainy season, the hazardous
constituents of these wastes are washed down into the river. (State of the Environment, India,
2001. UNEP.)

REDUCING THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Having seen that industries have major impacts, we need to see how to minimize them.
There are guidelines and checks to be followed before setting up any industry and while
running the industry.

Location of the industry: A polluting industry should not be located in an ecologic-

ally sensitive area or near human settlements. For example, Mumbai may have excellent
infrastructure and markets, but a highly polluting industry cannot be located in such a
densely populated place. The Government of India has issued guidelines for the setting up
of certain industries. Under these guidelines, to set up industries mentioned in the guide-
lines, environmental clearance has to be obtained from the government. The guidelines
include pointers on location, e.g., certain areas need to be avoided while setting up certain
types of industries. These include ecologically sensitive areas, coastal areas, major settle-
ments, flood plains, etc. The guidelines also specify certain conditions which must be
followed in the siting of these industries; for example, no forest land or prime agricultural
land can be cleared; enough land should be acquired so that there is space for treatment
facilities, storage of solid waste, etc.
206 MEENA RAGHUNATHAN

The Bhopal tragedy

Apart from the environmental problems that occur during the normal course of the
functioning of industries, there are grave consequences for environmental and human well-
being in the event of accidents. One of the world’s most serious industrial accidents took
place in India at the Union Carbide factory in Bhopal. On 4 December 1984, when the city
was asleep, a deadly chemical blanket spread over it. Something had gone wrong in one of
the storage tanks at the Union Carbide factory, and close to 40 tonnes of a deadly chemical,
methyl isocyanate (MIC), escaped into the air. At least 4,000 people died as a result of this,
and the health impacts are still being felt in the area.
How could such a tragedy have happened? There were many contributing factors. One
reason was that the safety measures put in place in this factory, which made and used such
hazardous chemicals, were not adequate and did not work when they were most required.
Another factor that contributed to the tragedy was that there were so many people living so
close to the factory. Moreover, there was little information available about what the chemicals
being processed in the factory were, what effects they could have, and how they should be
treated. As a result, when the MIC leaked out, few people even knew what gas it was. Doctors
did not know how to treat the patients. Helpless citizens did not know what precautions to
take. City authorities did not know how to handle this midnight crisis.
The controversy about whether the victims were adequately compensated continues. But
can money compensate for lost lives, lost health and sick babies? As a result of Bhopal, India
and other countries have made stricter laws regarding such industries. But we have a long
way to go before we can ensure that there are no more ‘Bhopals’.

Clustering industries at one place—usually called an industrial estate—has several

advantages. Several industries can avail themselves of the facilities of the common
infrastructure developed there, either by institutions like the State Industrial Development
Corporations, or by themselves. They can also share the cost of maintaining the common
infrastructure. Transporting raw materials or finished goods also becomes easier if it is
channelled from one place. The industries can themselves network for their production
as well as marketing needs. An entrepreneur can have the advantage of being among
fellow trade people and can be easily accessible to visiting clients. Waste products from
the industries can also be treated together, which minimizes costs and leads to better
treatment of the waste. In fact, in some cases, waste products from one industry can be-
come raw material for another.

Common effluent treatment plant

Industries carry out various processes that use water and other chemicals. The mixture of
chemicals and water that is not utilized comes out as waste water from the industries. The
waste water can prove very harmful to the environment if discharged without treatment to
make it safe. At a Common Effluent Treatment Plant (CETP), the effluent (waste water) from
a group of industries is treated to render it safe for disposal.
 INDUSTRY 207

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): A planning tool, the objective of the EIA is
to foresee and address potential environmental problems/concerns at an early stage of
project planning and design. It is supposed to assist planners and government authorities
in the decision-making process by identifying key impacts and issues and formulating
mitigation measures. In India, the Ministry of Environment and Forests has issued sectoral
guidelines for the EIA. The EIA process in India is as follows:

l Screening
l Consideration of alternatives
l Baseline data collection
l Impact prediction
l Assessment of alternatives, delineation of mitigation measures and environ-
mental impact statement
l Public hearing
l Environment Management Plan
l Decision making
l Monitoring the clearance conditions

A key provision is the one regarding Public Hearing. The law requires that the public
must be informed and consulted on a proposed development after the completion of the
EIA report. Anyone likely to be affected by the proposed project is by law entitled to
access the Executive Summary of the EIA. NGOs and alert citizen groups can play a key
role in ensuring that this provision is properly used.

Environment Management Plan (EMP): Before a polluting industry becomes oper-

ational, an EMP needs to be prepared. This plan indicates what environmental protection
measures have been or are proposed to be taken during and after the commissioning of
the project. This management plan is based on considerations of resource conservation
and pollution abatement, and looks at waste management methods, housekeeping
systems, disaster planning, etc.

Occupational health
Sometimes the place of work or the nature of work may lead to ill health. This phenomenon
of the impact of the work environment on the physical, mental or social well-being of the
worker is called occupational health. At workplaces, there are several factors that can be
dangerous or can cause damage to the health of the worker. These are called occupational
hazards. For example, a farmer is exposed to harmful chemicals present in pesticides as well
as fertilizers; a teacher is exposed to chalk dust; workers in cotton mills are exposed to cotton
dust which can cause a deadly respiratory disease called bysinnosis.

Laws and rules: Once an industry starts operating, there are rules and regulations
to ensure that it does not harm the environment. These rules and regulations are enacted
208 MEENA RAGHUNATHAN

under certain legal Acts. Some of the important Acts under which these rules and
regulations are framed include: the Water Act for the Prevention and Control of Water
Pollution; the Air Act for Prevention, Control and Abatement of Air Pollution; and the
Environment Act for the Protection and Improvement of the Environment.
While corporate India is becoming increasingly environmentally responsible, the legal
framework to prevent environmentally harmful industrial practices has also been parti-
cularly strengthened in the last two decades. While the Water Act (1974) and the Air Act
(1981) were already in place for pollution abatement, the Environment Protection Act or
EPA (1986), was promulgated as an umbrella legislation for environmental protection.
Under this Act, the enforcement agency has the power to direct the closure, prohibition
or restraining of any industrial operation or process for preventing, controlling or abating
environmental pollution. The EPA lays down standards for the quality of the environment
in its various aspects, as also emission standards with regard to various sources. It defines
restricted areas where no industrial operation can be carried out, and gives powers of
entry and inspection to the concerned authority for any industrial plant.

Pollution control
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) is an autonomous body of the Ministry of Environ-
ment and Forests, Government of India. The CPCB, along with the State Pollution Control
Boards and Pollution Control Committee, is responsible for implementing the laws relating
to the prevention and control of pollution. These bodies develop rules and regulations which
describe the standards of emissions and effluents of air and water pollutants and noise levels.

Other rules like the Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989, En-
vironment (Siting of Industrial Projects) Rules, 1999, have also been enacted to further
ensure pollution control and abatement.
It is not only the law that can control pollution. There are other approaches that can
minimize the environmental impact of industries.

Eco-efficiency: This can be understood as the production of goods in ways that are
less damaging to the environment and use fewer resources without increasing the cost
of the goods. Eco-efficiency needs to be looked at as a whole. Thus, it could include
reducing the amount of raw materials used; reducing the amount of energy used; reducing
the pollution; trying to recycle materials and using renewable materials.
Think of a familiar example. At home, potatoes boiled in a pressure cooker take less
time to cook, and, therefore, consume less fuel than if they were to be boiled in an ordinary
vessel. So in a way, a pressure cooker is a fuel-saving and therefore an environment-
friendly technology.
Similarly, there are also environment-friendly processes: if we were to soak dal before
boiling it, it would take less time than if the dal were to be cooked without soaking.
Similar changes can be made in industrial technologies and processes too. One example
 INDUSTRY 209

is the use of agro-industrial waste, such as bagasse, for the cogeneration of electricity in
sugar factories (see chapter on Energy).

Enhancing environmental and economic performance

By collectively managing environmental and energy issues, eco-industrial park members
can enhance their environmental and economic performance and, as a result, achieve a com-
bined benefit that is greater than the benefits each company would realize from optimizing
only its individual performance. (Eco-Efficiency Task Force Report, 1996. U.S. President’s
Council on Sustainable Development.)
http://www.greenroofs.ca/cein/whatsein.html

Cleaner production practices: The concept of cleaner production (CP) is to minimize

or eliminate waste and emissions at their source, rather than treat them after they have
been generated. CP conserves raw materials and energy, eliminates toxic raw materials
and reduces the quality of toxicity of all emissions and wastes before they leave the pro-
duction process. It reduces environmental impacts throughout the entire product life
cycle—from raw material extraction to waste disposal.
An everyday example of cleaner technology would be the use of a solar water heater
rather than a wood stove or LPG. A wood stove gives out smoke; LPG, in its extraction
and processing, gives rise to pollution. A solar water heater uses renewable energy and
gives off no pollution. If industries were to lay more stress on cleaner production, they
would have to clean up less pollution and would put less a strain on the environment.

Keeping up standards
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is made up of national standards
institutes from various countries. The ISO develops voluntary technical standards which
contribute to making the development, manufacture and supply of products and services
more efficient, safer and cleaner. The ISO itself does not carry out certification. It develops
guides and standards which carry out conformity assessment activities.
The ISO’s environmental standards reflect global consensus on good environmental
practice. There are more than 350 international standards for the monitoring of aspects such
as the quality of air, water and soil, as well as noise and radiation.
ISO 14001 provided the tool for addressing the concern for environmental standards. ISO
14001 calls for creating standards in all systems of the industry, with special reference to
environment management, and aims for economic benefits and reduced environment
protection costs by working towards resource conservation and pollution prevention, thus
benefiting both the industry and the environment.
When the Indian Aluminium Company Ltd started developing the environment manage-
ment plan for a bauxite mine under the Environment Management System of ISO 14001,
many ‘self-imposed standards’ were evolved for various mining and related activities. These
(continued)
210 MEENA RAGHUNATHAN

(continued)
standards were close to the national/international standards. Once achieved, they were
strictly adhered to, to ensure a performance better than the legal limits. All operational controls
were modified to achieve these standards.

Eco-industrial networking: Eco-industrial networking is rapidly becoming an

important new approach for industries, communities and businesses to improve their
competitiveness, economic viability and human and ecosystem health. This approach
uses the concept of industrial ecology, which looks at the potential for networking the
material flows of a set of industries. The objective is to tap the potential to utilize the
wastes of one unit as an input to another, with the final goal of integrating all industries
as components of an industrial system.
Eco-industrial networking involves developing new local and regional business
relationships between the private sector, government and educational institutions, in
order to use new and existing energy, material, water, human and infrastructure resources
to improve production efficiency, investment, competitiveness and community and eco-
system health.
Such networking is in the form of associations of industries which facilitate the imple-
mentation of cleaner production technologies and waste-minimization options in their
member industries.

Polluter pays
The Polluter Pays Principle is simple: those who pollute must pay for any environmental
damage created. The idea originated in the 1970s, when members of OECD countries intro-
duced it as a payment method to ensure that pollution costs were financed by the polluters
and not by the public in general.
While it sounds simple, in operation there are many complexities. For instance, when and
how much should a polluter pay?

These initiatives by the government as well as by the industries themselves have

contributed much towards curbing pollution and moving towards more sustainable
technologies. These efforts reflect a growing sense of corporate responsibility towards a
cleaner environment in the Indian industrial sector.
However, industry essentially is an economic activity guided by principles that are
perceived to make economic sense. Manufacturers will, therefore, make investments in
efficient technology and pollution prevention measures only if they lead to economic
benefits by reducing quantifiable costs, or by increasing quantifiable benefits. For many
industries, the introduction of innovative technologies that prevent or reduce pollution
and lower the cost of complying with anti-pollution laws also tend to decrease energy
consumption. In the present scenario, when the courts are coming down heavily on indus-
tries for non-compliance with pollution control laws, it makes economic sense to adopt
 INDUSTRY 211

new technologies and improved practices aimed at pollution prevention and waste
minimization that would reduce pollution remediation costs.

WHAT CAN INDIVIDUALS DO?

Industries produce goods and services because people

want them. If there was more demand for environment-
friendly products, industries would have to produce them.
But how would an individual consumer know if a product
is environment friendly? In order to help in this, there is a
worldwide movement to ‘ecomark’ products. Under such
a scheme, an agency designated by the government, after
satisfying itself that a product has been produced in an
environment-friendly way, will certify it. Then the packag-
ing of the goods will display a special sign so that con-
sumers will know that it is environment friendly. As of Illustration 9.1 India’s
now, in India, while there is a provision for the ecomark, ecomark
there are few products that are marked with it.
Consumers may also choose not to consume, or to reduce their consumption of certain
goods and services. For instance, the environmentally conscious may choose not to accept
plastic bags at shops, preferring to carry their own cloth bags. They may choose to use
only organic manure in their gardens rather than chemical fertilizer. Responsible
consumers can make a difference to what is produced and how. As a consumer, ask
before buying anything: Where does it come from? How is it disposed? How long will it
last? Can it be repaired? Is it really needed?

I QUESTIONS

1. What are the various kinds of impacts that industries can have on the
environment?
2. What purpose does an environmental impact assessment serve?
3. What do you think would be the most powerful incentive to make industry
take steps to reduce pollution?
4. If you were setting up an industrial unit, what are the steps you would take
to ensure minimal environmental impact?
5. What does the concept of ‘cleaner production’ imply? Why is it not called
‘clean production’?
212 MEENA RAGHUNATHAN

6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of industrial society as opposed

to an agricultural society?

II EXERCISES

1. Quoted below is a report from a website. Read the paragraph carefully and
answer the questions that follow.
Stretching 400 km from the busy city of Ahmedabad to Vapi, in western
India, a series of sprawling industrial estates make up the ‘Golden Corridor’.
For industrialists the Golden Corridor is a haven where all rules have been
given the go-by by the government.
Hundreds of small and medium factories manufacturing chemicals, dyes,
paints, fertilizer, plastic, pulp and paper, spew untreated wastes into the air
and water, poisoning farmland for miles all around. Industrial gases hang in
the air, especially in the winter, making breathing difficult. Most of these in-
dustries have no safe disposal system for toxic wastes and discharge them
into the river. This causes grave damage to the riverine ecology.
In Nandesari village, 220 ha of fertile agricultural land has been turned
into a chemical industrial estate. Abundant harvests of cotton, sugar cane,
peanut and wheat grown in these region are being poisoned by factory
wastes.
Once-clear streams like the Amlakhadi are now noxious and foul-smelling
channels of black sludge, and have killed livestock that drank from it. In
the Golden Corridor, multicoloured hazardous waste lies in heaps on which
children play. Discarded chemical drums are also part of their playground.
The majority of the workers are poor migrants who are afraid they will
lose their jobs if they raise issues of occupational health and safety. They
complain of pollution, health problems, threat of accidents when containers
explode and pipes burst.
As if this was not enough, Gujarat’s 1,600 km Arabian Sea coastline has
been targeted for port-based industries. There is a lobby seeking denotifi-
cation of India’s only Marine National Park and its fragile mangroves,
through which a proposed pipeline will carry crude oil from Oman to central
and north India. A major portion of all future oil imports will arrive through
Gujarat’s ports. Already oil spills have affected vast stretches of mangrove
forests in the Gulf of Kachchh.
A High Court order on 21 October 2002 prohibited the dumping of efflu-
ents into the Amlakhadi unless they were treated. But the National Environ-
mental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) has recommended that
 INDUSTRY 213

effluents be disposed in the deep sea. A 55-km pipeline is under construction

at a cost of $3 million, although the National Institute of Oceanography is
yet to complete its assessment of its impact on marine life. Regulatory boards,
which are the watchdogs on industry, appear to be working at cross-purposes
in Gujarat and there seems to be a lack of coordination among them.

Now answer the following questions.

a. Do you think this is a fair and unbiased report?

b. Who are the people you would interview if you had to prepare such a
report, or if you were to check the veracity of the report?
c. What would happen if these industries are closed down? List the issues
that could come up.
d. Find out more about the organizations/institutions named below, and
write a brief note on each:
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Na-
tional Institute of Oceanography (NIO), Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB).
e. What do you think are the economic, social and environmental conse-
quences for the local people of the industrialization in the region?
f. Give an appropriate title to the passage.

2. Given below are three ‘half stories’. Read them carefully and complete them
in the way you think is most suitable.

a. The Nimipur Sanctuary occupies 550 sq km of an economically backward

state. The sanctuary is mostly covered by bushes. The rest of the area is
flat and dry, except in the monsoon when grass covers it. An extremely
rare species of deer, not found anywhere else in the country, lives in the
sanctuary. The sanctuary is also home to the Pakari tribe who have been
living in the area for generations. The Pakaris are nomadic, moving from
place to place in the sanctuary with their grazing herds. A large industrial
house has approached the government for permission to start mining in
the sanctuary and to build a big industrial complex which will provide
jobs to the Pakari and end their poverty. Many people in the state believe
that the industrial complex will attract other industries and bring eco-
nomic development to the state. But there are protests from wildlife en-
thusiasts that mining and industry will destroy the only habitat of the
rare deer. Some people feel that the industrial complex may not provide
jobs to the unskilled, illiterate Pakaris. They feel that the traditional way
of life of the Pakaris will also be in danger as mining will destroy the
land and grazing may no longer be possible.
214 MEENA RAGHUNATHAN

b. Chetan Chemical Industries Limited (CCIL) is a large chemical factory

that supplies chemicals to many industries in the state. More than 5,000
workers are employed in the industry. Waste water from CCIL finds its
way into the nearby river. Villagers living downstream have been protest-
ing that the waste water has ruined their agricultural lands, has been
responsible for cattle deaths and has caused skin diseases. The pollution
control authorities have recommended that the industry should be closed
down as it has been causing severe pollution. The workers’ union protests
that if the industry is closed down, they will lose their livelihoods.
c. The government of Surya Pradesh wants to build a massive information
technology complex outside their capital. They believe that the complex
will attract many companies from all over the country and the world,
and that this will provide jobs to the people of Surya Pradesh. The area
selected for the complex has about 2,000 trees. Scientists say that this
area acts as a ‘green lung’ for the heavily polluted city.

III DISCUSS

1. When environment and industrial development concerns are merged, a

better set of goals evolves. Do you agree? Discuss.
2. The industrial location policy is a crucial element in determining the impact
of industry on the environment. How?

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
Asian Development Bank. 1994. Industrial pollution prevention. Manila: ADB.
1998. ‘Cleaner production.’ Industry and environment, 21(4) (October–December).
1997. ‘Industrial accidents: Prevention and preparedness.’ Industry and environment, 20(3) (July–
September).
Levin, Lester. 1996. An investigative approach to industrial hygiene. New York: Van Nastrand, Reinhold.
Miller, G. Tyler, Jr. 1996. Living in the environment: Principles, connections and solutions, 9th ed. Belmont:
Wadsworth Publishing Company.
1997. ‘Product development and the environment.’ Industry and environment. 20(1–2).
Tomorrow. 1991. 1(2).
Tomorrow. 1999. 9(1).
 CHAPTER 10

CLIMATE CHANGE
AND OZONE DEPLETION
KIRAN B. CHHOKAR, MAMATA PANDYA
AND MEENA RAGHUNATHAN

Change is a fundamental characteristic of the environment. From the ice ages of the past
to the industrial age of the present, the climate of the earth has been changing. Scientists
have studied and recorded the earth’s climate over the millennia and found that the
planet’s average surface temperature has fluctuated over geologic time, with several ice
ages in the past 800,000 years.
The ice ages of the past are examples of climatic changes due to natural factors. What
is disturbing today is that human activities are leading to an unprecedented acceleration
in such changes. The scientific evidence suggests that the earth’s climate is changing.
The atmosphere is warming, and this trend will continue. By the year 2050, scientists
predict that the world will be warmer by an average of between 1.5°C and 4.5°C.
Earth’s climate is a result of complex interactions between the sun, atmosphere, oceans,
land and biosphere. Due to the complexity of atmospheric and ocean current interactions,
this warming may increase the frequency and intensity of storms, droughts, floods and
other, not-yet-predictable, weather events. Already several examples of atmospheric
warming are available from around the globe. For example, nine of the hottest years
recorded in more than a century have occurred since 1988. Worldwide, July 1998 was the
hottest month ever. In 1998, India experienced its worst hot spell in 50 years, which took
a toll of over 3,000 lives. Another worrying phenomenon is the retreat of the Himalayan
glaciers—18 m per year in the case of Gangotri.
For the past two decades scientists have been collecting and debating evidence of
long-term climate change. Are the observed warming trends simply natural variations
in climate or are they a long-term trend? And if there is a trend, what is causing it—
human activity or natural fluctuations? In 1988, the United Nations set up the Inter-
governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)—an official scientific body comprising
of leading atmospheric scientists from around the world—to investigate climate change.
The IPCC’s Second Assessment Report published in 1995 states that climate change is a
216 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR, MAMATA PANDYA AND MEENA RAGHUNATHAN

long-term trend, and human activities are its major cause. At the root of this is the
extensive use by humans of fossil fuels. When burned, these fuels release heat-absorbing
gases, called greenhouse gases (GHGs), into the atmosphere.

Studying climate
The saying goes, ‘Climate is what you expect; weather is what you get.’ The word climate
describes the general average pattern of the weather in a place over a period of years. Climat-
ologists generally consider 30 years as the time needed to assess the climate of a place.
Scientists learn about the climate of the past by studying the ice cores, fossil remains of
pollen, and fragments of plant species including the diameters in the rings of old tree stems.
By analysing the air trapped in the ice, scientists can find out what the air temperature was
at the time when the ice was formed. In ocean and lake sediments, oxygen isotopes of the
shells of tiny organisms provide information about the temperature of the water in which
the shells were formed.
To study likely future changes in the earth’s climate, scientists develop complex math-
ematical models of the systems and components that affect climate (such as atmospheric
and ocean circulation), and run them on supercomputers.

THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT

The release of key GHGs—carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide—is, however, not
only due to the burning of fossil fuels. It is also a part of nature’s normal processes. Like
the panes of a greenhouse, GHGs allow sunlight to pass through the troposphere (lower
atmosphere), but trap the heat. As the heat rises from the earth’s surface into the tropo-
sphere, some of it escapes into space, some is reflected back to the surface by the molecules
of GHGs, warming the air. This natural trapping of heat, or the greenhouse effect, has
made the earth habitable. Without it, the earth would have been a cold, lifeless planet.
Thus, in the normal scheme of things, GHGs, which make up less than 1 per cent of
the atmosphere, are benign and useful. Their levels in the atmosphere are determined
by a balance between ‘sources’ (processes which release these gases) and ‘sinks’ (processes
such as photosynthesis which absorb, sequester or remove them. Since CO2 dissolves in
water, oceans are a gigantic sink as well). But a lot of modern human activity tends
to disrupt this optimal balance. Such disruption may happen by way of the introduc-
tion of new or additional sources of natural GHGs, man-made GHGs, such as CFCs
(chlorofluorocarbons) and their substitutes, or of interference with natural sinks (such
as by deforestation).
One hectare of tropical forest, for example, is estimated to store 445 t of carbon in its
biomass and soil. When a forest is cleared away and replaced by agriculture or human
settlements, much of the stored carbon is released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
 CLIMATE CHANGE AND OZONE DEPLETION 217

Solar energy Blanket of greenhouse gases

Heat absorbed by the greenhouse

Stratosphere
Troposphere
Earth
Greenhouse effect could result in the global climate

Illustration 10.1 The greenhouse effect

With the forest gone, fewer plants are left to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
through photosynthesis. The enhanced levels of GHG accumulation in the atmosphere
resulting from this disruption are causing an increase in the temperature of the earth,
referred to as ‘Global Warming’, which in turn leads to ‘Climate Change’.

POTENT WARMERS OF THE GLOBE

GHGs added to the atmosphere by human activity can significantly affect the amount of
heat trapped in the atmosphere over time. Most of these gases have fairly long lifespans,
ranging from 10 years to thousands of years. What we put into the atmosphere today
will, therefore, continue to warm the planet for a long time to come.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is responsible for more than 55 per cent of the current global
warming from GHGs produced by human activities. Its concentration has increased by
more than 30 per cent since pre-industrial times (around 1750), and currently increases
by 1 per cent every year. The main sources (75 per cent) are the burning of fossil fuels,
particularly coal, and, increasingly, motor vehicle exhaust. Deforestation and biomass
burning contribute 25 per cent. CO2 remains in the atmosphere for around 200 years.
Methane (CH4) accounts for 16 per cent of the increase in GHGs. It can trap 20 to 25
times more heat than CO2 on a molecule for molecule basis. It stays in the atmosphere
for only 10 to 12 years, but is removed when it reacts with the hydroxyl (OH) radical to
form CO2. Methane is produced by the decomposition of organic matter in rice paddies,
natural wetlands, landfills, the intestines of cattle, sheep and termites. Methane is also
produced in natural gas leaks. Its concentration has doubled since pre-industrial times.
218 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR, MAMATA PANDYA AND MEENA RAGHUNATHAN

A typical domestic cow may produce 73,000 l of methane per year. About one-third of
humans have methane-producing bacteria in their guts as well. The increasing amount
of methane is linked to the world’s population growth—more people need more food
and cattle.
The largest agricultural source of methane production is associated with rice cultivation.
Paddy fields are estimated to emit anywhere between 25 and 170 million tonnes of me-
thane per year. However, these estimates are subject to huge uncertainties. There have
been very few field measurements. Existing field studies have shown variations in results
because of the differences in measurement methods, crop patterns and crop varieties.
Additional factors that affect the rate of emissions from paddy fields include soil pro-
perties, temperature, fertilizer use and agricultural practices.

Methane and rice fields

Methane is generated biologically by methanogenic bacteria. The warm, waterlogged soil of
rice/paddy fields provides ideal conditions for methanogenesis. Methanogenesis is the
production of methane and carbon dioxide by biological processes that are carried out by
methanogens. Methanogens are single-celled micro-organisms that produce methane by the
fermentation of simple organic carbon compounds or oxidation of H 2 under anaerobic
(without oxygen) conditions with the production of carbon.
The possible sources of methane emission from paddy fields are organic matter applied to
the fields, such as rice straw, soil, organic matter, and carbon supplied by decaying rice plants.

Nitrous oxide (NO2) accounts for 6 per cent of the human input of greenhouse gases.
It is released during nylon production, from burning biomass and fossil fuels like
coal, from the breakdown of nitrogen fertilizers in the soil, livestock wastes, and nitrate-
contaminated groundwater. Its lifespan in the troposphere is 120 to 190 years and it
traps about 200 times as much heat per molecule as CO2. Its concentration is growing by
0.25 per cent per year.
Both natural and chemical fertilizers contribute towards the release of nitrous oxide
through denitrification—the reduction of nitrate in soils. Nitrification, a process of con-
verting ammonia into nitrate, can also produce nitrous oxide. In recent years, the use of
fertilizers has increased due to the increasing demand for agricultural produce. The
excess nitrate in the soil that is not taken up by plants is drained out and pollutes surface
water and groundwater. The nitrate remaining in the soil is also available for denitrifi-
cation, thereby releasing nitrous oxide into the atmosphere.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are believed to be responsible for 24 per cent of the human
contribution of greenhouse gases. CFCs are entirely man-made greenhouse gases. They
can trap 1,500 to 1,700 times more heat than CO 2 on a molecule for molecule basis and
remain in the atmosphere for several thousand years. The main sources are leaking
refrigerants, industrial solvents, aerosol propellants and the production of plastic foams.
 CLIMATE CHANGE AND OZONE DEPLETION 219

The concentration of CFCs increased by 4 per cent per year in the 1990s, but their use
is now being phased out because of their ozone-depleting properties. The substitutes
developed for CFCs do not directly destroy the ozone in the earth’s atmosphere, but
they do contribute to global warming. Although at present, the CFC substitutes listed
below contribute little to global climate change, the projected growth in their use could
contribute to it significantly in the 21st century.
Hydrofluorocarbon gases (HFCs) are a man-made alternative for CFCs in refrigeration,
as agents used to blow foams or insulation, and as solvents or cleaning agents, especially
in the manufacture of semiconductors. However, their global warming potential is 4,000
to 10,000 times that of CO2.
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) are replacement gases for CFCs, but they are also a by-product
of aluminium smelting. Small amounts are also produced during the uranium-enrichment
process. They can trap 6,000 to10,000 times more heat than CO2 as GHGs.
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) is a man-made gas used as insulating material for high-
voltage equipment such as circuit-breakers. It is also used for detecting water leaks in
cable-cooling systems. It can trap 25,000 times more heat than CO2.

OTHER GREENHOUSE GASES

Ozone (O3) is a greenhouse gas that has 2,000 times the heat-retention property of CO2.
At ground level, ozone is found in small quantities in the air and is formed when other
pollutants react in sunlight. It is also harmful to human health and animal and plant life.
Carbon monoxide (CO) is generally not thought of as a greenhouse gas as it does not
trap heat directly. However, it is indirectly responsible for increasing greenhouse warming
because it raises the levels of methane and ozone. CO participates in the formation of
ozone. Motor vehicles are the major source of CO.

Human sources of greenhouse gases

Greenhouse gases Sources
Carbon dioxide Fossil-fuel burning
Industrial processes
Deforestation
Methane Livestock
Paddy fields
Biomass burning
Transport and handling of natural gas
Coal mining
Sewage/landfills

(continued)
220 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR, MAMATA PANDYA AND MEENA RAGHUNATHAN

(continued)
CFCs Refrigeration
Foams
Aerosols
Solvents
Nitrous oxide Fossil-fuel burning
Fertilizers
Biomass burning
Deforestation
Manure management
Source: IPCC, 2001.

HOW MUCH HAVE GREENHOUSE GASES INCREASED? The concentration of greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere has continued to increase. Atmospheric concentrations of CO2, CH4
and N2O have increased by 30 per cent, 145 per cent and 15 per cent, respectively, since
pre-industrial times. CO2 concentration, for example, increased from 280 ppmv (parts
per million by volume) in the 1750s to almost 360 ppmv in 2000.

EFFECTS OF A WARMER WORLD: Most scientists agree that the earth’s mean temperature
has risen by at least 0.6°C over the last 120 years. But what will happen if the earth’s
temperature rises by a small amount? Is it something to worry about?

Weather extremes: Scientists predict that earth’s mean surface temperature will
rise by between 1.5°C and 4.5°C by 2050 if inputs of greenhouse gases continue to rise at
the present rate. As a result, most places will become hotter. Some will become drier and
others wetter. Climate-change processes may cause ocean currents to shift and change.
This would result in some places becoming colder—such as Japan and northern Europe—
where warm ocean currents have so far kept the temperatures mild.
The energy imbalance in the climate system caused by global warming will result in
more violent weather events, increasing the threat of heatwaves, drought, floods (because
of heavier rainfall in some regions) and intense storms.

Rise in sea level: According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

(IPCC), the global sea level has risen by 10 to 15 cm over the last century, but it is not
certain if this can be entirely attributed to the greenhouse effect. Current estimates
suggest a further rise of 10 to 30 cm by 2030, and by about 50 cm by 2100. This rise will
be due to higher temperatures leading to the expansion of sea water and to the melting
of glaciers and polar ice caps, which at present store 70 per cent of the total fresh water
on earth.
 CLIMATE CHANGE AND OZONE DEPLETION 221

About one-third of the world’s population and more than a third of the world’s eco-
nomic infrastructure are concentrated in coastal regions. So a rise in sea levels would
displace populations on the coasts and islands, and submerge small island states. The
Republic of Maldives is an example of a nation exceptionally vulnerable to a further rise
in the sea level. Its problems of living space, availability of fresh water and coastal
protection will be exacerbated by accelerated sea-level rise.
Delta regions are also high-risk areas. Many of these regions are already prone to
flooding. Thousands of people dependent on these fertile agricultural areas would suffer.
A 1 m sea-level rise would flood several coastal cities and the thickly populated deltas in
Egypt, Bangladesh, India and China, where much of the world’s rice is grown.

Impacts on water resources: The demand for water is generally increasing due to
population growth and economic development; but it is falling in some countries where
it is being used more efficiently. Climate change is expected to substantially reduce
available water (as reflected by projected run-off) in many of the water-scarce areas of
the world, but to increase it in some other areas. Freshwater quality generally would be
degraded by higher water temperatures, but this may be offset in some regions by
increased flows.

Agricultural production: Changes in weather patterns would have far-reaching

effects on agriculture. Due to the changes in the global distribution of heat, food pro-
duction could vary considerably. Areas that are currently productive would become less
productive, but climate change may make the colder areas of the world, such as Siberia,
more conducive to agriculture. Increased evaporation and drier soils in some regions
would result in prolonged droughts. In the drier areas the need for irrigation would
increase. Agriculture in warmer areas would also suffer from increased pest infestations,
crop diseases and weeds.
The flooding of coastal areas as a result of sea-level rise would lead to the loss of agri-
cultural land. It would also lead to the intrusion of salt water into coastal aquifers which
would in turn affect agricultural production.

Loss of ecosystems and biodiversity: Rapid climate change would have severe im-
pacts on natural ecosystems. Plant and animal species would be forced to migrate to
keep up with climate shifts. Species that have adapted to cool climates could become
extinct as their habitats disappear. Some species would migrate but others would not be
able to. There may be heavy damage to sensitive ecological systems, which may not
recover for centuries. Marine ecosystems, especially tropical corals, which grow at a slow
rate, would be affected by climate change. Fish would die as temperatures increased in
streams and lakes.
Large areas of forests would disappear. Shifts in regional climate would threaten many
national parks, wildlife reserves and coral reefs. Ecosystems will be in peril as more
222 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR, MAMATA PANDYA AND MEENA RAGHUNATHAN

areas experience extreme heatwaves and more forest fires. Drier climates would cause
wildfires, further destroying forests and adding more CO2 to the atmosphere.

Species and climate change

Climate change, along with other human factors, is likely to cause a net decrease in global
biodiversity. Individual species of animals and plants are likely to respond in different ways
to changes in temperature and rainfall; however, we can only speculate on the trends. For
example, a change in the range of habitats of species as a result of climate change will break
up communities of associated species that depend on each other for vital functions such as
pollination.
Some species will benefit from climate change while others will not. Species that will do
well may, in the long run, outcompete the presently abundant ones. A list of some ‘winners’
and ‘losers’ is given below.

Species likely to benefit from climate change

Adaptable and generalist species: Species that are capable of adjusting to changing conditions
and are also widely distributed.
Species able to establish themselves in disturbed habitats: Species that are capable of estab-
lishing themselves in disturbed areas or where others have died.
Species commensal with humans: Species adapted to living with humans, such as rats,
mice, sparrows, pigeons, crows and cockroaches.
Species that can reproduce quickly when the opportunity presents itself: Species known
as ‘r-selected species’ or ‘r-strategists’, which can take advantage of climate change and in-
crease their reproduction rate. For example, parasites.
Species able to disperse quickly: Species that can disperse quickly without relying on too
many extraneous factors. This would enable them to rapidly colonize new areas as old areas
become uninhabitable.
Species likely to benefit from increased CO2 levels: Although plants are likely to benefit to
begin with, the effects in the long run are debatable.

Species likely to be harmed by climate change

Relic species: Species that have been left from past ages in some specific places and still sur-
vive. These may not find suitable habitats or climatic conditions to survive.
Isolated species: Species that are found in inaccessible places and will not be able to migrate
to other suitable places.
Genetically impoverished species: Species with low genetic diversity and extremely small
population sizes.
Species with highly specialized ecological niche: Species dependent on a narrow range of
habitat conditions.
(continued)
 CLIMATE CHANGE AND OZONE DEPLETION 223

(continued)

Species dependent on more than one habitat: Migratory species that require a range of
different habitats over a period of time.
Slow-growing and poorly-dispersing species: Species such as these will find it difficult to
adapt quickly to changing conditions.
(Condensed from: A. Markham et al. 1993. Some Like it Hot.)

Adverse effects on human health: The rise in global temperatures could directly and
indirectly affect human health. The availability of food and fresh water will get dis-
rupted if the earth gets even slightly warmed. Death due to heatwaves and other extremes
of climatic conditions is one of the direct consequences.
Indirect effects are more complicated as they involve the interplay of complex ecological
relationships and habitats. Factors such as drought, rising sea levels and new storm pat-
terns would give rise to water-borne diseases. Sea-level rise could spread infectious
diseases by flooding sewage and sanitation systems in coastal cities. Tropical diseases
such as malaria could spread to formerly temperate zones, affecting 60 per cent of human-
ity. Other insect-borne tropical diseases such as encephalitis, yellow fever and dengue
fever could also spread to the temperate zone.

Conflicts and refugees: The impact of climate change will influence the social and
economic structures of nations around the world. Terrorism, civil wars and economic
crises may be some of the consequences. Environmental problems will give rise to conflicts
between nations, for example, war for resources like water. Sea-level rise and changing
weather patterns could trigger large-scale migration from more seriously affected areas.
By 2050, global warming could produce as many as 150 million environmental refugees,
most of whom would migrate to other countries, causing social tensions and political
instability.
All these consequences of global warming will translate into huge financial costs.

COMBATING CLIMATE CHANGE

The consequences of global warming are a real threat to India. India is a developing
country with a population of over one billion, whose population and economy will con-
tinue to grow in the coming decades. In India, nearly two-thirds of the population is rural,
whose dependence on climate-sensitive natural resources is very high. Rural populations
depend largely on agriculture, followed by forests and fisheries for their livelihood.
Indian agriculture is monsoon-dependent with over 60 per cent of the crop area under
rain-fed agriculture, which is highly vulnerable to climate variability and change. India
therefore needs to take action to combat climate change. So also do all other countries.
224 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR, MAMATA PANDYA AND MEENA RAGHUNATHAN

CLIMATE CHANGE AND INDIAN CONCERNS

Climate change is an international concern. Gases responsible for global warming recogn-
ize no political boundaries. GHG emissions anywhere in the world would contribute to
global warming, and to climatic changes. Growing scientific evidence in the 1980s link-
ing global climate change with greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from human activities
prompted several governments to collectively address the emerging concerns about the
impacts of global warming.

CLIMATE CHANGE CONVENTION

In 1990, the UN General Assembly established the Intergovernmental Negotiating Com-
mittee (INC) for a Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC). The convention
was signed in June 1992, at the UN Conference on Environment and Development, or
the Earth Summit, in Rio de Janeiro by 154 states and the European Union (EU). By
November 1999, 181 states and the EU had ratified the convention, which committed the
signatories to making voluntary efforts to curtail their GHG emissions (see Appendix 2).
The objective of the convention is to achieve the ‘stabilization of greenhouse gas concen-
tration in the atmosphere at a level that will prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference
with the climate system’ (FCCC, Article 2). The convention further states that ‘such a
level should be achieved within a time frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adjust na-
turally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened and to enable
economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner’.
The convention notes that the largest share of historical and current global emissions
of greenhouse gases has been contributed by the industrialized countries. It also notes
that the per capita emissions in developing countries are still relatively low, but will in-
crease in the process of economic development. Considering the global nature of climate
change, the convention calls for an appropriate international response, and assigns the
lead in combating climate change to the industrialized countries.
Under the convention, industrialized countries (collectively called Annex I countries),
made voluntary commitments to limit their emissions of greenhouse gases so that by
2000 they were emitting no more than they were in 1990. No commitments were required
of the developing countries (referred to as the non-Annex 1 parties) in recognition of
their need for development. The industrialized countries were also expected to help
finance greenhouse gas reduction projects as well as promote and finance the transfer of
environmentally sound technologies to non-Annex 1 countries.
The negotiations among the countries have centred around how emissions quotas
should be determined for the countries. Should every country try to stabilize where it is
now? Or should the industrialized countries reduce emissions, while the emissions con-
tinue to grow in developing countries? Should emissions be determined on a historical
or a per capita basis? Several mechanisms have been negotiated into the convention
 CLIMATE CHANGE AND OZONE DEPLETION 225

which allow developed countries to pay for and get credit for emissions abatement in
developing countries.

KYOTO PROTOCOL
At a meeting of member countries held at Kyoto in December 1997, delegates approved
the Kyoto Protocol, which set terms for legally binding commitments for the
industrialized countries. It also proposed mechanisms to enable countries to move
towards cleaner technology (see Appendix 2).
The Kyoto Protocol lists six greenhouse gases whose emissions should be reduced
and controlled. They are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydro-
fluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). It does
not list GHGs already included in the ozone depletion abatement under the Montreal
Protocol.
The protocol calls for emissions reduction by industrialized countries. The overall
reduction commits them to jointly reduce GHG emissions to 5 per cent below their 1990
levels. These targets are to be achieved in the period 2008–12, termed the first commitment
period.
The Kyoto Protocol will come into force when 55 countries, together responsible for
55 per cent of the world’s GHG emissions, ratify (agree to abide by) the protocol. Despite
continuing negotiations, this has not been possible till now, primarily because the USA,
which contributes the largest share of the total GHG emissions, decided to withdraw from
this collective effort. The reason given is that such reductions would harm the nation’s
economy, a view promoted by the strong lobbies of the oil, coal, automobile and other
industries likely to be affected by the treaty. The international community now has its
hopes pinned on the ratification of the protocol by Russia so that it can come into force.

GLOBAL WARMING CONTROVERSIES

The issue of global warming is a controversial one. One of the reasons is the scientific
uncertainty about the phenomenon; another relates to the contributions of the industrial-
ized and developing countries to the problem and its solutions.

SCIENTIFIC UNCERTAINTY
Earth’s climate system is a very complex web of interconnected physical, chemical and
biological processes. Therefore, to understand the potential causes of global climate
change is a very complex exercise. Scientists try to do so by creating computer models of
226 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR, MAMATA PANDYA AND MEENA RAGHUNATHAN

the earth’s climate system. These models are called general circulation models, or GCMs,
and they attempt to include the relevant physical principles governing the behaviour of
the atmosphere and the oceans. The attempt is to create realistic models, but some pro-
cesses such as cloud formation are extremely complex and difficult to understand and
incorporate into models. Due to the complexity, different simulations can give different
results. While a consensus has gradually emerged that human activities can affect climate,
and are indeed doing so, some scientists disagree.

Prevention is better than cure

In order to protect the environment, governments, institutions and individuals need to adopt
the precautionary principle according to their capabilities. Essentially, this means that when
we are unsure, it is better to be on the side of caution, especially where there are threats of
serious or irreversible damage to the environment. Scientific uncertainty should not be taken
as an excuse for avoiding or postponing measures to prevent environmental degradation.

DIFFERING CONTRIBUTIONS
Historically, industrialized countries have contributed significantly to global warming
as they have used and are still using large quantities of fossil-fuel energy which results
in the discharge of large quantities of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. A study
shows that the total carbon released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide by an average
US resident is about 260 tonnes, whereas it is about 6 tonnes for the average resident of
India. The total amount placed into the atmosphere by a US citizen since 1900 is more
than 40 times that by an average Indian. In 1999, whereas the USA was responsible for
25 per cent of the world’s carbon emissions from the burning of fossil fuels, India with
its much larger population contributed 4.5 per cent (see Table 10.1).

Table 10.1
Carbon emissions per year from burning fossil fuels

Country % Share of world emissions 1999

USA 25.5
Russia 4.6
Japan 6.0
EU 14.5
China 13.5
India 4.5
Indonesia 0.9
Brazil 1.5
Source: State of the World, 2001.
 CLIMATE CHANGE AND OZONE DEPLETION 227

As most of the greenhouse gases accumulated in the atmosphere are the result of
activities of industrialized countries, the developing countries argue that corrective action
should be taken by developed countries first. They have argued that no emissions limits
should impede their economic development. Moreover, developing countries contend
that their very livelihood depends on activities like cattle rearing or growing paddy,
which contribute to the production of greenhouse gases; in addition, their economic de-
velopment would necessarily involve some increase in greenhouse gas production. They
argue that cutting down drastically on greenhouse gas emissions at this stage in their
development would impede their economic growth.
On the other hand, industrialized countries feel that developing countries, especially
rapidly growing economies like India and China, will add significantly to GHG emissions.
While accepting some responsibility to set and meet emissions reduction targets in indus-
trialized countries first, they argue that many cost-effective opportunities exist for de-
veloping countries to become more energy efficient. They feel developing countries
should also immediately commit themselves to moving towards lower GHG emissions.
The sentiment of many developing countries in this debate is expressed in the following
statement by an eminent Indian environmentalist, the late Anil Agarwal, who said, ‘Solu-
tions to the greenhouse effect are getting more and more ridiculous. The latest is to plant
trees in the Third World in order to deal with the dirty carbon emitted into the air by
western countries, so that the West can go on expanding its fleet of cars, power stations
and industries while the Third World grows trees.’

TOWARDS SOLUTIONS

In order to stabilize the concentration of GHGs at their present level, their emissions
would need to be immediately reduced by 60 per cent. When countries are bickering
about the much smaller reduction recommended by the Kyoto Protocol, such a change
seems very unlikely for political and economic reasons. The need is, thus, not only to
take steps to mitigate the effects of climate change, but also to prepare ourselves to adapt
to the effects of global warming and climate change. These steps would include:

l reduction in the use of fossil fuels;

l shifting to renewable energy resources that do not emit GHGs;
l increasing the use of energy-efficient and cleaner production technologies and
practices;
l reducing deforestation, adopting better forest management practices, and under-
taking afforestation to sequester carbon;
228 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR, MAMATA PANDYA AND MEENA RAGHUNATHAN

l exploring other options to sequester carbon (such as by storing in deep aquifers

and beneath the oceans);
l adopting practices and technologies to make agriculture sustainable;
l limiting population growth;
l developing disaster management plans and strategies to cope with the expected
increase in the frequency of natural disasters like floods and drought; and
l creating widespread awareness about the need to undertake all these steps.

INDIA AND THE CLIMATE CHANGE ISSUE

India is vulnerable to a range of impacts of climate change—from more frequent and

severe floods and droughts, violent storms, the submergence of parts of its coastal lands
and islands due to sea-level rise, change in rainfall patterns, etc., to their consequences
such as the disruption of food and water supplies, displacement of large numbers of
people, increase in diseases and death.
Being a largely agricultural economy, India is particularly vulnerable to the impacts
of climate change in that sector. Changes in temperature, precipitation and CO2 levels as
well as changes in soil moisture and in the distribution and frequency of infestation by
pests, insects, diseases or weeds, are expected to adversely affect plant growth, and hence
the productivity of staple crops. The increasing frequency and intensity of extreme
weather events will also have a direct bearing on agriculture. Besides, the IPCC predicts
that a 1 m rise in sea level would inundate about 1,700 sq km of agricultural land in
Orissa and West Bengal. The most vulnerable section of society will be the poor, the
marginal farmers and the landless agricultural labourers.
India’s commitment to addressing climate change issues is reflected in the various
steps it has taken over the years—in policy initiatives, development plans, support to
research and to a variety of initiatives and activities for promoting energy conservation,
energy efficiency and renewable energy, and in its persistent pursuance of large-scale
afforestation programmes. Environmental protection and sustainable development are
India’s key national priorities. Therefore, even though the Climate Change Convention
does not require India to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions, several ongoing activities
and programmes as well as new initiatives contribute to achieving this end either directly
or indirectly.
At the policy level, India’s commitment is reflected in the principal aim of the National
Forest Policy of 1988, which is ‘to ensure environmental stability and ecological balance
including atmospheric equilibrium, which are vital for sustenance of all life forms, human,
animal and plant.’ The National Agriculture Policy of 2001 states, ‘In order to reduce risk
in agriculture and impart greater resistance to Indian agriculture against droughts and
 CLIMATE CHANGE AND OZONE DEPLETION 229

floods, efforts will be made to achieve greater flood proofing of flood prone agriculture
and drought proofing of rain fed agriculture for protecting the farmers from the vagaries
of nature.’
In addition to government efforts, several NGOs are helping communities to upgrade
and conserve their natural resources through activities such as afforestation and
reforestation, water harvesting, soil and moisture conservation, organic farming,
advocating alternative technologies in agriculture and energy, installing biogas plants,
promoting improved agricultural and animal husbandry practices, etc. Though not
promoted as such, these sustainable development activities would enhance the ability
of the communities to adapt to climate change.
As a commitment towards the UNFCCC, to which India is a party, India has prepared
its first national communication to be submitted shortly. It contains information on the
greenhouse gases emitted by sources from various human activities, their sinks, an assess-
ment of the vulnerabilities that India is likely to face due to climate change, and the
policies of the government that take into account the climate change concerns.

Global warming and ozone depletion

Though many people confuse ozone depletion with the greenhouse effect, the two are quite
different, independent phenomena caused by entirely different gases. Ozone is chemic-
ally destroyed by chlorine from CFCs, while the largely non-reactive greenhouse gases that
cause global warming have a negligible chemical effect on ozone. Increased carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere may warm the planet, but it does not eat ozone. Nor does the ozone hole
cause global warming. Because ozone is a greenhouse gas, ozone depletion actually leads to
global cooling (Drew Shindell, 1999).

OZONE AND ITS DEPLETION

Another global environmental problem causing grave concern is the depletion of ozone
in the stratosphere.
Ozone is a naturally occurring gas found in very small traces in the earth’s atmosphere.
The earth’s ozone is found in two areas. Ozone molecules make up a very sparse layer in
the upper atmosphere (stratosphere), which is about 17 to 48 km above the earth’s surface.
This is called the ozone layer. The stratosphere contains about 90 per cent of all the ozone
in the atmosphere. Some ozone is also found in the lower atmosphere (troposphere).
The presence of ozone can be a good or a bad thing depending on where it is present.
In the stratosphere, ozone acts as a protective layer shielding the earth from harmful
ultraviolet radiation. In the troposphere, ozone acts as a harmful pollutant and sometimes
230 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR, MAMATA PANDYA AND MEENA RAGHUNATHAN

causes photochemical smog. More than a trace of this gas in the troposphere can damage
human lungs and tissues, and also harm plants. Ozone is also a greenhouse gas and
contributes to the greenhouse effect.
The total amount of ozone in a ‘column’ of air from the earth’s surface up to an altitude
of 50 km is the total column ozone. Total column ozone is recorded in Dobson Units
(DU), a measure of the thickness of the ozone layer by an equivalent layer of pure ozone
gas at normal temperature and pressure at sea level. In other words, 100 DU = 1 mm of
pure ozone gas at normal temperature and pressure at sea level. The average amount of
ozone at mid-latitudes is 3 mm or 300 DU. The mean total ozone amount in the at-
mosphere varies geographically and seasonally. It is slightly less than 260 DU at equitorial
latitudes. It increases towards the poles in both hemispheres, going up to a maximum of
about 400 DU.
The level of ozone in the atmosphere is naturally fluctuating by small amounts all the
time. It is affected by the seasons, changing wind patterns and other natural factors. For
billions of years, a delicate balance has been maintained by nature. However, today,
many human activities are harming the ozone layer and are leading to a decrease in the
ozone levels in the upper atmosphere. The decrease in the amount of ozone in the upper
atmosphere is known as ozone depletion. The chemicals causing this are called Ozone
Depleting Substances (ODS).
Depletion of the ozone layer allows potentially dangerous ultraviolet (UV) rays into
the lower atmosphere. Most life forms on earth would suffer from the excess UV radiation.

How the ozone hole was discovered

British scientists based in Antarctica, while measuring the atmospheric ozone over the Antarc-
tic in the late 1980s, made an unpleasant discovery—there was significant depletion in the
ozone layer over Antarctica each spring (September–October). It has been found that during
every southern spring since then, 50 to 95 per cent of stratospheric ozone is destroyed at a
height of 15 to 24 km above Antarctica, creating pockets which have been described as the
Antarctic ‘Ozone Hole’.
The Antarctic is the site of major ozone depletion because of its unique weather conditions.
During the cold, dark southern winter, a powerful swirling vortex of westerly winds is formed.
In these conditions, temperatures drop below –85°C and clouds of ice particles, called Polar
Stratospheric Clouds, are formed. These clouds trap and concentrate the highly reactive
chlorine on their surface.
Chlorine atoms get frozen and locked within ice particles. At the end of the polar winter,
with the first rays of the spring sun, the chlorine atoms are released. These begin reacting
with the ozone. Thus, the hole is observed every spring. However, ozone-rich air from the
tropics gradually fills up these holes. The phenomenon of the ‘hole’ is thus a temporary one.
Latest scientific research has proved that ozone depletion occurs over the Arctic as well.
But the Arctic stratosphere is less vulnerable to chlorine attack because it is warmer and
fewer clouds form. Also it is not isolated by the vortex as is the case in Antarctica.
 CLIMATE CHANGE AND OZONE DEPLETION 231

SHOULD WE WORRY ABOUT OZONE DEPLETION?

The ozone layer absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation before it reaches the ground. Ozone
depletion in the stratosphere results in more UV radiation reaching the earth’s surface.
High levels of UV radiation have a direct effect on human life, animal life, plants,
materials, etc.
The effects of ozone depletion will be felt globally, though some parts of the earth may
be more severely affected than others. Countries like Australia, New Zealand, South
Africa and parts of South America, where the ozone layer is depleted, are at greater risk
than the rest of the world.
Some of the effects of ozone depletion on various life forms and materials are:
Humans and animals: Ozone depletion may increase the rate of skin cancer and cause
the skin to freckle and age faster. It will increase the frequency of cataracts and other eye
diseases in humans and animals. The ability of the human system to fight diseases
(immune system) will also be weakened.
Plants: Increased UV radiation affects plants by reducing leaf size and increasing
germination time. This could decrease crop yield of corn, rice, soybeans, peas, sorghum
and wheat.
Food chains: There may be a reduction in the growth of microscopic phytoplankton
when UV radiation penetrates deep below the surface of oceans. These tiny floating pro-
ducers form the base of ocean food chains and food webs, and help remove CO2 from
the atmosphere. The food chain of the terrestrial ecosystems will also be affected as over
half the land plants are adversely affected by high levels of UV.
Materials: Increased UV radiation damages paints and fabrics, causing them to fade
faster. Plastic furniture, pipes, etc., exposed to the sun, also deteriorate faster.

OZONE DEPLETING SUBSTANCES

Ozone depleting substances (ODS) are those that destroy ozone molecules. These are all
man-made.
CFCs: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are gases or liquids made of chlorine, fluorine and
carbon. They are used as coolants in the compressors of refrigerators and air conditioners.
They are also used to clean electronic circuit boards used in computers, phones, etc.
They are used in the manufacture of foams for mattresses and cushions, disposable styro-
foam cups, packaging material, insulation, cold storage, etc.
CFCs are powerful ozone destroyers. They rise slowly from the earth’s surface into
the stratosphere. Here, under the influence of high-energy ultraviolet (UV) radiation,
they break down and release chlorine atoms, which speed up the breakdown of an ozone
molecule (O3) into an oxygen molecule (O2) and oxygen atom (O). One CFC molecule
can break down 100,000 ozone molecules through a catalytic chain reaction.
232 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR, MAMATA PANDYA AND MEENA RAGHUNATHAN

1. In the upper atmosphere UV

rays break off a chlorine atom
from a CFC molecule.

Free chlorine
Free chlorine Ozone molecule

5. The chlorine is free to repeat the 2. The free chlorine atom then attacks
process of destroying more ozone an ozone molecule, splitting it apart
molecules for the next hundred years. and thereby destroying the ozone.

Free chlorine
Chlorine monoxide Oxygen molecule
Oxygen molecule

4. A free oxygen atom from the

atmosphere attacks this chlorine 3. This results in an oxygen
monoxide, releasing a free chlorine molecule and chlorine monoxide.
atom and forming an oxygen molecule.

Oxygen atom Chlorine monoxide Oxygen molecule

Illustration 10.2 How ozone is destroyed

Each time a polystyrene cup is thrown away, it eventually adds over 1 billion CFC
molecules to the stratosphere—this can destroy up to 100 trillion molecules of ozone.
CFCs do not destroy the ozone layer directly, but they act as carriers for the chlorine to
the upper atmosphere.
Halons: Halons are similar to CFCs in structure but contain bromine atoms instead
of chlorine. They are more dangerous to ozone than CFCs. Halons are used as fire-
extinguishing agents. Each bromine atom destroys hundreds of times more ozone
molecules than a chlorine atom does.
CCl4: Carbon tetrachloride, used as cleaning solvent for clothes and metals and also
in products such as correction fluid, dry-cleaning sprays, spray adhesives, fire ext-
inguishers, etc., is another ozone depleting substance.
 CLIMATE CHANGE AND OZONE DEPLETION 233

Phasing out ozone depleting substances as soon as possible is essential for the health
of the ozone layer. That means putting a stop to the production, consumption and release
of CFCs and other ozone depleting substances worldwide.
To phase out ODS, ozone-friendly replacements or substitutes for CFCs have to be
found. HFC, PFC, SF6 and HC (hydrocarbons) are the emerging substitutes for CFCs
today. Changing over to processes and technologies which do not use these chemicals is
another way of reducing CFC emissions.

INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS
All over the world, efforts are on to save the ozone layer. The United Nations formed a
committee which drafted an agreement that calls for a stepwise reduction of CFCs. This
agreement, called The Montreal Protocol, came into effect in 1987 (see Appendix 2). Under
this legally binding agreement, the consumption and production of CFCs and halons
is to be stopped within a stipulated time. The committee keeps a regular check on the
amount of ozone depleting substances in the world. It also provides technical and financial
assistance to developing countries to reduce CFC consumption.
Under the Montreal Protocol, all the signatory countries have to assess their consump-
tion and production of ODS every year. All signatories were to phase out their consump-
tion and production of ODS by the year 2000. Only those developing countries whose
per capita consumption of ODS was less than 0.3 kg were given a grace period of 10 years
for phasing out ODS. To make the phase-out fair for developing countries, which cannot
afford the higher priced substitutes and the replacement of machineries, the agreement
establishes an environmental fund paid for by the industrialized countries. The fund
will help developing countries switch over to more ozone-friendly chemicals .
Large-scale research studies are underway all over the world to come up with new
and better substitutes for all the ODS and also to assess the environmental impacts of
substitutes.
The United Nations General Assembly has proclaimed 16 September as the Inter-
national Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer. It was on this day in 1987 that the
Montreal Protocol to control the production and consumption of ozone depleting sub-
stances was signed by various countries at Montreal, Canada.

INDIA AND THE OZONE ISSUE

India is concerned about the ozone problem and signed the Montreal Protocol in 1992.
Strict measures have been taken in the country to phase out ozone depleting substances.
234 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR, MAMATA PANDYA AND MEENA RAGHUNATHAN

These measures include a ban on trade in ODS, licensing the import and export of ODS,
and a ban on the creation of new ODS-production facilities. The Ozone Cell at the Ministry
of Environment and Forests, Government of India, is the Indian national lead agency
coordinating all matters relating to the Montreal Protocol.
Industrialized countries are the major producers and consumers of CFCs. Developing
countries like India consume very little. For instance, the per capita consumption of
CFCs in India is 0.01 kg per year, while in the US it is about 50 times more. We are, there-
fore, not contributing very much to ODS pollution. In a hot country like India, however,
refrigeration and air conditioning are often a necessity for the preservation of foods,
medicines, vaccines, etc.
In spite of all this, India signed the Montreal Protocol recognizing that ozone depletion
is a global problem and that it needs to be solved through cooperation. India has always
maintained that such agreements must be fair and equitable to all parties.

Eco-fridge
A major initiative towards reducing the use of ozone depleting substances was taken by
Godrej Industries Limited, a leading manufacturer of refrigerators in India. Godrej is now
manufacturing Eco-fridges, or environment-friendly fridges. The eco-fridge, launched under
the brand name Pentacool, is the result of the combined effort of Godrej and the National
Chemical Laboratory (NCL), Pune. The technology change is based on the use of safe pentane
technology rather than choosing other harmful gases. The green refrigerator concept is being
used to create awareness among consumers about the adverse effects of harmful technol-
ogy on the environment and on the necessity of adopting and using environment-friendly
technology.

MAKING A DIFFERENCE

Scientists all over the world are monitoring the changes taking place in the climate. Efforts
are underway, nationally and internationally, to reduce global warming and ozone deple-
tion. We need to recognize that even if countries do undertake immediate and rapid action
to reduce their emissions, some degree of climate change and ozone depletion is inevit-
able. We also need to recognize that many of our decisions and actions, as individuals,
contribute to these problems. Each one of us can take steps to prevent further damage to
the ozone layer and the earth’s climate—by not wasting energy, ensuring that we do not
buy products that contain CFCs, by not using styrofoam cups, to name just a few. Collect-
ively, as consumers, we can influence the demand, and hence the market, for environment-
friendly products and services.
 CLIMATE CHANGE AND OZONE DEPLETION 235

I QUESTIONS

1. List five things you, as an individual, can do to help prevent further damage
to the ozone layer?
2. List five things you, as an individual, can do to help prevent further concen-
tration of GHGs in the atmosphere?
3. How can improving energy efficiency help in dealing with climate change?
Explain.
4. What steps can governments take to ensure a reduction in the use of fossil
fuels?
5. What are some of the steps that would help in adapting to climate change?
If we are already taking steps to reduce GHG emissions, is there any need
to worry about adapting? If yes, why? If no, why not?
6. Against each of the gases listed below, write its chemical symbol, and G if it
is a greenhouse gas and O if it is an ozone depleting substance.

Gas Chemical Symbol G/O

Methane
Ozone
Perflurocarbons
Nitrous oxide
Halon
Carbon dioxide
Pentane
Carbon monoxide
Sulphur hexafluoride

II EXERCISES

1. Global warming would lead to greater evaporation. What would be the

consequences of an increase in water vapour in the atmosphere? Would it
cause further warming or would it cause cooling? Do some library or Internet
research to find out whether your thinking was on the right track.
2 Imagine yourself in 2020 AD. Imagine what the situation of the earth would
be if CFCs and other ODS have not been phased out. Describe the environ-
ment around you, the climate and weather conditions, the general health of
the people, etc., in that period.
236 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR, MAMATA PANDYA AND MEENA RAGHUNATHAN

III DISCUSS

1. Current preoccupation is with terrorism, but in the long term climate change will
outweigh terrorism as an issue for the international community. Terrorism will
come and go; it has in the past ... and it’s very important. But climate change is
going to make some very fundamental changes to human existence on the planet.
David Anderson
Canadian Environment Minister
6 February 2004
Comment on the above statement.

2. Do you agree with the argument of the developing countries that the primary
responsibility of reducing CO2 emissions should be of the industrialized
nations because they have produced much more of these emissions in the
past and continue to do so. If yes, why? If no, why not?

REFERENCES AND SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

Achanta, Amrita. N, ed. 1993. The climate change agenda: An Indian perspective. New Delhi: Tata Energy
Research Institute.
Agarwal, Anil. 1996. Slow murder: The deadly story of vehicular pollution in India, Vol. 3 (State of the
environment series). New Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment.
———. 1998. ‘Kyoto’s ghost will return.’ Down to earth (15 June).
Agarwal, Anil and Sunita Narain. 1992. Towards a green world: Should global environmental management
be built on legal convention or human rights? New Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment.
Agarwal, Anil and Anju Sharma. 1997. ‘A farce of a face-off.’ Down to earth (31 December).
Agarwal, Anil, Sunita Narain and Anju Sharma, eds. 1999. Green politics. New Delhi: Centre for Science
and Environment.
Centre for Environment Education. 1998. Ozone eleven: Information and teaching ideas on ozone depletion
for teachers. Ahmedabad.
———. 2003. Climate change education, training and public awareness: Initiatives in India. A report.
Ahmedabad.
Centre for Science and Environment (CSE). 1996. ‘Above suspicion?’ Down to earth (30 June).
———. 1999. ‘Beating Retreat.’ Down to earth (30 April): 27–34.
Climate Change Secretariat. 1999. The Kyoto protocol to the convention on climate change. Bonn.
Kalshian, Rakesh. 1996. ‘Hot and anxious.’ Down to earth (15 August).
Kandel, Robert. 1990. Our changing climate. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc.
Legget, Jeremy, ed. 1990. Global warming: The green peace report. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Markham, A., N. Dudley and S. Sostotton. 1993. Some like it hot. Gland: WWF–International.
 CLIMATE CHANGE AND OZONE DEPLETION 237

Miller, G. Tyler, Jr. 2002. Living in the environment, 12th ed. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. 2001. Annual report 2000–2001. New Delhi.
Murthy, N.S., M. Pandya and J. Parikh. 1997. ‘Economic development, poverty reduction and carbon
emissions in India.’ Energy economics, 19: 327–54.
Neal, Philip. 1992. Conservation 2000: The greenhouse effect. London: B.T. Batsford Ltd.
Ravindranath, N.H. and B.S. Somashekhar. 1995. ‘Potential and economics of forestry options for carbon
sequestration in India.’ Biomass and bioenergy, 8 (5): 323–36.
Retallack S. and P. Bunyard. 1999. ‘We are changing our climate! Who can doubt it?’ Ecologist, 29 (i):
60–63.
Shindell, Drew. 1999. ‘Modeling global climate change.’ National forum, 79 (2): 28–31.
Tilling, Stephan. 1990. Ozone and the greenhouse effect: A practical GCSE course work guide. Shrewsbury:
Fields Studies Council.
UNEP. 1999. Convention on climate change. Geneva: UNEP’s Information Unit for Conventions for the
Climate Change Secretariat.
 CHAPTER 11

POPULATION, CONSUMPTION
AND ENVIRONMENT

KALYANI KANDULA

l In 2001, with a population of 1,027 million persons, India ranked as the second
most populous country in the world. The USA’s population was 281 million.
l The consumption of food grains per person in India is less than 200 kg per year.
Diets in India are generally dominated by a single starchy staple, for instance,
rice or wheat. An average American, on the other hand, consumes 800 kg of
grain each day, directly or indirectly, in the form of beef, poultry, pork, eggs,
milk, cheese, ice cream, and yogurt.
l Only about 28 per cent of the people in India have access to sanitation facilities.
In the USA, 100 per cent of the population is reported to be served by municipal
services.
l In 2000, electricity consumption per capita in India was equivalent to 335
kilowatt-hours. USA’s per capita electricity consumption during the same period
was 12,331 kilowatt-hours.
l The USA uses about 25 per cent of the world’s processed mineral resources and
non-renewable energy compared to India’s 3 per cent.
l The USA produces at least 25 per cent of the world’s pollution and waste, includ-
ing 18 per cent of the global emissions of greenhouse gases and 22 per cent of
ozone-destroying CFCs. India produces about 3 per cent of the world’s pollution
and waste, including about 4 per cent of the global emissions of greenhouse
gases and 0.7 per cent of ozone destroying CFCs.

Which country has a larger population?

Which country consumes more resources?
Which country generates more waste?
Which country’s population has access to basic facilities such as sanitation required
for, and resulting in, a healthier and safer living environment?
These are some of the questions this chapter addresses.
 POPULATION, CONSUMPTION AND ENVIRONMENT 239

India has more people consuming fewer resources and contributing less pollution.
But because they are many in number, the total impact is significant. Another significant
aspect is the quality of life of the people. The majority of Indians live in undesirable con-
ditions, with poor access to basic facilities such as sanitation, education, health facilities,
etc. This leads to a more direct adverse effect on the environment and also limits oppor-
tunities for a better quality of life.
On the other hand, the USA has fewer people with affluent lifestyles. Though they are
not many in number, because of their lifestyle, they consume considerable resources
and produce considerable pollution and waste.
What does this have to do with the environment? Does the number of people influence
the well-being of the environment? Does the way people live and what they consume—
their lifestyle—also determine their impact upon the environment?

POPULATION, CONSUMPTION, ENVIRONMENT: THE LINKS

The following equation can be used to discuss how population growth and consumption
affect the environment:

Number of people × Unit of resources consumed per capita = Environmental impact

of population

As we have seen, the USA, which has only a third of India’s population, has a far
greater impact on the environment. The environmental impact of 28.1 crore (281 million)
Americans is equivalent to that of 1,400 crore (14 billion) Indians at their current levels
of consumption. Therefore, while India suffers from ‘people overpopulation’, the USA
suffers from ‘consumption overpopulation’.
So it becomes obvious that when we think of environmental degradation, we have to
simultaneously think of population and consumption.
Let us begin by looking at the aspects of population and then of consumption.

World’s consumption expenditure

Since 1950, the world’s consumption expenditure has increased sixfold, to $24 trillion in
1998. Of this, 86 per cent is accounted for by the richest fifth of the world’s population, while
the poorest fifth’s share is only 1.3 per cent.
The world’s three richest people together own assets that exceed the combined gross
domestic product of the 48 least developed countries. Meanwhile, almost 3 billion people
live on less than $2 a day, totally excluded from the 20th century’s boom in the consumption
of goods and services. Too many people thus live in utter deprivation.
(http://www.un.org/ecosocdev/geninfo/afrec/subjindx/122undp.htm.)
240 KALYANI KANDULA

UNDERSTANDING POPULATION PATTERNS

Three main factors make populations grow or decline: births, deaths and migration.
Birth rate is defined as the number of births in a year per thousand people in a geo-
graphical area. Similarly, death rate is the number of deaths in a year per thousand
people. According to the Census conducted in 1921, the birth rate in India was 48 per
thousand while the death rate was 47 per thousand. As the birth and death rates were
nearly in balance, population growth was slow. In 2001, the birth rate had come down to
24 per thousand and the death rate to 9 per thousand. Migration is the rate of population
change for a specific area which is also affected by the movement of people into and out
of that area.
When the birth rate in an area is greater than the death rate, its population grows.
When the death rate is the same as the birth rate, the population size remains stable.
This condition is called zero population growth. When the death rate exceeds the birth
rate, the population size decreases.
In 1921, the average lifespan of a person born in India was 20 years. The average life
expectancy of an Indian is now 63 years. Improvements in medical science and in health-
care facilities have resulted in the drop in the death rate. We have been able to control a
number of dangerous diseases such as small pox. It is now possible to treat diseases
such as tuberculosis which, not too long ago, were considered fatal.
India has also achieved some success in reducing its birth rate, but it has not declined
as much as the death rate. India’s birth rate of 24 per thousand people still high when
compared with 14 in developed countries. In order to reduce the population growth, it
is therefore necessary to reduce the birth rate.

Demography

The study of human population trends is called demography. Demographers analyse the
factors that influence human population growth, such as total fertility rates, rates of natural
increase, migration patterns, population age structures, demographic transitions, and
environmental factors. These data are used to project future population trends and to analyse
alternative scenarios aimed at solving population-related environmental problems.

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR HIGH BIRTH RATE

The high birth rate in our country is due to several factors. Some of these are discussed
here.
High infant mortality: People tend to have more children when they are not sure how
many will survive. In India many children die before their first birthday. The number of
deaths of babies up to one year old per thousand babies born in a year is called the
 POPULATION, CONSUMPTION AND ENVIRONMENT 241

infant mortality rate. In developing countries such as India, a large number of infant
deaths are due to inadequate nutrition, unsafe drinking water and lack of medical care.
The countries that have successfully reduced their population growth are generally those
that have also reduced their infant mortality rate.
In recent years, the number of infant deaths in India has come down to 63 per thousand.
However, this rate is still high when compared with other countries. For instance, the
infant mortality rate in China is 29, and in Japan only 5.
Poverty: For the poor, more children mean additional hands to work—to help in the
fields, to work for wages or to beg in the streets, to fetch water and fuelwood, to look
after younger siblings while the parents work, and to look after the parents in their old
age. But the poor are unable to adequately feed their children. Nor can they educate
them, so most of these children remain illiterate, unskilled and hence poor throughout
their lives and, in turn, have several children themselves when they grow up.
Preference for sons: In most parts of our country, there is a strong preference for sons.
This attitude is found not only among the poor and illiterate but among all classes of
society. In most communities, traditionally, sons inherit and transmit the family’s name,
land and other property. As daughters marry and move away, it is the sons who are ex-
pected to look after their parents in their old age. Also, among most communities in
India, the dowry system is a widely prevalent custom. Dowry can be an enormous finan-
cial burden on a family, not just among the poor but also among those who are not poor.
Although demanding and giving a dowry has been banned by law, the custom con-
tinues and is one of the reasons why people prefer sons. In many families, this desire for
a son, and often more than one son, results in having several children.
Custom of early marriages: Another reason for the high birth rate is the custom of
early marriage, particularly in rural areas. Persons who are married at an early age have
more children because they start having children early. Laws have been made from time
to time to stop the practice of child marriage, but these laws are often flouted. According
to the current law in India, it is illegal for a girl to marry before she turns 18, and for a
boy to marry before he attains the age of 21.
Illiteracy: Illiteracy is another factor responsible for the high birth rate. Literate people
can find out information relevant to them much more easily than those who cannot
read. In this context, the education of women is very important. It has been found that
literate women have fewer children than illiterate women, and are able to give them
better nutrition and health care.
This is what has happened in Kerala. By 1991 a major literacy campaign in the state
had raised the female literacy rate to 86 per cent, the highest in the country. The average
for India at that time was only 39 per cent. In 1991, the state also recorded the lowest
birth rate at 17 per thousand population compared to 28.5 as the average for India, and
also the lowest infant mortality rate at 13 per thousand live births as against 74 for India.

Some other factors that influence birth rates are:

l People tend to have fewer children where the cost of raising a child is more, for
instance in developed countries.
242 KALYANI KANDULA

l People have fewer children in societies where women have access to education
and paid employment outside the home.
l When people have access to social security and pensions, it eliminates the need
for them to have many children to support them in their old age.

To bring down the birth rate it is, no doubt, necessary to have a good family planning
programme which offers safe, effective and inexpensive contraceptive devices and other
methods of birth control. But it is equally important to provide education and adequate
health care to all, especially to women. It is also important to ensure that girls have
access to all opportunities that boys do, so that they grow up to be as capable as boys in
every sphere of economic and social activity.

National population policy

India started the world’s first national family planning programme in 1952, when its popu-
lation was nearly 400 million. In 1993, after 51 years of population-control efforts, we are the
second most populous country in the world, with a population of 1,065.5 million. In 1952,
India was adding 5 million people to its population each year. In 2003, it added 15.5 million!
With India’s population crossing 1 billion in the year 2000, the National Population Policy
announced in that year has special significance. Its change in focus from merely setting
target-population figures to achieving population control through greater attention to socio-
economic issues such as child health and survival, illiteracy, empowerment of women, and
increased participation by men in planned parenthood, gives it greater breadth and depth,
and, therefore, holds better promise of achieving its long-term objective of a stable population
by mid-century.
The official realization that population is not merely about numbers but also about the
health and quality of life of people in general and women in particular, must be reinforced
and sustained by an informed debate to bring key population issues into ever-sharpening
perspective at various levels of policy making, from the national and state legislatures to
local government institutions.
There is a need for a better and more widespread understanding of the fact that the number
of children desired by any couple depends on a large and complex interrelated number of
socio-economic and cultural factors, and that any policy action seeking to control population
must seriously take all these variables into account.
An important part of empowering women in matters pertaining to population is to
explicitly recognize and respect their rights over their own bodies and their reproductive
behaviour. This recognition must permeate society in general, and religious, judicial and
law-enforcement institutions in particular, through continual campaigning and dialogue.
The pursuit of population control must not be allowed to compromise human rights and
basic democratic principles. Such compromises are often implicit in the disincentives aimed
at controlling family size; in comments on the fertility of particular social groupings; and in
the occasional demands to control in-migration to metropolitan areas. It is essential to place
these matters in a balanced and rational perspective through informed public discourse
supported by the wide dissemination of authentic data.
 POPULATION, CONSUMPTION AND ENVIRONMENT 243

DOES POPULATION GROWTH FOLLOW A PATTERN?

Examining the birth and death rates of western European countries that industrialized
during the 19th century, demographers (people who study population) developed a
hypothesis of population change called the Demographic Transition. This transition
occurs in four phases:

1. In the pre-industrial stage, living conditions are harsh and the birth rate is high
(people have more children to replace children who die from infectious diseases,
malnutrition, etc.), but the death rate is also high. Thus, there is little population
growth.
2. In the transitional stage, when industrialization begins, food production rises
and health improves. Death rates drop, but birth rates remain high, so the popu-
lation grows rapidly.
3. In the industrial stage, industrialization is widespread. The birth rate drops and
eventually approaches the death rate. This is because people in cities realize
that children are expensive to raise. Having too many children also hinders them
from taking advantage of job opportunities. Population growth continues, but
at a slower and fluctuating rate, depending on the economic conditions.
4. In the post-industrial stage, the birth rate declines even further to equal the
death rate, thus reaching zero population growth. Subsequently, the birth rate
falls below the death rate, and the total population size slowly decreases.

Do you think this hypothesis applies to India’s population too?

Table 11.1
India’s population

Year Population Annual growth rate (%) Density per sq km

1901 238,396,327 – 77
1911 252,093,390 0.56 82
1921 251,321,213 0.03 81
1931 278,977,238 1.04 90
1941 318,660,580 1.33 103
1951 361,088,090 1.25 117
1961 439,234,771 1.96 142
1971 548,159,652 2.20 177
1981 683,329,097 2.22 216
1991 843,930,861 2.11 267
2001 1,027,015,247 1.62 324
Source: Ashish Bose (1991). Population of India 1991: Census results and methodology, Delhi: B.R. Publishing
Corporation.
244 KALYANI KANDULA

LIMITS TO POPULATION GROWTH

One of the earliest and most popular theories on the limits to population growth is the
one proposed by Malthus in 1798. Thomas Malthus, a British clergyman and intellectual,
warned in his famous piece, ‘An Essay on the Principle of Population’, of the tendency
for population to grow exponentially while food supply grows only arithmetically. He
saw a world where food supplies would not be able to keep pace with the population
growth.
Today, there are differing viewpoints about the number of people the earth can support.
One viewpoint is called the Limits Thesis. According to this, there are definite limits to
population and economic growth. These limits are due to the fact that air, water, minerals,
space, and all usable energy sources have fixed stocks that would ultimately be exhausted.
For example, land availability is likely to constrain world agriculture as widespread de-
gradation is occurring on a major portion of the world’s farmlands. Groundwater in
many areas is being removed faster than it can be recharged.
According to the Cornucopian Thesis, on the other hand, there are limits to growth
only if science and technology stop advancing, but there is no reason why these advances
should stop. So long as they continue, the earth is not really finite, because technology
creates resources. There are people who believe that resource shortages resulting from
population or income growth usually leave us better off than if the shortages had never
risen, because such shortages force the development of technology. For example, if fire-
wood had not become scarce in 17th-century England, coal would not have been develop-
ed. If coal and whale oil had not become scarce, oil wells would not have been dug.

World population day

World Population Day was first celebrated in 1987 when the earth’s population reached 5
billion. In 1988, the Governing Council of the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)
designated the day for annual observance on 11 July, and the United Nations authorized it
as a vehicle for building awareness of population issues and their role in development and
the environment.
Governments, United Nations’ agencies and organizations, non-governmental organ-
izations, universities, population institutions and citizens take part in its observances and
help raise awareness on population issues. The events organized include rallies and speeches
by national and local leaders, lectures, print and electronic media programmes and supple-
ments, exhibitions and sports events.
 POPULATION, CONSUMPTION AND ENVIRONMENT 245

OVERPOPULATION

Overpopulation must not be confused with mere numbers. An area is over-populated

when its population cannot be maintained without rapidly depleting the natural resources
and without degrading the capacity of the environment to support the population. As
we know, the earth’s resources are finite. It is because of these finite resources that every
place on earth has a carrying capacity, which is the maximum number of people the area
can support. The carrying capacity can, to some extent, be increased with the help of
technology—for example, more food can be produced from the same piece of land using
modern seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides and machines—but not indefinitely.
Almost all the rich nations are rapidly drawing resources from around the world and
creating waste that affects the global environment. Can these countries be considered
overpopulated? In many poor and developing nations, natural resources are being
depleted to meet the needs of growing numbers of people. Can these countries be called
overpopulated?
It is obvious that ‘overpopulation’ is a relative term. It is not possible to give an absolute
value and say, ‘Anything above this is overpopulation’!
Overpopulation undoubtedly is an important concern. An equally significant but often
overlooked concern is over-consumption.

OVER-CONSUMPTION

Almost all human consumption activities affect the environment. Let us see the ways in
which consumption of a product affects the environment:

l It depletes non-renewable resources (like metals and minerals).

l It depletes and degrades renewable resources by activities such as overfishing,
over-exploitation of forests, groundwater, etc.
l It creates pollution and waste that go beyond the capacity of the environment to
absorb them.

Let us take a simple example to understand this.

Think of any product (or service) that we consume; for example, a packet of sooji/rava.
Environmental resources are used in the production of the packet of sooji/rava—raw
materials (such as wheat grain), energy, water, packaging materials, etc. Environmental
resources are also used in the consumption of the product. In this case, spices, salt, water
246 KALYANI KANDULA

and cooking fuel are needed to cook the sooji to make upma. The waste created by the
consumption of the pack of sooji, the packaging material, also affects the environment.
(See also the chapter on Industry).

NEEDS, WANTS AND LUXURIES

Needs are absolute necessities which we cannot do without. Basic needs—food, water,
shelter, clothing, social interaction—are common to people across the world. Wants, unlike
needs, depend on the social and economic background of the person. A city executive’s
wants may include a personal computer. A farmer’s wants may include a better plough.
The quality and quantity of our consumption defines if we are catering to our needs,
wants or luxuries.
All humans need to consume in order to survive. The most basic essentials for our
survival—food, water, clothing and shelter—come from natural resources. When does
this consumption become over-consumption? This again is a very difficult question to
answer.
Consider food. A simple meal of dal and rice is food. On the other hand, a lavish
spread of pulao, sweets, ice cream, etc., is also food. The amount and kind of food we
consume determines whether we are meeting our basic needs or enjoying luxuries.
The perceptions of needs and luxuries vary from person to person, community to
community and country to country. What some people might consider necessities for
basic survival, others might consider luxuries.

Yesterday, today ...

In the good old days, there was the cloth shopping bag. We took it to the shops hundreds of
times till it was torn. We did not have plastic bags to throw away. We drank tea in china cups
or steel tumblers; no paper cups to litter the place. We did not have soft drink fountains with
their disposable cups; we used bottles instead. An empty milk powder tin remained on the
kitchen shelf for years to store sugar or dals. Milk was bought in glass bottles which were
returned the next day; no plastic pouch to be thrown into the waste bin. We had handkerchiefs,
washed and rewashed till they were torn; no paper napkins to throw away. Babies wore
clean cloth diapers (usually made from grandmother’s old soft sarees), washed and rewashed:
no throwaways. Those days we did not waste.
In the new age of convenience consumerism, we may waste as much as we consume. We
may pay more for the packaging than for the product. Nearly a quarter of India’s precious
energy is used for producing what ultimately turns out to be waste. According to the All
India Food Preservers’ Association, the cost of packaging is about 55 per cent of the price of
a product (The Week, 2 October 1994).
 POPULATION, CONSUMPTION AND ENVIRONMENT 247

Over-consumption is when a section of people uses a large share of resources and

causes pollution and environmental degradation. Over-consumption is apparent both
in developed countries and in the affluent sections of less developed countries.
What we need to bear in mind is that both overpopulation and over-consumption
matter, and both issues have to be explored and solutions sought with the same conviction.
Our concern is not with mere numbers of people. It is with the quality of life of people,
the consumption patterns of people, the technology used by people and the influence of
all these factors on people and on the environment.
This recognition of the significance of overpopulation and over-consumption is rela-
tively new. The graph shows that centuries of slow population growth were followed by
a rapid explosion of numbers in the past half century.

It took 2 million years for the human population to reach a billion. To add up to a
second billion, it took only 130 years, 30 years to add a third billion, 15 years for a fourth,
and only 12 years for a fifth. The J-shaped curve shows that at first the population growth
rate is slow, then it increases rapidly.
The past few centuries have seen rapid advances in agriculture, health, etc. Better
food availability and better health have brought down death rates. Better health facilities
also means that more children are surviving today than before. This has contributed to
an increase in the population growth rate.
The last two centuries have also seen the emergence of a new type of society—the
urban industrial society. The urban industrial society is marked by higher production
and consumption of goods, increased use of fossil fuels and other non-renewable
resources, a shift from using natural materials to synthetic materials, and increased energy
consumption per person. Both overpopulation and over-consumption are recent phenom-
ena. They also coincide with a period of increasing environmental impact.
248 KALYANI KANDULA

HOW DO POPULATION AND

CONSUMPTION IMPACT THE ENVIRONMENT?

The capacity of an area to support human population depends not only on the number
of people but also on the needs and lifestyles of the people living there. If the needs of
the people are few and their lifestyles simple, an area can support a larger number of
people than if the needs and desires of the people are many.
Overpopulation occurs when the population of an area exceeds its carrying capacity.
When that happens, the environmental resources that support life and economies get
depleted, and more wastes than the earth’s natural processes can handle are added to
the environment. This can happen when there are too many people trying to meet their
basic needs. But it can also happen when there are few people in an area but they indulge
in over-consumption.
To understand the impacts of population and consumption on the environment, let us
look at a few specific examples.

DEFORESTATION

Forests provide timber, fuelwood, pulp for paper, and other major and minor forest
products, and thus have great economic value. They also have great ecological value.
They conserve soil, are storehouses of biodiversity and act as giant sponges, by slowing
down the run-off of rainwater and absorbing and holding water that recharges springs,
streams and groundwater. They also act as sinks for greenhouse gases.
The deforestation-consumption link: Over-consumption is significantly responsible
for deforestation across the world. Often, less developed countries sell their forest lands
for lumbering to foreign companies at prices far below the real worth of the timber. They
do so to stimulate economic growth, pay interest on foreign debt, etc. The environmental
costs of deforestation are not included in the prices charged for lumbering rights, and so
it is not possible to take up reforestation programmes at a scale which compensates for
the deforestation.
One example of the effects of consumption on forests is the demand for cheap beef in
fast-food outlets in rich countries. In much of Central America and Amazonia, forests
have been cut down to provide temporary pasture for cattle raising. These pastures are
used for a few years, after which they are abandoned and other pieces of forest are cut
down for pasture. If we were to factor in the environmental costs, the true cost of a
hamburger made from cattle grazing on land which was once tropical forest is the cost
of 5 sq m of forest. Considering the value of forests (both economic and ecological), this
cost would be tremendously higher than the price at which a hamburger is usually sold.
 POPULATION, CONSUMPTION AND ENVIRONMENT 249

Another example is Japan which imports 60 per cent of all tropical timber, resulting in
deforestation in many countries including Papau New Guinea, Thailand, Malaysia,
Colombia and Cameroon. Much of this wood is used for making throwaway items such
as moulds for concrete, packing crates, chopsticks, etc. Similar examples can be found in
India as well, where tracts of forests are cut down to meet the need for furniture and
construction wood for urban areas.
The deforestation-population link: According to one estimate (Harrison 1992), popu-
lation growth in developing countries has accounted for 79 per cent of the tropical defor-
estation suffered during 1973–88.
As long as the population of firewood gatherers in a local community does not exceed
the capacity of the local tree stock to replenish itself through tree growth, the community
can exploit the resource indefinitely. But as the population increases, so does the number
of fuelwood gatherers. When firewood collection exceeds the self-renewing capacity of
the trees, there comes a stage when the tree stock starts depleting, and the tree cover
starts disappearing.
It was estimated that in 2000, about 2.4 billion people met their wood requirements by
cutting fuelwood faster than it could regenerate through natural growth. Of these, nearly
350 million people cannot meet even minimum needs without over-harvesting stocks.
Another school of thought holds that economic and political factors exert more harmful
impacts on deforestation than population growth per se. For example, according to the
United Nations, the pressure from expanding populations leads to the destruction of
only small patches of rainforests by peasants who expand cultivation along the edge of
the forest in small amounts (United Nations 1990). This population growth is not respon-
sible for the deforestation of large tracts of rainforest. Large blocks of rainforests are
difficult for peasants to exploit as there are barriers in the form of rivers, dense forests,
etc. When large-scale infrastructure projects (such as highways) open up a forest area for
exploitation, the land is made accessible to landless farmers and new migrants who
clear it in the absence of any enforced property rights.

SOIL EROSION

Land is being degraded at an alarming rate due to soil erosion and other causes. This
degradation is of great concern as soil re-formation is an extremely slow natural process.
Flowing water and wind are natural eroders. Agriculture, deforestation, overgrazing,
and other human activities increase the chances of soil being eroded. Today, all around
the world, soil is being eroded at a rate much faster than the rate at which it forms.
The soil erosion-consumption link: According to one estimate, about one-third of
the USA’s original prime topsoil has found its way into streams, lakes and oceans, mostly
as a result of over-cultivation, overgrazing and deforestation. About 86 per cent of the
250 KALYANI KANDULA

soil eroded in the USA comes from land used to graze cattle or to raise crops to feed
cattle. Each half kilogram of beef from the cattle causes about 16 kg of soil to be eroded!
Another 14 per cent of eroded soil in the USA comes from land used to raise crops for
human consumption.
The soil erosion-population link: Two-thirds of seriously degraded soils are in Asia
and Africa. Increasing populations put pressure on land for housing, agricultural fields,
etc., which in turn puts pressure on forest cover.
Another example of how population leads to soil erosion is ‘shifting’ cultivation. This
is a form of cultivation traditionally practised by people in tropical forests. It involves
clearing small patches of the forest by cutting down trees and other vegetation, and then
burning the remains. The ashes fertilize the soil. After this preparation, the cleared land
is cultivated for a certain period, after which it is left fallow (uncultivated) for about 10
to 30 years to allow the soil to become fertile enough to grow crops again.
This system of agriculture was sustainable in early societies as the food demands of
their small populations required only small patches of the forest to be cleared and the
land could be left fallow for long periods to enable it to regenerate. With growing popu-
lations, the number of patches in forests that are put under such cultivation has increased,
with the result that greater numbers of farmers compete for less. This limitation of forest
area also forces farmers to return to abandoned patches after shorter fallow periods,
sometimes after as little as two years. The result of this has been vanishing topsoil and
soil nutrients.

CLIMATE CHANGE

The global climate is under threat from increasing pollution of the atmosphere by gases
that heat up the earth, such as carbon dioxide, methane, chloroflurocarbons, nitrous
oxide and nitrogen oxides.
The climate change-consumption link: It is widely recognized that affluent countries,
which account for less than a quarter of the world’s population, are responsible for
roughly three-fourths of the carbon dioxide released by burning fuels—in automobiles,
power plants, and other industrial plants—to satisfy consumption needs. In the USA,
since 1970, while the population has increased by 25 per cent, the number of passenger
cars sold has increased by 50 per cent. These increased numbers naturally increase the
USA’s contribution to the greenhouse gases emitted.
The climate change-population link: An increase in population is associated with a
growth in the demand for food supplies. As humans try to expand food production to
meet the needs of growing populations, the resulting increase in land cleared for food
and pasture, in livestock, and in fossil-fuel use would release more greenhouse gases
(including methane). Population growth will also mean more organic wastes. The
 POPULATION, CONSUMPTION AND ENVIRONMENT 251

putrefaction of these wastes also releases methane. Methane is a greenhouse gas which
contributes to global warming. A molecule of methane traps roughly 25 times as much
of the sun’s heat as a molecule of carbon dioxide.
Deforestation, soil erosion and climate change are just three environmental issues
discussed here to illustrate the impact of overpopulation and over-consumption on the
environment. People and their lifestyles obviously have a role in almost every environ-
mental threat known today—biodiversity loss, ozone-layer depletion, desertification,
etc. It is, therefore, important to examine and address the roles of both population and
consumption while attempting to solve environment and development problems. This
requires a better understanding of population and consumption patterns.

THE INDIAN STORY

Currently, India produces enough food for all its people to get an adequate survival
diet. But mere production of sufficient quantities of food does not ensure the access of
all sections of people to the food. Widespread poverty means that people do not have
enough land to grow food or enough money to buy food.
Poverty is a very complex problem which is related both to overpopulation and to
over-consumption. The simple meaning of poverty is the inability to meet minimum
human needs in respect of food, clothing, housing, education and health.
Economists and planners in India have been using the term poverty line. Those who
cannot afford two square meals a day are said to be below the poverty line. According to
this definition, nearly one-third of India’s population lives ‘below the poverty line’. This
proportion is less than it was in the early 1950s, when nearly half of India’s population
lived in poverty. However, because of the huge increase in population, the number of
poor people rose from 164 million in 1951 to 320 million in 1993–94. Nearly 77 per cent of
India’s poor live in rural areas.

Poverty line diet

The poverty line is defined as a monthly expenditure per person which is able to buy food
that provides a person with a daily intake of 2,400 calories in rural areas and 2,100 calories in
urban areas.
Based on average prices, the daily diet of a person living on the poverty line would be the
following:

Food grains 400 g

Dal 1 cup cooked

(continued)
252 KALYANI KANDULA

(continued)
Milk 1/3rd cup
Edible oil 2 teaspoonfuls
Vegetables 1 potato, 1 small brinjal, 1 onion, 1/2 tomato
Dried chillies 1 teaspoon
Tea leaves 1 teaspoon, enough for two cups of tea
Eggs 1 every 5 days
Fresh fruit 1 piece per week

After buying these food items, the person would have only about Rs 2 per day left over for
all other expenses. One in every three Indians cannot afford even this frugal diet.

Poverty is usually measured in terms of cash income because it indicates whether

people are able to buy what they need to meet their food and other basic requirements.
But many of the rural poor depend directly on what they grow in their fields and yards,
and what they can get from their environment—grasslands, forests and waterbodies—
to meet their daily needs. Income alone, therefore, does not adequately reflect the kind
of poverty they face.

TO BE POOR

Life for the poor is a daily struggle for survival. However, despite their poverty, the poor
tend to have large families because children come not just with a mouth to feed but also
a pair of hands to work with. But when many poor families have several children, the
result is often far more people than locally available resources can support. This leaves
the poor little choice but to deplete and degrade local forests, soils, grasslands and water
supplies in a desperate attempt to survive. The net result of their struggle for short-term
survival is often a vicious cycle: a larger population leads to more poverty and to more
pressure on the environment, which can make future chances of survival more difficult.
It is because of the rapidly increasing population that farmers have too little land to
grow enough food for their families. The land available per family also becomes less be-
cause of the system of inheritance prevalent in India. Each generation has smaller plots
of farmland than the one before. Many of these plots are too small to support a family.
With no other means of supporting their families, the rural poor move to towns and
cities in the hope of finding work.
In towns and cities, the poor live in squalid conditions in slums or on pavements,
where they have access neither to toilets nor to safe drinking water. Their flimsy shelters
provide little protection from heat, cold or rain. They often live close to polluting factories,
and work (if they can find a job) in unhealthy and unsafe conditions for very low wages.
 POPULATION, CONSUMPTION AND ENVIRONMENT 253

Their living and working conditions and undernourishment make the poor vulnerable
to disease, ill health and early death. At least 125,000 people are reported to die every
year in India from malnutrition and water-borne diseases. Another 267,000 die from
respiratory diseases caused by air pollution. The death toll from these preventable dis-
eases is about 1,100 persons per day, which is equivalent to four plane loads of 275
passengers each crashing every day with no survivors!
Beyond the suffering that illness causes, the inability to work adds to their problems
of daily sustenance. Due to their poor standard of health, they can neither work much
nor earn much. Thus, they continue to be hungry, sick, and not very productive. They
are caught in a ‘poverty trap’ from which it is not easy to escape.
In India where such a large number of people are poor, their low productivity in turn
affects the country’s economic development. In the absence of adequate economic
development, the people continue to live in poverty.

THE RICH AND THE POOR

India’s economic development may not be widespread enough, but it has created pockets
of affluence. An increasing number of people have more money to spend and more things
to spend it on. More products mean more production, which means more resources from
the environment. It also means more pollution and more damage to the environment.
Since the poor depend directly on the environment for their basic needs, they suffer
most from environmental damage.
The demand for wood for furniture and in house building and industry depletes the
forests on which the poor depend for fuel and food. They also depend on fruit, berries
and roots gathered from the forest to supplement their food, and on herbs and other
forest products for medicines. As forests disappear so do these forest products which
are so essential for the poor.
As more and more good soil is used for cash crops to meet the demands of the rich, at
home or abroad, the poor are pushed on to less productive lands. For example, land
around cities such as Bangalore and Delhi is being taken over for floriculture to meet the
growing demand for flowers, both in India and abroad, to decorate the homes and offices
of the rich and to gift to each other on various occasions.
Lacunae in the food procurement, pricing and distribution systems have prevented
programmes such as the public distribution system from effectively reaching all the
poor. Some analysts fear that the problems of hunger and malnutrition may worsen as
India’s population grows. About 40 per cent of our cropland is degraded due to soil
erosion, waterlogging, salinization, overgrazing and deforestation; and about 80 per
cent of our land is prone to droughts.
There is a strong need for alternative approaches to address the population issue.
254 KALYANI KANDULA

UNDERSTANDING SUSTAINABLE CONSUMPTION

Population often is at the forefront of discussions on environment and development
issues. Consumption, an equally significant and related concern, does not often get the
consideration it merits. Understanding consumption and the alternatives to unsustainable
consumption patterns is as important for a better environment as is controlling population
growth.
What is an appropriate level of consumption? Here are a few statements which can
help us to understand what is sustainable (or appropriate) consumption:

l Sustainable production and consumption [are] the use of goods and services
that respond to basic needs and bring a better quality of life, while minimizing
the use of natural resources, toxic materials and emissions of waste and pollu-
tants over the life cycle, so as not to jeopardize the needs of future generations.
(Symposium on Sustainable Consumption, Oslo, Norway; 19–20 January 1994.)
l Sustainable production and consumption involves business, government, com-
munities and households contributing to environmental quality through the
efficient production and use of natural resources, the minimization of wastes,
and the optimization of products and services. (Edwin G. Falkman, Waste Man-
agement International. Sustainable Production and Consumption: A Business
Perspective. WBCSD, n.d.)

ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINTS
How do we measure over-consumption? A number of new techniques and tools have
been developed to weigh the ecological impact of consumption. One recent emerging
technique is the Ecological Footprint.
Everybody (from a single individual to a whole city or country) has an impact on the
earth, because they consume the products and services of nature. Their ecological impact
corresponds to the ‘amount of nature’ they ‘occupy’ to keep them going. Ecological foot-
prints are a way of putting a quantifiable value on the biologically productive areas
necessary to continuously provide the resource supplies and to absorb the wastes, using
prevailing technology. Thus ecological footprints show us how much nature we use. A
country’s ecological footprint is the total land and water area in various ecosystem
categories that is required by that country to produce all the resources it consumes, and
to absorb all the waste it generates.
The earth has a surface area of 51 bn ha, of which 36.3 bn ha is sea and 14.7 bn ha is
land. Of this, only 8.3 bn ha is biologically productive. The remaining is covered by ice,
or has unsuitable soils, or lacks water.
 POPULATION, CONSUMPTION AND ENVIRONMENT 255

In 2001, India supported 16.7 per cent of the estimated world population of 6.055 billion, but
the country’s land mass is a mere 2.4 per cent of the world’s surface area.

Taking into account the biologically productive land and sea area, the earth has about
2 ha of land per person. Leaving a portion of this land for other plant and animal species,
we have about 1.7 ha per person. This is the benchmark against which we measure our
ecological footprints. (Table 11.2).

Table 11.2
Ecological footprints
Population 1997 Ecological footprint Ecological capacity Ecological deficit
(ha per capita) (ha per capita) (ha per capita)
(all expressed in world average productivity 1993 data)
World 5,892,480,000 2.8 2.1 –0.7
India 970,230,000 0.8 0.5 –0.3
USA 268,189,000 10.3 6.7 3.6
Singapore 2,899,000 7.2 0.1 –7.1
Ireland 3,577,000 5.9 6.5 0.6
Australia 18,550,000 9.0 14.0 5.0
Source: www.ecouncil.ac.cr/rio/focus/report/English/ranking.htm.

Some countries use more ecological capacity than there are resources within their bound-
aries. This means they run into ecological deficits (represented by negative numbers),
which represent the extent of over-consumption by these countries. They depend on im-
ports to make up for the lack of their ecological capacities to support their lifestyles.
Countries with footprints that are smaller than their ecological capacity are living within
their nation’s ecological means (represented by positive numbers). But often, the remain-
ing capacity is used for producing goods for export to other countries (such as the eco-
logical deficit countries), rather than keeping it as a reserve.
Measures such as the ecological footprint need to be developed so that we can under-
stand the extent of over-consumption and its impact on the earth’s resources.

STRATEGIES FOR CHANGE: AFFECTING CONSUMPTION PATTERNS

Changing consumption patterns is not an easy task. A combination of different efforts at

different levels is required to change unsustainable lifestyles and keep people’s con-
sumption at sustainable levels.
256 KALYANI KANDULA

Some key actions required are:

1. Information access and raising awareness about sustainable consumption so

that people can make informed choices is an important step.
2. Taking actions to ensure minimum consumption for all would make it possible
for all people to have access to basic facilities and opportunities.
3. Promoting technological innovations and resource efficiencies would help to
reduce both environmental damage and poverty.
4. Correct pricing of raw materials would help towards improving the efficiency
of materials’ use and reducing waste. Natural materials (e.g., mineral ores, water,
etc.) are now kept artificially cheap because of governmental subsidies. That is,
the environmental costs of extracting and using a particular material are not re-
flected in its cost. The mining and logging industries, for example, are heavily
subsidized by governments, in spite of the extensive environmental damage
these industries usually cause. Correctly pricing these raw materials will motivate
people to reduce wastage.
5. Correctly pricing products whose use contributes to environmental degradation
is another crucial step. For example, the cost of aerosol sprays, which contribute
to ozone-layer depletion, needs to reflect their environmental impact.
6. Establishing and enforcing adequate laws and regulations can help in making
polluters pay for the environmental damage they cause. Regulations can also
help in ensuring that the waste discharged meets certain minimum set standards
so that pollution is minimized. Governmental regulations can be in the form of
minimum quality standards, fines for violations, etc.
7. Strengthening the mechanisms for international cooperation and action can help
in addressing consumption issues that have a global environmental impact. For
example, parts of many species of animals and plants are used for human con-
sumption in the form of medicines, clothing, fashion accessories, etc. Animal
furs, ivory, etc., are examples.
The Convention on International Trade in Endang-ered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora was adopted in 1973, and was ratified by 135 nations around the world.
This convention seeks to regulate the trade in wildlife and plants. Under this
convention, trade in more than 600 species of endangered plants and animals is
prohibited.

Efforts by governments and businesses alone will not be able to effectively change
consumption patterns. What may be the crucial action is questioning our own lifestyles.
 POPULATION, CONSUMPTION AND ENVIRONMENT 257

MAKING A DIFFERENCE

Individual action is a way to begin to make a difference. One way of understanding in-
dividual initiatives to reduce over-consumption is by adopting the 5 ‘Rs’ of consumption.
Refuse: Refuse unnecessary goods and services. A common example of this is the
ubiquitous plastic carry bag that is used to package groceries. Plastic is non-biodegradable
and very few of the plastic carry bags have recyclable value. It is best to refuse plastic
carry bags and instead use your own cloth bag. Less demand for plastic bags would
mean less production and finally less non-biodegradable waste.
Reduce: Reduce your consumption of goods and services as much as you can. Electri-
city use is an example. By using electricity, we will be saving precious coal resources
which are used for generating electricity in thermal power plants. Saving electricity also
means that fewer dams may need to be built for hydroelectricity generation. This will
mean a reduction in the area of land being submerged and the number of people being
displaced.
Reuse: Reusing goods will reduce the demand for new goods. This would imply that
the demand on natural resources for the production of new goods will also reduce. For
example, reusing ‘disposable’ plastic jars for storing spices, etc., in the kitchen prevents
the jars from becoming non-biodegradable waste.
Repair: Repairing goods reduces the need for new goods and saves the natural re-
sources used in the production of new goods. For example, repairing old furniture and
putting it to use is a cost-effective and eco-friendly option to buying new furniture.
Recycle: Recycling goods ensures that they are used again in another form. For example,
used paper can be recycled and made into paperboard, handmade paper, etc. This reduces
the demand on wood pulp and saves trees.

Population, consumption and the global divide

Why should the North limit its fossil fuel consumption if the resources and atmospheric
absorptive capacity saved thereby will simply be gobbled up by the Southern overpopulation,
resulting in a larger number of people living at the same level of deprivation? Why should
the South limit its population if the resources saved thereby will be gobbled up by Northern
over-consumption, resulting in still more extravagance by the already profligate? At every
global environmental conference these questions are raised. The North refuses to talk about
over-consumption while the South refuses to talk about overpopulation. The result of this is
that the two causes most responsible for environmental degradation and poverty cannot be
addressed directly. It should be clear by now that as long as we focus on these problems one
at a time we will get nowhere. The bargaining needed to get Southern attention to over-
population is Northern willingness to face up to over-consumption—and vice versa. These
two parts have to be put together.
(Herman Daly, 1998. World Watch, 11[1] January–February.)
258 KALYANI KANDULA

I QUESTIONS

1. Match the following

A. The average number of children that a. Rate of natural increase
women in a given city, region or
country give birth to during their
childbearing years
B. The annual rate at which a human b. Population age structure
population increases (not including
immigration or emigration).
A country or region’s birth rate
minus its death rate
C. The rate of natural increase in a given c. Growth rate
year, plus the number of people
immigrating into the country, minus
the number of people emigrating
out of the country
D. The current relative proportion of d. Total fertility rate
a country’s population in different
age groups

2. Do you know of any communities or states in India where traditionally

women, and not men, inherit their parents’ property? Find out the literacy
levels of women, birth rates and infant mortality rates in those states. Do
you find any correlation?
3. Find out the female literacy rate, birth rate and infant mortality rate for
your state. How do these compare with the rates for India and Kerala? What
do the rates prevalent in your state signify? If you live in Kerala, try to find
out the rates for as many census years in the past as possible and compare
them with the rates for India for the same years. What conclusions can you
draw from the data?
4. Your friend says that population growth can be controlled by making contra-
ceptives and sterilization procedures easily accessible? Do you agree? If
yes, why? If not, why not?
5. Imagine you are on a committee making recommendations to help
India’s National Population Policy be a success. What will be your
recommendations?
6. Standard of living refers to consumption of goods and services. Quality of
life refers to a combination of attributes that provide a sustained human
 POPULATION, CONSUMPTION AND ENVIRONMENT 259

experience of physical, mental, spiritual and social well-being. These would

include access to basic goods and services, security, justice, healthy human
relations, opportunities, peace of mind, a healthy environment, etc. It is not
possible to put on economic value to many of these.
If you were given a magic lamp and allowed five wishes for a better quality
of life for yourself, what would you wish for? (You are not allowed to ask
for money.)
Now put together a similar ‘5 wish list’ imagining that you are the
following persons:

l A poor farmer in a drought-prone area.

l A slum-dwelling woman in a large city.
l A housewife in a middle income housing colony.
l The CEO of a multinational corporation.

What are the common items in the lists? Which ones are different, and why?

II EXERCISES

1. Imagine that the earth has become so overpopulated that people are being
settled on Mars. On the spaceship to Mars, each family is allowed to carry
just 20 things from their homes. Make a list of the 20 things your family
would choose to take. You are not allowed to take any money.
Now imagine that the spaceship is already overloaded, and so you have
to drop any 5 of the 20 things you have with you. Which five will you choose
to drop? Strike these from your list. After lift-off, the space ship develops a
problem because of excess cargo. The Commander of the ship orders every
family to get rid of five more things. Which five things will you discard
now? Strike out five more items from the list. After ejecting the items, the
problem of excess weight is still not solved. You must part with five more
items out of the ten you are carrying. Which five items will you give up?
Strike out these five items from the list.
Finally you will have a list of five items. Review your original list and
your final list. What does this tell you about needs, wants and luxuries?
Make a list of the things you own which you can easily do without. Think
about the environmental impacts of each such thing.
2. Using the data from Table 11.3 showing the distribution of population, make
a graph to show the distribution of population amongst the states in India.
Is the population distributed evenly or unevenly? Find out which states
260 KALYANI KANDULA

and union territories (UTs) have the highest and lowest populations. Which
five states or union territories have the highest population density?
What do you understand by sex ratio? Which states or UTs have the highest
sex ratio? Which have the lowest? What do you think are the reasons for
these high as well the extremely low sex ratios?

Table 11.3
Population share of Indian states/union territories, 2001
Percentage Sex ratio
of decadal (number of
Total population in millions growth females per Density
States Persons Males Females 1991–2001 1,000 males) (per sq km)
India 1,027,015,247 531,227,078 495,738,169 21.34 933 324
Jammu & 10,069,917 5,300,574 4,769,343 29.04 900 99
Kashmir
Himachal 6,077,248 3,085,256 2,991,992 17.53 970 109
Pradesh
Punjab 24,289,296 12,963,362 11,325,934 19.76 844 482
Chandigarh 900,914 508,224 392,690 40.33 773 7,902
Uttaranchal 8,479,562 4,316,401 4,163,161 19.20 964 159
Haryana 21,082,989 11,327,658 9,755,331 28.06 861 477
Delhi 13,782,976 7,570,890 6,212,086 46.31 821 9,294
Rajasthan 56,473,122 29,381,657 27,091,65 28.33 922 165
Uttar Pradesh 166,052,859 87,466,301 78,586,558 25.80 898 689
Bihar 82,878,796 43,153,964 39,724,832 28.43 921 880
Sikkim 540,493 288,217 252,276 32.98 875 76
Arunachal 1,091,117 573,951 517,166 26.21 901 13
Pradesh
Nagaland 1,988,636 1,041,686 946,950 64.41 909 120
Manipur 2,388,634 1,207,338 1,181,296 30.02 978 107
Mizoram 891,058 459,783 431,275 29.18 938 42
Tripura 3,191,168 1,636,138 1,555,030 15.74 950 304
Meghalaya 2,306,069 1,167,840 1,138,229 29.94 975 103
Assam 26,638,407 13,787,799 12,850,608 18.85 932 340
West Bengal 80,221,171 41,487,694 38,733,477 17.84 934 904
Jharkhand 26,909,428 13,861,277 13,048,151 23.19 941 338
Orissa 36,706,920 18,612,340 18,094,580 15.94 972 236
Chhattisgarh 20,795,956 10,452,426 10,343,530 18.06 990 154
Madhya 60,385,118 31,456,873 28,928,245 24.34 920 196
Pradesh
Gujarat 50,596,992 26,344,053 24,252,939 22.48 921 258
Daman & Diu 158,059 92,478 65,581 55.59 709 1,411
Dadra & Nagar 220,451 121,731 98,720 59.20 811 449
Haveli
(continued)
 POPULATION, CONSUMPTION AND ENVIRONMENT 261

(continued)
Percentage Sex ratio
of decadal (number of
Total population in millions growth females per Density
States Persons Males Females 1991–2001 1,000 males) (per sq km)
Maharashtra 96,752,247 50,334,270 46,417,997 22.57 922 314
Andhra 75,727,541 38,286,811 37,440,730 13.86 978 275
Pradesh
Karnataka 52,733,958 26,856,343 25,877,615 17.25 964 275
Goa 1,343,998 685,617 658,381 14.89 960 363
Lakshadweep 60,595 31,118 29,477 17.19 947 1,894
Kerala 31,838,619 15,468,664 16,369,955 9.42 1,058 819
Tamil Nadu 62,110,839 31,268,654 30,842,185 11.19 986 478
Pondicherry 973,829 486,705 487,124 20.56 1,001 2,029
Andaman & 356,265 192,985 163,280 26.94 846 43
Nicobar Island
Source: Census of India 2001.

III DISCUSS

1. An estimated six billion human beings are living on earth today. At an

average growth rate of about 1.3 per cent, close to 78 million people are
being added each year. The population in some countries is doubling in
less than one person’s lifespan. If the current rate of growth continues, the
number of human beings on earth will double by 2053, to a total of 12 billion.
World population growth is creating environmental economic, social and
political problems never before encountered. Discuss.
2. The challenge of poverty and the challenge of environment are not two
different challenges but two facets of the same challenge. Discuss.
3. ‘The North refuses to talk about overconsumption while the South refuses
to talk about overpopulation.’ Discuss.

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brown, L.L., G. Gardner and B. Halweil. 1998. ‘Beyond Malthus: Sixteen dimensions of the population
problem.’ World Watch paper 143. Washington, DC: The World Watch Institute.
Centre for Environment Education. 1998. ‘EnviroScope: Manuals for college teachers.’ Citizen action.
Ahmedabad: CEE.
262 KALYANI KANDULA

Economic Development Institute of The World Bank, South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation.
1998. ‘Population pressures on the environment: Economic globalization and sustainable develop-
ment in South Asia.’ Jaipur, India: 13–16 May.
Ehrlich, P.R. and A.H. Ehrlich. 1990. The population explosion, New York: Simon and Schuster.
Lanssen, N. 1992. ‘Empowering development: The new energy equation.’ World Watch paper 111.
Washington, DC: The World Watch Institute.
Miller, G. Tyler, Jr. 1994. Living in the environment, 8th ed. California: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Prasannan, R. 1994. ‘Ape west, heap waste’, The Week, 2 October.
United Nations Development Programme. 1998. Human Development Report 1998. Mumbai: Oxford
University Press.
Young, J.E. 1991. ‘Discarding the throwaway society.’ World Watch paper 101. Washington, DC: The
World Watch Institute.
Young, J.E. and A. Sachs. 1994. ‘The next efficiency revolution: Creating a sustainable materials economy.’
World Watch paper 121. Washington, DC: The World Watch Institute.
 CHAPTER 12

ENVIRONMENT AND
DEVELOPMENT: THE LINKS
KALYANI KANDULA

Why are massive development projects, once considered the temples of modern India,
facing opposition? Are the groups that oppose these projects against the development of
the country?
It is worthwhile to examine the linkages between the environment and development
in the context of large development projects, because these projects clearly bring to the
forefront environment and development conflicts. For example, we may say that a pol-
luting industry needs to be closed down to safeguard the environment. But this may de-
prive its workers of their livelihoods. Similarly, forest areas may be leased out for logging
to promote the export of timber and timber products. But logging results in the loss of
forests and their biodiversity.
People who question the relevance of development projects like big dams say they are
not against development per se. They say they are raising questions on the following
fundamental issues—development for whom, and at what cost?

WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT?

What do we mean by development? Some of the elements of development include:

l Increase in real income per capita.

l Opportunity to have a satisfying livelihood.
l Improvement in health and nutritional status.
l Improvement in educational status.
l Access to resources.
l A ‘fairer’ distribution of income.
264 KALYANI KANDULA

l Assurance of basic human rights.

l Conservation of nature and natural resources.

As we can see, development is concerned both with humans and with the environment.
The crucial point is: does a particular development project address or achieve all or many
of these? This brings us to the next question: How do we make development possible?
Can we ‘develop’ by building huge factories, large dams, tall buildings, massive
bridges, and by manufacturing fast cars and computers? All of these may be required
for economic growth, which is one component of development. But focusing all our
efforts on these activities at the cost of ignoring other equally important dimensions of
development may be counterproductive. We will examine the different dimensions of
development later in this chapter. But first, let us understand the problems with the
approach to development only through economic growth.
Economic growth has generally been accepted as the approach to development. Richer
countries are often called ‘developed’ countries while poorer countries are referred to as
developing countries. Economic growth is usually measured by tools such as the gross
domestic product (GDP). It was believed that by looking at the GDP of a nation, we
could get an idea of its economic growth and thus its level of development. But this
seemingly simple approach has problems. To understand what the problems are we
need to understand what GDP is.
The gross domestic product is the total output of goods and services for final use pro-
duced by an economy by both residents and non-residents, regardless of the allocation
to domestic and foreign claims. It does not include deductions for the depreciation of
physical capital or the depletion and degradation of natural resources. GDP is usually
divided by the total population, and this gives the per capita GDP. The per capita GDP
provides a yardstick of relative levels of economic growth. Table 12.1 illustrates this
clearly.
Table 12.1
Per capita GDP of selected countries (2001)
Country Per capita GDP in US$
Nepal 1,310
India 2,840
China 4,020
South Africa 11,290
Saudi Arabia 13,330
Japan 25,130
Australia 25,370
USA 34,320
Source: Human Development Report, 2003.

The gross national product, or GNP, is another measure of economic growth. It com-
prises GDP plus net income from abroad, which is the income residents receive from
 ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT: THE LINKS 265

abroad for services (labour and capital), less similar payments made to non-residents
who contribute to domestic economy.
The GDP, like any measure, has its strengths and weaknesses. Some of the areas of
concern regarding the GDP, from an environmental point of view, are described here.
As we can see from the definition, the GDP includes only marketable goods and ser-
vices. It excludes goods and services that are not marketable. There are a number of such
unmarketable, unmarketed and non-marketable goods and services that contribute to
human well-being. For example, medicinal plants that are maintained and used by village
communities for use in traditional medicine may not be marketed. Similarly, fuelwood
and fodder collected by villagers for their own use may not be marketed. Apart from
such material goods and services, other things such as peace, freedom, low crime rates,
etc., have a tremendous influence on human well-being. It is not possible yet to put an
economic value to these, and thus they are not in the purview of the GDP.
Another feature of the GDP is that it does not take into account the nature of the goods
or services produced. Consider this example. If water is polluted, a huge amount of
money must be invested to clean it because people cannot live without clean water. The
investment made in cleaning the water is accounted for, and the GDP shows an increase.
Fresh, clean water straight from nature is not included in the GDP because it is a free gift
of nature. But cleaning polluted water costs something and thus increases the GDP!
Also, the GDP does not account for many of the traditional approaches to conserving
natural resources because these do not involve economic transactions. For example, the
GDP does not account for conservation efforts through sacred groves. These are tracts of
forest set aside by people with the belief that a particular pocket of the forest has a
resident god who must be protected. As a result of this protection, the sacred groves
harbour a great diversity of plant and animal life. They contain some important species
of flora and fauna that have been lost in the surrounding area. Efforts such as these,
which have immense conservation value, do not feature in the GDP, whereas some
ecologically destructive activities may contribute to increasing the GDP!
Thus, while it does not account for the natural resources that a country has, the GDP
may actually account for the exploitation of these resources if the process of exploitation
yields money; that is, having 50 per cent of its land under forests may not feature in the
GDP of a country, but cutting down these forests for marketing their timber will show
up as an increase in the GDP. The eminent environmentalist, Anil Agarwal, proposed
another GNP—the Gross Nature Product—as a more relevant measure of human and
environmental well-being.
In the traditional economic thinking, the goal was always to increase the GDP, in the
belief that an increase in the GDP necessarily implied an increase in human well-being.
But we now understand that while the GDP may be a useful measure to estimate economic
growth, it is inadequate to give an idea of development as a whole.
The GDP and the economic growth it represents give only a partial understanding of
development. Development in its true sense is more than just economic growth. In its
266 KALYANI KANDULA

holistic sense, development is concerned with economic growth, the quality of life of the
people and the health of the environment.
Let us now try to understand what quality of life implies.

QUALITY OF LIFE
Quality of life refers to our health and happiness. There is a difference between quality
of life and standard of living. Standard of living refers to our consumption of goods and
services, which may or may not make us happier or healthier.
The GDP and GNP do not give us an idea of the quality of life of people. Recognizing
this, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has established another meas-
ure, the Human Development Index. This index is a combined measure of a country’s
scores on three basic components of development:

l physical well-being, as measured by life expectancy,

l education as measured by a combination of adult literacy rates and mean years
of schooling, and
l standard of living, as measured by GDP per capita, adjusted to Purchasing Power
Parity.

Purchasing power parity

Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) measures how much of a common ‘basket’ of goods and
services each currency can purchase locally, including goods and services that are not traded
internationally. Using PPP-based currency values to compare levels of economic prosperity
usually produces lower GDP figures in wealthy countries and higher GDP figures in poorer
nations, compared with market-based exchange rates.

While holistic development strives for a better quality of life for all people, it also
accords priority to the wise management of the environment.

WHAT DOES THE ENVIRONMENT

HAVE TO DO WITH DEVELOPMENT?
All the basic resources required for living come from the environment. It is the environ-
ment that provides raw materials to our industries, food for our people, fuel for our
transport, etc. The environment also absorbs the waste that our developmental activity
 ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT: THE LINKS 267

creates. That is, the environment is both a source and a sink for developmental activity.
For example, inland waterbodies are a source of fish, water for irrigation, etc., for village
economies. They also act as a sink for excess fertilizer and pesticides that may run off
from agricultural fields. This is the reason why we cannot look at development in isolation
from the environment which supports it.
Attempting development only by increasing economic profits and in isolation from
concerns of human and environmental well-being can have undesirable consequences.
This is illustrated by the example in the following box.

Breaking much more than ships

The ship-breaking industry has earned notoriety for flouting environmental norms as well
as for its dreadful working conditions.
Alang, a small place on the western coast of Gujarat, has come to symbolize this industry,
which is a virtual death trap for its workers. The other face of Alang is that it occupies a pro-
minent place on the business map of India—most of the ship-breaking business in India is
done here and it has an annual turnover of $2 billion. However, there are 11 more places in
India where ship-breaking is done.
India has now established itself as a major player among the countries involved in the
business of breaking old discarded ships; the charm being huge quantities of re-rollable
steel scrap which comes out of ship-breaking. Alang alone gives 2.5 mn t of scrap yearly,
which is directly used by re-rolling industries for production of rolled steel products used in
the construction industry. The ship-breaking industry is considered to be a major source for
providing rollable steel at a low price.
However, life in Alang reveals the real cost of procuring cheap steel. For the workers, the
process of ship-breaking is akin to walking through a minefield. The method of ship-breaking
is such that a worker is constantly under the threat of death or physical mutilation.
A worker has to climb atop the ship and start cutting it from the top with crude hacksaws
and oxygen LPG torches. The ships brought in for breaking are generally not stripped of
toxic elements, inflammable fluids and gas; a worker’s torch often accidentally sets off an
explosion in a pipe carrying inflammable fluid, leading to severe burns and deaths.
In the process of dismantling a ship, big steel plates, giant boilers, generators and other
heavy parts fall from great heights on the workers below, often resulting in mutilated bodies,
fractured bones, and broken heads. There are numerous other ways in which workers get
hurt while breaking a rusted, dilapidated giant ship.
What happens in the shipyards of Alang is barely known to the outside world: deaths and
injuries are neither properly recorded nor are they revealed. The law of land—as far as labour
is concerned—literally does not touch the shores of Alang. Around 40,000 workers—mostly
migrants from Orissa, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh—employed in the various shipyards of Alang
remain at the absolute mercy of the owners of these units. Labour laws have been simply
banished from here.
The ships that are brought in for breaking contain a wide range of toxic substances capable
of inflicting great harm to the environment. Toxic substances like paints, lead, heavy metals,
(continued)
268 KALYANI KANDULA

(continued)
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), tin, asbestos, etc., are the most common waste materials
that come out of broken ships. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) agrees that the
release of these substances into water during ship-breaking results in changes in water quality
and in the marine ecosystem, especially in the intertidal zone.
The toxic release of one or two ships may not have made any difference to the sea and the
marine life, but hundreds of ships releasing their toxic wastes every year certainly damages
the environment in a big way. The number of ships scrapped between April 1998 and March
1999 alone was 361. There are hardly any restrictions imposed on the ship-breaking industry
in terms of regulating its polluting activities.
There are prospects of boom for this industry as a large number of ships are lined up for
scrapping in the next few years, including an entire fleet of 6,700 oil tankers, on account of a
new law which has stipulated that oil tankers must be double-hulled ships.
This means more cheap steel scrap for India, more profit for ship-breakers of Alang and
elsewhere. This also means more smashed skulls, more mutilated bodies of workers, and
irreversible damage to the marine life in coastal areas.

When developmental activity focuses only on economic growth and ignores social
and environmental well-being, it cannot be sustained. The example, aquaculture, will
illustrate this point.

Aquaculture: The blue revolution

Aquaculture is the farming of a wide variety of aquatic organisms, including fish, molluscs,
crustaceans and aquatic plants. It can be undertaken in a wide variety of aquatic areas such
as rivers, lakes, reservoirs, ponds, estuaries and coastal waters.
Shrimp aquaculture has been traditionally practiced in low-lying coastal areas of Kerala
and Bengal, which are inundated with brackish water during the monsoon. The wild shrimp
and other fish seed are brought in with the high tide. Farmers impound these waters by
simple means and allow the shrimp seed to grow naturally without devoting any special
attention. Four to six months later, during low tide, the earthen bunds are broken, the water
drained through a net and the shrimp harvested.
Modern shrimp aquaculture started in a small way in the 1980s to meet the growing export
demand for shrimp. After 1991, many large industrial houses set up export-oriented shrimp
farms. In Andhra Pradesh, the area under shrimp aquaculture grew from about 5,000 ha in
1990 to more than 84,000 ha in 1999.
Modern shrimp aquaculture farms were entirely different from the traditional farms. The
modern farms were based on constructing ponds and pumping in brackish water from the
sea. The ponds are stocked with shrimp seed (harvested from the wild or produced in hat-
cheries). The shrimps were fed oil cake, fish waste, or industrially produced feed and
harvested when they had grown.
(continued)
 ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT: THE LINKS 269

(continued)
Shrimp aquaculture can be extensive or intensive, depending on the number of shrimp
seed per hectare. The density of shrimp varies from 20,000 shrimp seed per ha to 350,000 per
ha across the range.
Increase in intensity of shrimp seed per hectare also means:

l Increase in the frequency of releasing pond water contaminated with left-over feed and
other organic wastes into the environment.
l Increase in pumping of brackish and fresh water into the ponds.
l Increase in risk of disease (due to rapid spread of disease from one infected farm to
another, as the infected farms’ waste water flows into the input source of the other farm)
which leads to an increase in the use of drugs and chemicals.
l Increase in the number of shrimp harvested per hectare and in profits.

The tremendous increase in both extensive and intensive aquaculture, with passage of
time, revealed that the ‘boom’ has not been without problems.
Socio-economic problems: The lands occupied by corporate aquaculture ponds were once
freely accessible to local communities who used them for fish drying, net drying, grazing,
subsistence cultivation, etc. The increase in demand for land for conversion into shrimp
ponds lured many local farmers to sell their land to corporate giants. The conversion of
paddy lands into shrimp ponds resulted in loss of employment and loss of local-level food
security. Local fishermen in some places also found their access to the sea made difficult
because of shrimp farms along the shore.
Environmental problems: Shrimp farming requires brackish water, which is salty. Con-
version of large areas of land into ponds that store brackish water led to salinization of
nearby agricultural lands. It has been estimated that at least 9,000 ha of paddy lands have
become useless due to shrimp aquaculture in coastal Andhra Pradesh. The water in nearby
wells has also been affected by salinity. Organic wastes from the shrimp pond find their way
into the local surface waters each time the pond water is thrown out. In 1994–95, a viral
attack wiped out most of the shrimp produce. The rapid spread of the virus from one farm to
the other is believed to be the result of the unplanned growth of the farms, which made one
farm’s waste water flow into the input source of the other farm.
Sustainability: The environmental and socio-economic impacts of the aquaculture industry
were brought to the notice of the Supreme Court and resulted in judicial action. The Court
gave a judgement in December 1996, which served as a severe setback to the shrimp aqua-
culture industry. It ordered the closure of shrimp farms in areas where they are not permissible
under the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ). But even before the Court action, the industry
nearly collapsed on its own.
Excerpted from V. Vivekanandan and John Kurien, 1998. Aquaculture—Where Greed
Overrides Need, The Hindu, Survey of the Environment 1998.

Thus, the aquaculture boom contributed to short-term economic growth but raised
concerns regarding the well-being of the local communities and of the local environment.
For these reasons it was not sustainable.
270 KALYANI KANDULA

This case serves to highlight the fact that, for development to be sustainable, the chal-
lenge is to make economic growth, human well-being and environmental well-being
compatible. This idea has captured the imagination of many people across the world
and has led to the emergence of the concept of sustainable development.

WHAT IS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT?

There have been many different definitions of sustainable development. Some of them are:

1. Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present

without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
(Our Common Future, 1987.)
2. Sustainable development is using, conserving and enhancing the community’s
resources so that ecological processes, on which life depends, are maintained
and the total quality of life, now and in the future, can be increased. For develop-
ment to be sustainable, it must take account of social and ecological factors, as
well as economic ones; of the living and non-living resource base; and of the
long- and short-term advantages and disadvantages of alternative actions. (World
Conservation Strategy, 1980.)

The main features either explicitly stated or implicit in many definitions of sustainable
development are: a desirable human condition—a society that people want to sustain
because it meets their needs; a durable ecosystem condition—an ecosystem that main-
tains its capacity to support human and other life; and equity between present and future
generations; and within the present generation.
One way of understanding this coexistence is the ‘egg of sustainability’ model de-
veloped by IUCN—the World Conservation Union. ‘The egg of sustainability’ is a model
that comprises people (human communities, economies, etc.) within the ecosystem (eco-
logical communities, processes and resources), together with their interactions. Inter-
actions consist of flows from the ecosystem to people; both benefits (life support, economic
resources, etc.) and stresses (natural disasters, etc.) and, conversely, from people to the
ecosystem, both stresses (resource depletion, pollution, etc.) and benefits (conservation).
Human societies are a subsystem, or a dependent part, of the ecosystem.
People depend on the ecosystem, which surrounds and supports them just as the white
of an egg surrounds and supports the yolk. At the same time, a healthy ecosystem is no
compensation if people are victims of poverty, misery, violence or oppression. Just as an
egg can be good only if both the yolk and the white are good, so a society can be well
and sustainable only if both the people and the ecosystem are well.
Human well-being is a requirement of sustainability because no rational person would
want to perpetuate a poor quality of life. Ecosystem well-being is a requirement because
 ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT: THE LINKS 271

it is the ecosystem that supports life and makes possible any standard of living. The
well-being of humans and the well-being of the ecosystem are equally important, and a
sustainable society needs to achieve both together.

IS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT POSSIBLE?

While it may be relatively easy to conceptualize sustainability, the more difficult task is
finding out how it can be put into practice. There are some examples which illustrate
how societies have moved towards sustainable development. The case of Ralegan Siddhi
is one such example.

Ralegan Siddhi: An oasis of prosperity

When Kisan Baburao Hazare, an army jeep-driver, retired and returned to his village Ralegan
Siddhi in 1976, it was barren, drought stricken, and little different from the hundreds of
other villages in Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra. The wells were dry. To survive, several
villagers had found an alternative occupation—brewing illicit liquor. Alcoholism was
rampant. Every summer, people either walked miles to work on Maharashtra government’s
drought relief projects, or left the village in search of work.
The first thing Hazare did was to rebuild a dilapidated temple using his own meager pro-
vident fund. He found people coming forward voluntarily to help either with money or with
labour. A youth club was formed. And Hazare learnt his first lesson: ‘If people are convinced
that you are not selfish, they rally behind you.’ The temple became a place where people
gathered. Hazare used these gatherings to discuss village issues and plan collective action.
In a stagnant economy, Hazare set to work. He realized that a permanent solution could
only be found if agriculture could be made more productive. As lack of water was a major
constraint, Hazare tapped government schemes such as the Comprehensive Watershed
Development Programme to initiate soil and water conservation measures. To reduce soil
erosion and retain the meager rainwater, a mix of methods was used. Contour and nala
bunds were built. Trees were planted with the help of government social forestry schemes.
The district administration’s funds were tapped to repair the percolation tank.
When government funds ran out, Hazare suggested shramdan (voluntary work). The
villagers responded. They cooperated to build 42 bunds and dig 20 new wells. Cooperatives
of about seven farmers each were formed, among whom the water was distributed equitably
according to their needs.
Hazare, now called ‘Annasaheb’ (elder brother) by the villagers, wanted to close down
the liquor distilleries and outlets. He used his army contacts to find alternative work for
those who earned their living from distilleries. Many were taught vocational skills.
Meanwhile, more and more land was brought under irrigation. Water was lifted from the
Kudki canal, three kilometres away. A simple drip irrigation scheme was also adopted. Water
was supplied to plant roots by means of perforated pipes embedded in the soil. The area
(continued)
272 KALYANI KANDULA

(continued)

under irrigation increased from 45 hectares to 350 hectares. Crop yields increased dramatically.
By 1991, the cropped area had increased from 630 to 950 hectares.
After the water table rose from 8 metres to 14 metres, three bore wells were also constructed.
These were managed and operated by the youth of the village. Piped water from the bore
wells was supplied to clusters of houses. The rotation and timings for different outlets were
fixed so that no one had to walk more than 150 metres to fetch drinking water. A small water
fee was charged every month.
Anna Hazare made sure that each villager had a stake in the prosperity of the village.
Issues were discussed and debated, and decisions were taken collectively. To protect the
saplings being planted as part of the afforestation programme, villagers agreed not to allow
their animals to graze freely. Cattle were, henceforth, to be fed in stalls. Of the two lakh trees
planted, 90 per cent survived. Villagers jointly decided not to grow sugarcane because it
required a lot of water. Food crops were given priority. The only cash crops grown were chil-
lies and onions. Thirty biogas plants were set up. These were fed with human excreta as well
as cow dung. Smokeless chulhas were installed. The village has solar-powered street lights
and water pumps.
In a few years Ralegan Siddhi became a green oasis in a barren area. Blazing sunflower
patches grew alongside flourishing fields. The bunding scheme ensured year-round irrigation.
In the drought years of 1987–88, there was no shortage of drinking water. No villager worked
on a drought relief scheme as enough work was available in the village itself. The per capita
income increased from Rs 250 to Rs 2,200. And moneylenders found themselves out of work.
Socially, too, change was evident. Getting drunk became taboo. So did dowry and lavish
weddings. Every child in the village began to go to school, and 99 per cent of the children,
including girls, could study up to the tenth standard in the local high school.
The system of decision-making was organized so that both men and women could
participate. Fourteen committees in the village looked after separate subjects like cooperatives,
water supply, rations, etc., in which members had an active say.
A study done in 2002 found that a quarter of the households in Ralegan Siddhi earn more
than Rs 5 lakhs per year! A major bank has a branch located in the village, with the savings
of the villagers totaling Rs 3 crore!! All this is a result of the community’s sustained efforts at
ecological regeneration.
Hazare sees his challenge in working for success stories similar to Ralegan Siddhi’s in
nearby villages. ‘Because,’ he says, ‘if Ralegan Siddhi is a lone lamp, it can be blown out in
a storm. So, many more lamps must be lit’.
(Excerpted from CEE. 1998. Citizen Action).

INTERNATIONAL INITIATIVES

There are several initiatives at different levels to understand what sustainability means
in practical terms and to identify the actions needed for progress towards sustainable
 ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT: THE LINKS 273

development. A major initiative at the international level was the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, or the Earth Summit) held in
Rio de Janeiro in 1992, which brought together governments from across the world. The
principal outcome of the Rio conference was Agenda 21. This Agenda describes the actions
necessary for progressing towards a sustainable society.
The 40 chapters of Agenda 21 focus on a range of environment and development
concerns that include:

l International cooperation
l Combating poverty
l Changing consumption patterns
l Population and sustainability
l Protecting and promoting human health
l Sustainable human settlements
l Protecting the atmosphere
l Managing land sustainably
l Combating deforestation
l Combating desertification and drought
l Sustainable mountain development
l Sustainable agriculture and rural development
l Conservation of biological diversity
l Protecting and managing the oceans
l Protecting and managing fresh water
l Safer use of toxic chemicals
l Managing hazardous waste
l Managing solid wastes and sewage
l Managing radioactive wastes

Agenda 21 also stresses the initiatives required for strengthening the participation of
major groups, such as women, children and youth, indigenous people, non-governmental
organizations, local authorities, workers and trade unions, business and industry, science
and technology, and farmers, in the action for sustainable development. It also spells
out the means of implementation that include financial resources, transfer of technology,
science, education, legal instruments, etc.
Five years after the Rio conference, the countries of the world met again in 1997 to
review the progress that had been made towards implementing Agenda 21. While it was
recognized that several nations had initiated efforts, it was also noted that much greater
concerted efforts were required to put the Agenda into practice and to make real progress
towards sustainable development.
A decade after the Rio conference, the World Summit on Sustainable Development
(WSSD) was held in Johannesburg in 2002. The concept of sustainable development and
its value have gained recognition and currency in the decade since the Rio conference.
274 KALYANI KANDULA

This is reflected in the name of the latest conference to review the progess in the past
decade and plan for the 21st century.
The significant outcomes of WSSD were the Plan of Implementation and the Johannes-
burg Declaration on Sustainable Development. The declaration outlines the path taken
from 1972 when the first UN Conference on the Human Environment was held in Stock-
holm, to UNCED, to WSSD. It highlights present challenges, expresses a commitment to
sustainable development, underscores the importance of multilateral cooperation, and
emphasizes the need for implementation. The Plan of Implementation is a framework
for action to implement the commitments originally agreed at UNCED, and the action
plans for sustainable development in the 21st century. It has sections relating to Poverty
Eradication, Consumption and Production, Natural Resource Base, Globalization, Health,
Small Island Developing States (SIDS), Africa, Other Regional Initiatives, Means of
Implementation and Institutional Framework.

TOWARDS SUSTAINABILITY

Despite the currency of the term sustainable development, different groups of people all
around the world are still struggling to understand what it means for them and how
they can make it possible. When all peoples and governments share sustainability as a
common concern and work towards it, the vision of sustainable development may in
fact be realized.

I QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference between quality of life and standard of living? An

improvement in which of these would you like for yourself? Why?
2. What is the difference between growth and development?
3. How is development different from sustainable development?
4. The development path we have followed so far has created wealth and pros-
perity for a few, but it has not been able to banish poverty, illiteracy, disease,
unemployment, and gender inequality. Development should mean not just
economic prosperity for some; it must mean a better life for all. Name five
steps that must be taken to ensure this.
5. Ralegan Siddhi is considered a model of success in ecological restoration
and rural development. Do you think this model can be replicated in other
villages? If yes, why? If no, why not?
 ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT: THE LINKS 275

6. Name the two most significant environmental problems that affect the
development of your state.

II EXERCISES

1. If you were a planner and had 100 units to spend on the development of
your country, how would you allocate the money among the projects listed
below. Give your reasons for the various allocations.

Units
Projects allocated Reason for allocation
Raising income
Building schools
Providing basic health care
Education for girls
Building a dam
Establishing modern industry
Giving loans for village industry
Increasing food production
Improving roads
Introducing renewable energy
Building a fertilizer plant
Building an air-conditioned resort
Building a Disneyland

If you could add one project of your choice to those listed above, what would
it be and why? How many units of money would you allocate to it?

2. Read the following story and then answer the questions that follow:

Paradise Squandered!
Long, long ago on a little island, a happy people lived. Their island, Karu
[name changed], had everything they needed: coconut trees for food and
276 KALYANI KANDULA

drink, magnificent spreading tomano trees for shade, abundant bird life
and an ocean full of fish. Two centuries ago an English sailor discovered
Karu and called it Pleasant Island.
Another century passed before an expedition was carried out to Karu. It
was then discovered that the island had one of the richest piles of phosphate
rock on the globe. For most of this century, millions of tonnes of phosphate
were shipped to other countries, where they fertilized fields and farms.
Today the 20 sq km island has a population of 7,000 native Karuans and
another 3,000 imported workers.
Karu has only one road around the island, but the average Karuan family
has at least two vehicles. They also have microwave ovens, stereo equipment
and multiple televisions per family. Nine out of every 10 Karuans are obese,
and young men can weigh more than 135 kilos. Why? This is because their
native food was replaced by imported foods which are subsidized by the
government. Meat brought from another country more than 3,200 km away
is cheaper in Karu than it is in that country. Today Karuans even import fish!
The changed diet habits are showing their ugly effect on Karuans. A person
on the island can be expected to live only for about 55 years. Diseases like
hypertension, heart disease and diabetes are common on the island.
Karuans receive their housing, power supply, water, telephones, education
and medical services free or for a nominal charge. The tiny island has two
hospitals, and Karuans needing special treatment are flown at government
expense to other countries.
Where does all this wealth come from? The phosphate. What then is the
problem? The phosphate could run out before the next century. The govern-
ment is now desperately searching for more phosphate even as the interior
of the island lies ravaged by mining. They even plan to demolish the Presi-
dent’s residence in their search. Karuans continue to tear their island apart,
and live and spend as if there is no tomorrow. At this rate there may not be
one.
(Based on: Paradise Squandered. Reader’s Digest, August 1997.)

Questions
a. Karu is an example of economic growth without sustainability. Do you
agree? If yes, why? If no, why not?
b. How would you plan Karu’s development to make it sustainable?
 ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT: THE LINKS 277

III DISCUSS

Read the following letter, and then discuss the questions that follow:
Excerpt from a letter from Bava Mahalia of Jalsindhi village in Jhabua district, to
Madhya Pradesh Chief Minister, in 1994.
‘We are people of the river bank. We live on the banks of the great Narmada.
You, and all those who live in cities, think that we who live in the hills are poor
and backward, like apes.
We have lived in the forest for generations. The forest is our moneylender and
banker. In hard times we go to the forest. We build our houses from its wood.
From the forests we make baskets and cots, ploughs and hoes, and many other
useful things .... We get various kinds of grasses; and when the grasses become dry
in summer, we still get leaves .... If there is a famine, we survive by eating roots
and tubers. When we fall sick, our medicine men bring us back to health by giving
us leaves, roots, bark from the forest. We collect and sell gum, tendu leaves, bahera,
chironji and mahua.
The forest is like our mother; we have grown up in its lap. We know the name of
each and every tree, shrub and herb; we know their uses. If we were made to live
in a land without forests, then all this knowledge that we have cherished for
generations will be useless.
The river, too, is our sustenance. The Narmada has many kinds of fish in her
belly. Fish is our standby when we have unexpected guests. The river brings us silt
from upstream which is deposited on the banks so that we can grow maize and
jowar in the winter, as well as many kinds of melons. Our children play on the
river’s banks, swim and bathe there. Our cattle drink there throughout the year,
for the river never dries up. In the belly of the river we live contented lives.
You city people live in separate houses. You ignore each other’s joys and sadness.
We live with our clan, our relatives, our kind. All of us pool together our labour
and build a house in a single day, weed our fields, and do any small task as it
comes along.
You tell us to take land in Gujarat. You tell us to take compensation. For losing
our lands, our fields, for the trees along our fields .... But how are you going to
compensate us for the forests? ... How will you compensate us for our river—for
278 KALYANI KANDULA

her fish, her water, for the vegetables that grow along her banks, for the joy of
living beside her? What is the price of this? Our gods, and the support of our kin—
what price do you put on that? Our adivasi life—what price do you put on that?’
(Source: ‘We will drown but we will not move.’ Frontline, 4 June 1999.)

1. How would the damming of the Narmada affect the people of the village?
2. What does a better quality of life imply for the people of Jalsindhi village?

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
IUCN/IDRC International Assessment Team and Pilot Country Teams in Colombia, India and
Zimbabwe. 1997. ‘An approach to assessing progress toward sustainability—tools and training
series.’
Centre for Environment Education. 1998. ’EnviroScope: Manuals for college teachers.’ Citizen action.
Ahmedabad: CEE.
D’Monte, Daryl. 1985. Temples or tombs? New Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment.
‘Ecology and Principles for Sustainable Development.’ 1986. Proceedings of a conference hosted by
the Ladakh Project and the Ladakh Ecological Development Group in Leh, Ladakh, 2–4 September.
Gadgil, M. and R. Guha. 1995. Ecology and equity. New Delhi: Penguin Books.
Keating, M. 1993. Agenda for change. Geneva: Centre for Our Common Future.
Knox, P. and J. Agnew. 1998. The geography of the world economy, 3rd ed. New York: Arnold.
United Nations Development Programme. 1997. Human development report 1997. New York: Oxford
University Press.
———. 1998. Human development report 1998. New York: Oxford University Press.
Vivekanandan, V. and John Kurien. 1998. ‘Aquaculture—Where greed overrides need.’ The Hindu Survey
of the environment 1998.
 CHAPTER 13

CITIZEN ACTION
KIRAN B. CHHOKAR, MAMATA PANDYA AND AVANISH KUMAR

INTRODUCTION

It is happening all over the world. From remote Indian villages, the slums of Mexico
City, the rainforests of Malaysia, to the back door of the White House in the USA, ordinary
people are working for change through citizen action. By organizing into groups, they
cajole, demand, and persuade governments to save natural resources, build housing
for the poor, and halt the indiscriminate cutting down of forests. They force industries
to reduce pollution levels and persuade financiers to make environmentally sound
investments.
Such groups could be made up of just a few people or several thousand. They could
be informal groups or registered societies. The more formal and structured of such groups
are known as non-governmental organizations (NGOs). During the past two decades,
NGOs have collectively played an increasingly important role around the world. They
have initiated, catalyzed, mobilized, organized and supported citizen action for the pro-
tection of the environment. In a growing number of environmental NGOs, students play
important roles.
Although these citizen action groups are as varied as the people who join them, many
share common visions. They labour to reduce poverty, advance human development
and manage natural resources for the long- and short-term good of the community. Many
begin by tackling a local problem. After succeeding at the micro-level, they may form
coalitions with other groups to tackle larger problems.
Groups also share methods. They win victories through community action campaigns
by using similar components of management and strategy. NGOs have also strengthened
democracy throughout the world by giving voice to the poor and the powerless—people
whose interests and priorities may often be overlooked by public policy.
280 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR, MAMATA PANDYA AND AVANISH KUMAR

WHAT IS CITIZEN ACTION?

People, in informal or formal groups or as individuals, work out ways of tackling their
problems, improving their lives and fighting injustice. People’s concern for the environ-
ment has found expression as protests against policies, decisions or actions, and as positive
moves in exploring, suggesting or demonstrating alternatives.
Citizen action is a powerful medium of change. Groups have protested against the
building of dams and irrigation works which displace large numbers of people who
may benefit little from such development. People have opposed the setting up, or exist-
ence, of nuclear power plants and highly polluting industrial units near human habitation.
Recognizing the dangers posed by an environment over-exploited for its resources and
overburdened with wastes, people have come up with innovative methods to regenerate
the natural resource base and use it in sustainable ways.
Other strategies adopted by concerned individuals and groups to protect the environ-
ment have been to use the media to create awareness and pressure, and to seek legal
intervention. Groups have also set up and run non-formal education centres and organ-
ized awareness campaigns.
Some of these attempts have succeeded; some have not. But failure does not always
break the people’s spirit; they review and revise their strategy, and fight on. Irrespective
of whether the immediate objectives have been achieved or not, such initiatives by citizens
have helped heighten environmental awareness.
But what sparks off such actions? What motivates people to take charge of their lives
and do something to help themselves? This chapter takes a look at some stories of people
who, in different ways, decided to take action to achieve what they wanted.

FIELD ACTION: INSPIRING MODELS

There are several examples of local leadership which have found innovative methods of
socio-economic development for improved livelihood, equity and the sustainable
management of environmental resources.
One of the outstanding examples of natural resource management systems developed
with people’s participation and control is the Pani Panchayat programme, which has
tried to build a participatory and equitable system of water management in a drought-
prone area of Maharashtra.
Another inspiring example is from Mendha Lekha, a tribal village in Maharashtra. It
is the story of the struggle and transformation of a helpless, uninformed and fear-ridden
community into one that is informed, self-improving and empowered.
 CITIZEN ACTION 281

From parched lands to green fields

In the drought-prone Mahur village of the Pune district of Maharashtra, the residents could
not get enough food from their land. Drinking water was a problem. In the 1970s, Shri Vilasrao
Salunke decided to undertake an experiment on 16 ha of barren land leased from a temple to
find a long-term solution to the recurring drought. With his colleagues, Salunke built a perco-
lation tank on the land, contour-bunded and levelled the fields to trap water and check soil
erosion, removed stones and dug an open well downstream of the tank. A 7.5 h.p. pump was
installed to lift the water from the well for irrigation. They planted fruit trees on fertile land,
and grass and shrubs on uncultivated land. They also carried out experiments in soil and
water conservation.
Gradually, every villager began seeing the change. Whereas 10 ha of Salunke’s land
produced 200 quintals of food grains, 17 ha of their own land produced barely 10 quintals.
Salunke learnt from the experience that with irrigation, small farms intensively cultivated
can achieve higher levels of productivity than larger farms less intensively cultivated. He
realized that the overall agricultural production in the village economy would therefore
increase further if irrigation water was allocated to a large number of small farmers rather
than to a small number of large farmers.
Based on these considerations, a Pani Panchayat (water council) was formed. The key policy
of the water council therefore was water allocation, not in proportion to the landholding but
in proportion to the number of people in the family. A scheme aimed at better operation and
maintenance of irrigation was formulated. Inspired by the success of the model, other villagers
started joining the Pani Panchayat. Landless villagers were given land on lease.
The five basic principles of the Pani Panchayat were:

l Irrigation schemes would be given to a group of farmers. A family of five would have
water rights that would help irrigate 1 ha.
l Crops that require large amounts of water would not be allowed to be grown.
l Water rights would not be attached to land rights.
l All members of the community, including the landless, would have right to water.
l The beneficiaries of the Pani Panchayat would have to bear 20 per cent of the cost of the
scheme. They would have to plan, administer and manage schemes and distribute water
in an equitable manner.

Motivated by the desire to achieve the productivity of the demonstration model on their
own lands, the villagers worked together to ensure equitable distribution and management of
water. Spurred by promising results, they continued their efforts. Inspired by their success,
others joined in. Farms in Mahur began yielding three times the crop they had earlier yielded.
Because the Pani Panchayat model worked, it has sustained itself for a quarter of a century,
which is a remarkable achievement indeed!
282 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR, MAMATA PANDYA AND AVANISH KUMAR

Community-based conservation: Mendha Lekha shows the way

Mendha Lekha is a village of about 70 households located in the Gadchiroli district of
Maharashtra. It is inhabited exclusively by Gond tribals, who have lived and used the
surrounding forests since time immemorial. They depend on subsistence agriculture, daily
wage employment and forest produce. The area is rich in biological and cultural diversity.
In the late 1970s, the government proposed setting up two dams in this region. For the
economically backward tribals, these projects meant not only displacement from their
traditional homes and the social disruption that would ensue, but also the destruction of
large stretches of forest on which their livelihood and culture depended.
This realization led to stiff opposition from the local tribal community. A movement called
‘Save the Forests, Save Humanity’ became the spearhead of the opposition to the dam. In
the face of the strong opposition from the tribals, the government decided to shelve the pro-
ject. But this incident was instrumental in sowing the seeds of a strong movement towards
tribal self-rule in the region.
The demand for self-rule was validated by the initiative of the people to take on responsibil-
ity. After the movement against the dam, the villagers decided to take de facto charge of the
forests, which had traditionally been under their management until the government declared
them as Protected Forests in the 1950s. Subsequently, the village organized itself into a strong
unit. There were discussions on alcoholism, equal status for women in their society, the need
to protect and regulate the use of the surrounding forests, etc. As a result of these long and
transparent discussions, prohibition became a rule, a forest protection and management
system was developed, and an active village-level women’s body was created.
In order to sustain such positive changes and for continued development, the village united
itself into a body called the Gram Sabha (village assembly). The Gram Sabha, the main decision-
making body in the village, has representation from each family (at least two people—one
male and one female) in the village. Decisions are taken unanimously and implemented
through unwritten but strong social rules.
Subsequently, the village formed various other working groups to handle different respon-
sibilities. These were also forums for frank, in-depth discussions on various issues ranging
from immediate village problems and their solutions, to wildlife conservation.
In order to protect and conserve the forests, the villagers undertook water and soil con-
servation to arrest excessive run-off and soil erosion. They decided that the forest would not
be deliberately set on fire and that they would help to extinguish forest fires to whatever
extent possible. The villagers put in place rules about the extraction of natural resources
from the forest area. They are vigilant against illegal activities in the forest, and manage to
control encroachments in the surrounding areas. Forests are protected from commercial
activities, such as the extraction of bamboo by paper mills. The village has managed to get
into a Joint Forest Management (JFM) arrangement, convincing the Forest Department to
include, for the first time, standing natural forests in this scheme.
The achievements of the village include the protection and regulated use of its 1,800 ha of
forest, the creation of study circles and savings schemes, non-violent honey collection and,
increasingly, a move towards tribal self-rule, self-employment, gender equality and capacity
building. The people of Mendha Lekha are now looking forward to consolidating and
sustaining these gains through legal, political as well as social support mechanisms.
(continued)
 CITIZEN ACTION 283

(continued)

The spirit of the movement and its sustained outcome are best summed up in the words of
Devaji Topa, a participant as well as a leader of the ‘Save the Forests, Save Humanity’ move-
ment. He says, ‘Self-rule does not mean freedom to do what one wants; it actually means
being able to act responsibly, as an individual and as a society. It also does not mean cutting
ourselves off from the larger society. It means being able to assert one’s rights while recogn-
izing one’s role and responsibility in the society.’

CAMPAIGNS
Peoples’ organizations and NGOs have protested through campaigns against policies
and actions harmful to the environment. These have sometimes snowballed into mass
movements that have left an enduring effect.
Perhaps the most widely known campaign is the Chipko movement, which was an
organized to protest against reckless deforestation in the Garhwal Himalayas. Another
notable campaign was the Silent Valley campaign against a proposed hydroelectric project
in Kerala. These two movements are described here.

The Chipko Andolan

The Chipko Andolan—the movement to hug trees—was born one morning in March 1973 in
the remote hill town of Gopeshwar in Chamoli District. On that day a forest contractor and
his men representing a sports goods factory situated in Allahabad reached Gopeshwar to
cut 10 ash trees near village Mandal. The villagers courteously told them not to do so but
when the contractor persisted, they hit upon the idea of hugging the earmarked trees. The
contractor had to return empty-handed.
Some weeks later the same contractor surfaced at Rampur Phata, another village some 80
km away from Gopeshwar, with a fresh allotment from the forest department. As soon as
the villagers of Gopeshwar learned of this, they marched to Rampur Phata with drums and
songs, gathering more people on the way. A confrontation ensued and the agitators hugged
the earmarked trees to foil the contractor once again.
The Chipko movement reached its climax in 1974 when the women of village Reni, some
65 km from Joshimath, got involved in a dramatic way. One day when their men were away
in Joshimath protesting against the auction of a forest neighbouring Reni, the contractor
arrived at the village to begin felling, taking this as an opportune moment. Undaunted by
the number of men or their axes, the women of Reni led by Gaura Devi, a 50-year-old illiterate
woman, barred the path to the forest which went through the village. As the women stood
there, they sang: ‘This forest is our mother’s home; we will protect it with all our might.’
The genesis of the Chipko movement has both an ecological and an economic background.
The area was the scene of an unprecedented flood in 1970. The tragic aftermath of this flood
left a deep impression on the hillfolk and, with it, soon followed the appreciation of the vital
ecological role that forests play in their lives. The villagers here had also seen, and resented,
(continued)
284 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR, MAMATA PANDYA AND AVANISH KUMAR

(continued)
the manner in which successive governments—beginning with the British—had taken away
their forest wealth and turned it into a resource bank for faraway urban markets. Even for
minor forest produce and daily necessities like firewood, the local people had been forced to
become thieves in their own homeland. Slowly, the entire ecology of the region had changed.
The non-violent, action-oriented Chipko movement greatly helped to unite the people
and focus attention on the mismanagement of forest resources. Its Gandhian character brought
it considerable sympathy. The expert committee set up by the state government to enquire
into whether the Reni forest should be felled found that the Reni women were more correct
from a scientific point of view than the forest department. This gave the movement con-
siderable respectability. The committee concluded that because of the highly sensitive nature
of the watershed situated deep in the Himalayas, all felling should be banned to allow
regeneration. These developments did not make the forest department change its forest policy,
but at least in the Chamoli district it was no longer in a position to implement its policy of
selling forests to private contractors.
(Excerpted from: The Chipko Andolan. 1982. The State of India’s Environment 1982: A Citizens’
Report: 42–43.)

The Silent Valley movement is cited as an outstanding example of people’s action at

many of the major developmental debates in the country. The campaign raised questions
which added a new dimension to the environmental movement in the country. The debate
on environmental issues began to criticize more sharply, the economic and industrial
growth-oriented model that developing countries had adopted from the industrialized
world. During the Silent Valley movement, a new paradigm was articulated: ‘Develop-
ment without destruction’, that is, development that can be sustained without comprom-
ising the interests of either the environment or the people who depend on it.

Storm over Silent Valley

Tucked away in the Western Ghats, not far from Ooty, is a small and secluded forest in
Kerala known as Silent Valley. The 90 sq km area of the Valley is surrounded by high ridges.
It is one of the few places in India with no human habitation. Because Silent Valley has
always been difficult to reach, even on foot, it had remained a well preserved forest.
The forest is a storehouse of rare and valuable plants and animals. Cardamom grows wild
as do black gram, rice and bean. Several plants have medicinal value, such as the evergreen
forest tree—Hydnocarpus, whose seeds contain the oil used to treat leprosy. Rare fauna include
the Lion-tailed Macaque, Great Indian Hornbill, and Nilgiri Tahr.
This remote valley triggered off one of the fiercest environmental disputes the country
has known. It all began with an innocent enough proposal put forward by the Kerala State
Electricity Board (KSEB) to build a 130-metres-high dam across the Kuntipuzha river to
create a reservoir in Silent Valley, and use the impounded water to generate electricity.
Almost by accident the proposal came to the attention of an official in the central govern-
ment. Concerned about the protection of India’s environment, he asked for the project to be
reconsidered. KSEB had started work on it in 1973, but the shortage of funds had delayed
(continued)
 CITIZEN ACTION 285

(continued)
activity until 1976, when the Board wanted to resume building of the dam. By then a large
number of big trees had already been cut.
The issue came up before the then Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi, who had shown more
interest in environmental matters than other political leaders before her. She appointed a
committee in 1980 to look into whether the Western Ghats as a whole were in danger of
damage. The committee pointed out that Silent Valley was the last remaining example of
flora and fauna that had evolved to the fullest possible extent in a tropical rainforest, and
was an ecosystem undisturbed by human interference. Were the dam to be built, the unique
ecosystem might be irretrievably lost.
The committee argued that the 120 MW of power which the dam would help generate
were [sic] not so important for Kerala. The state had an even bigger hydroelectric project in
Idukki, capable of producing more power than the state required. The committee suggested
that the dam either be dropped altogether, or if it had to be constructed, it be completed
keeping in view certain safeguards. The KSEB, which was anxious to build the dam, readily
agreed to the committee’s conditions.
Around this time, a group of schoolteachers and others who constituted the Kerala Sastra
Sahithya Parishat (KSSP), became involved in the Silent Valley campaign. For many years,
this NGO had been writing and publishing science texts in the local language, Malayalam,
so that they could be read by a wider group of people, and science could become a tool for
social revolution.
Many of KSSP’s members were teachers of physics, chemistry and biology. They initially
thought it would be a good idea to dam the Silent Valley because it would help produce
electricity which would help the state to develop. However, some members such as Professor
M.K. Prasad, a botany teacher in a Calicut college, realized that many of Kerala’s environ-
mental problems were being caused by the cutting down of trees in the Western Ghats.
KSSP’s arguments, based on academic knowledge and reasoning, did not appeal to every-
body. The idea of conserving a virgin forest for its flora and fauna seemed irrelevant to the
people living near the proposed dam site, and to the inhabitants of the northern districts of
Kerala who were suffering due to an acute shortage of electricity and unemployment. The
Silent Valley struggle needed to consider not only the ecological and aesthetic value of the
Valley but also the socio-economic implications of the project. Keeping these in view, KSSP
conducted its own studies which showed why the Valley should not be destroyed and how
the same benefits could be obtained in other ways.
KSSP’s studies showed that the benefits of producing electricity would go only to a small
number of people as two-thirds of Kerala’s electricity was consumed by industries which
employed only a few thousand people. Another argument was that the submergence of vast
areas of forest would destroy the source of energy of a large number of people who depended
on firewood to cook.
Scientific bodies of botanists, zoologists and geologists, set up by the Central Government,
lent support to KSSP’s findings. They backed KSSP’s contention that rather than an overall
decline in rainfall, deforestation in evergreen forests such as Silent Valley results in an increase
in the number of dry days in the monsoon season. This means fewer rainy days but heavier
rainfall. In the absence of tree cover, the run-off of soil increases, thereby degrading the land
in the area.
(continued)
286 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR, MAMATA PANDYA AND AVANISH KUMAR

(continued)
Besides many NGOs in Kerala, the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) and other
environmental groups in Mumbai and other parts of the country supported KSSP. The support
of Dr Salim Ali, eminent ornithologist and personal acquaintance of Mrs Indira Gandhi, was
particularly valuable.
KSSP was able to rouse public opinion on the need to save Silent Valley. It had science
groups in many villages and its journals and newsletters reached out to a large number of
people. KSSP collected signatures of around 600 teachers, prominent citizens and students,
and sent a memorandum to the Kerala government. It organized street plays, exhibitions,
public debates, and a unique jatha—a marathon march—covering nearly 400 villages along
a 6,000 km route. Leading intellectuals of Kerala, who were members of KSSP, wrote letters
and articles in the press and participated in the public debates.
Because of KSSP’s involvement with students, across Kerala students proclaimed their
opposition to the project. This was the first time in India that teenagers came out on the
streets to protest against the destruction of the environment.
In protest against the Save Silent Valley committees that had mushroomed in the state
and in cities such as Chennai and Mumbai, a local committee was formed in Mannarkad to
save the project. Their argument focused on the high unemployment rate and the absence of
industries in the state, leading to the high rates of outmigration. Industrialization, for which
electric power was a must, was seen as the only solution.
The KSEB, on its part, tried to convince people about its stand. In this it was supported by
the local people near the dam who were convinced that they would find jobs either directly
during construction, or in industries which would subsequently come up in the area. KSSP
worked hard to convince the people that the promised benefits were only illusory and were
not going to be sustainable.
At this stage, another actor made a dramatic appearance on the stage—the Lion-tailed
Macaque, one of the most threatened species of monkeys in the world. It is found only in the
southern half of the Western Ghats. The survival of the monkey became an issue contested
by the pro- and anti-Silent Valley dam campaigners. Questions were raised about the import-
ance given to the monkey over the benefits that would accrue to humans by building the
dam. The debate attracted wide attention, and ultimately a resolution was passed by IUCN
(the World Conservation Union) asking the Indian government to conserve more effectively
the forests areas of the Western Ghats, including the undisturbed forests of Silent Valley in
Kerala.
As the debate grew more heated, both sides began to pressurise the central government
which had the final say in approving the proposal. Finally, on the basis of an examination of
the costs and benefits, as well as the Prime Minister’s support, the scales tilted against the
project. The Government of India advised Kerala to abandon the project. Silent Valley was
declared a National Park in 1985—which meant that no project could come up in the area.
But no battle in the field of conservation is ever final, and there is no guarantee that the
Valley will remain silent for all time to come. There have been faint rumblings in recent
years to revive the Silent Valley project. But should the need arise, the people of Kerala, with
a well-planned strategy and dogged determination, will undoubtedly be able to achieve
what they did in the past.
(Darryl D’Monte. 1991. Storm over Silent Valley; M.K. Prasad, The Silent Valley Crusade: A
case study.)
 CITIZEN ACTION 287

SEEKING LEGAL REDRESS

A powerful tactic available to individuals and groups concerned about the environment,
and one which they have increasingly used in recent years, is public interest litigation.
Whereas in the past, lawsuits could be filed only by those directly affected or aggrieved
by an action, now any individual or group can go to court to seek redress or intervention
in actions that are likely to be harmful to public interest.

Constitution of India on environment

The Constitution of India guarantees every citizen the fundamental right to life and personal
liberty. Under Article 48 (A) of the Constitution, the State of India is also required to endeavour
to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the
country. The Constitution also makes it the duty of every citizen of India to protect and im-
prove the natural environment, including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife, and to have
compassion for living creatures.
The Right to Life is guaranteed under Article 21, which states that ‘No person shall be de-
prived of his life or personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law.’
Over the last two decades, this Article has undergone progressive interpretations to include
a number of rights, which interpret the right to life and liberty in the broadest sense.
The Supreme Court in a landmark judgement (Francis Coralie vs The Administrator, Union
Territory of Delhi and others, AIR 1981), observed, ‘We think that the Right to Life includes the
right to live with human dignity and all that goes along with it .... The magnitude and content
of the components of this right would depend upon the extent of development of the country,
but it must, in any view of the matter, include the right to the basic necessities of life.’

Drawing upon the relevant articles in the Constitution, the Supreme Court now recogn-
izes public interest litigation (PIL) as a constitutional obligation of the courts. PIL is a
form of writ petition which can be filed by anybody, even if the person is not directly
affected by the perceived injustice. This has enabled environmentally conscious, public-
spirited individuals or groups, to have easy access to the highest court of the nation.
PILs have become a collaborative effort between the petitioner, the state or public author-
ity, and the court, to redress the breach of a fundamental right.
The Supreme Court has played a proactive role in enhancing the use of PILs. To ensure
that expensive and complicated court procedures do not stand in the way of ordinary
citizens seeking access to justice, Justice P.N. Bhagwati observed that ‘... this court will
not insist on a regular writ petition and even a letter addressed by a public spirited indi-
vidual or a social action group acting pro bono publico would suffice to ignite the jurisdic-
tion of this court.’ Any member of the public can thus move the court for a social cause
even through a letter, which would be entertained as a writ petition by the court. More-
over, the fees in the case of a PIL are very nominal.
288 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR, MAMATA PANDYA AND AVANISH KUMAR

There are also instances where media reports having been accepted by the courts as
adequate for initiating public interest proceedings. In 1994, the High Court of Gujarat
initiated action against the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation and the Ahmedabad
Urban Development Agency on the basis of newspaper reports and letters to the editor
about the appalling condition of roads in the city after the heavy rains that year. As a
result, most of the roads were resurfaced.
Perhaps the first case which directly addressed the conflict between environmental
balance and misguided development through such litigation was the Doon Valley case.

Saving the Doon Valley

Doon Valley (in the state of Uttaranchal) receives plentiful rainfall during the monsoon season.
In the valley, the roots of trees helped water to infiltrate the soil, and the limestone beds
occurring below the ground acted as large aquifers. The streams originating from this valley
used to flow even in the dry season, and provided a perennial supply to the river Yamuna.
But uncontrolled limestone quarrying in the region and large-scale deforestation endangered
the delicate ecological balance of the area, causing the streams to dry up.
In 1983, the Rural Litigation Entitlement Kendra (RLEK), a voluntary organization based
at Dehra Dun, wrote a letter to the Supreme Court about the situation. The Court treated
this letter as a writ petition. It directed the District Magistrate of Dehra Dun to stop quarrying
operations in the valley, taking note of the fact that the excavation of limestone was adversely
affecting the perennial water springs. Further, the Court directed the state to pay RLEK a
sum of Rs 10,000 for the service rendered by the organization. The Court in its judgement
also reminded citizens of their duty with respect to the environment. The verdict states:
‘Preservation of the environment and keeping the ecological balance unaffected is a task
which not only Governments, but also every citizen must undertake. It is a social obligation
and let us remind every Indian citizen that it is his fundamental duty as enshrined in Article
51–A (g) of the Constitution.’

The story of M.C. Mehta bears out how, with dogged determination and perseverance,
a lone individual can effectively use the provision of public interest litigation to secure
far-reaching judgements to protect and assert the right of citizens to a clean and healthy
environment.
For several long years, starting in 1984, M.C. Mehta battled in the Supreme Court
every Friday on behalf of the Taj Mahal. His crusade was to convince the Supreme Court
to either move or shut down the iron foundries, glass factories and the Mathura Petroleum
Refinery, situated in the vicinity of the Taj, which were enveloping it in sulphurous,
acidic smoke.
In 1993, after nearly a decade of court battles, the Supreme Court ordered the closure
of 212 small factories surrounding the Taj Mahal because they had not installed pollution
control devices. Another 300 factories were given notices to install the necessary devices.
The Agra thermal power plant was also shut down. Over the years, nearly 50,000 trees
 CITIZEN ACTION 289

have been planted around the Taj to provide a green cover against the surrounding
pollution.
The Taj campaign was only the beginning; environmental cases have now become
Mehta’s forte. A few years later, on discovering that some stone quarries in Delhi were
responsible for the widespread incidence of the dust-caused cough that had become a
major local problem, he succeeded in getting the quarries to close down. In another case,
he has secured a Supreme Court order closing 30 polluting factories in the State of West
Bengal on the basis of a PIL against the industrial pollution of the river Ganga. Mehta’s
Ganga case, which reportedly began the cleaning up process of the river, is possibly one
of the biggest PILs in India, affecting people, towns and villages, all the way from the
northern states of Uttaranchal and UP, to Bihar and West Bengal on the east coast of India.
Apart from the 30 units that were hauled up in West Bengal, 157 other factories have
been indicted and 300-odd municipalities have been asked to clean up their operations.
There have been a number of other significant cases where Mehta has been given
favourable judgements for his petitions. In the Shriram Gas Leakage Case, not only was
the unit ordered to close but compensation was also granted for the victims. Acting on
another of his PILs in 1991, the Supreme Court directed the Union of India to disseminate
information relating to the environment in national and regional languages through the
audio-visual media, and also to introduce the environment as a compulsory subject in
schools and colleges.
In April 1996, the Goldman Environmental Foundation in the USA honoured Mehta with
the seventh annual Goldman environmental prize. Every year the prize goes to six leading
environmentalists, one from each of the inhabited continents of the earth. The foundation
described Mehta as an ‘unstoppable public interest attorney’ and ‘the most successful
environmental litigator in the world.’ In 1997, Mehta won the coveted Magsaysay Award.
Perhaps the most significant outcome of Mehta’s successes has been that they have
created an atmosphere of sympathy for environmental concerns among the judiciary.
Article 21 of the Indian Constitution has emerged as an endorsement of the contention
that ‘right to life’ includes the right to a healthy environment. Thanks to Mehta’s legal
crusade, living free from pollution is emerging as a new civil right.

ADVOCACY AND ACTION SUPPORT

Advocacy is a form of persuasion to influence opinion and policy. A variety of individuals
and organizations provide such support to environmental groups working on field and
action projects. These include activists (a term now used for individuals working in as-
sociation with others, committed to bringing about radical change through direct action),
social scientists, lawyers, consumer groups and journalists. Through media exposure and
by assisting with legal support, providing information and training, mobilizing public
opinion and influencing the actions of the state, they have lent powerful support to the
environmental movement in India.
290 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR, MAMATA PANDYA AND AVANISH KUMAR

What follows is a story of how a combination of a sustained media campaign, net-

working and legal action was able to save a part of a wildlife sanctuary threatened by a
substantial reduction in its area by a government denotification order.

Bid to save a Sanctuary

The Narayan Sarovar Sanctuary in the Kachchh district of Gujarat is characterized by scrub
forest typical of a semi-arid ecosystem. It supports a rich variety of vegetation and wildlife,
including the highly endangered chinkara (Indian gazelle), pangolin and caracal. In 1993,
the state government issued a denotification order reducing the area of the sanctuary to
94 sq km from its original size of 765.79 sq km. This was done in order to permit limestone
mining and to set up cement factories in the area.
A press campaign was initiated in 1993 by the Centre for Environment Education’s News
and Features Service (CEE-NFS), alerting the public about the denotification and its likely
impact on the fragile ecosystem of the area.
The news report by CEE-NFS attracted a number of petitions filed by concerned citizens
challenging the denotification. CEE-NFS provided legal analysis on the progress of court
actions. One of the important strategies of the campaign was to highlight the issue as one
requiring immediate attention. The campaign kept the issue alive by keeping track of the
political and legal drama that surrounded this clash of commercial, developmental and
conservation interests.
It later networked with the Consumer Education and Research Society (CERS—an NGO
involved with consumer and environmental protection through the use of media, research
and law), providing them with information to back their petition against the denotification.
The CERS filed a public interest litigation, challenging the legality of the denotification under
Section 48A of the Constitution, which makes it the duty of the state to preserve the environ-
ment, and also Section 26A of the Wildlife Act.
CERS succeeded in procuring a stay. In March 1995, the Gujarat High Court cancelled the
denotification on the grounds that it ignored the Wildlife Protection Act which requires the
approval of the state legislature before the boundaries of a sanctuary can be altered. But on
27 July 1995, the state government approached the legislative assembly and pushed through
the denotification. The only concession was that the area denotified was reduced and 444 sq
km of the original area was to remain a part of the sanctuary.

Another example of the effective use of media to inform the public and influence
policy is the Down to Earth magazine brought out by the Delhi-based NGO, Centre for
Science and Environment (CSE).

Down to Earth
In the early 1990s, after the Earth Summit, media coverage of environmental issues increased
rapidly. The Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), working to raise awareness about
environment and development issues, felt that while these issues did get media coverage,
(continued)
 CITIZEN ACTION 291

(continued)
the process of reporting was, by and large, event-oriented, and lacked depth and analysis. It
also strongly felt that grass-roots efforts were not given adequate coverage.
To fill this gap, the CSE, in May 1992, launched a science and environmental fortnightly
magazine named Down to Earth. The magazine attempts to cover the latest developments in
the fields of environment, science and technology. The range of issues includes those that
affect development and sustainability—environment, energy, health, population, forestry,
pollution, habitat degradation, wildlife management, water management, traditional know-
ledge, women, tribal communities, nomads and other marginalized groups, agriculture and
animal care, community participation, legal and financial institutions and others.
Since its launch in May 1992, the magazine has covered national as well as international
issues related to science, environment and development at the macro-level, and documented
innovative efforts at the grass roots. It continues in its mission to bring all this information to
the policy makers and the public, quickly and accurately.

POWER OF YOUTH
Students have played key roles in environmental and social campaigns around the world.
Young people have enormous potential to work for change. They tend to be more idealistic
and enthusiastic than older people. They have bright ideas, energy and courage, and are
often better informed than adults. Most young people believe they can change the world.
All these characteristics lend them a force which, if harnessed, would make students
ideal agents of change. Political parties recognize this power. Many political parties in
India have youth wings through which they recruit students and channelize their
enormous potential in constructive (and sometimes destructive) activities.
But students do not necessarily need outsiders to channelize their power. There are
several instances of students deciding to take on issues which they feel strongly about. It
could be an injustice or a problem in their school or college or in their community. For
example, the members of the Forest Youth Clubs (FYCs) of Saurashtra achieved what
most considered impossible. They opposed the plans of a highly respected and popular
religious leader, and won.

Youth takes on religious might

The Girnar hill, in the Junagadh district of Gujarat, is a popular destination for pilgrims.
Covered by a dry deciduous forest, the area is home to a variety of flora and fauna. At the
top of the hill is a cluster of temples. Hundreds of devotees visit these temples every day,
and leave behind a lot of litter. Members of the Junagadh FYC go up the hill once a week to
clear up the mess.
In February 1994, Morari Bapu, a highly respected and popular kathakar, planned to hold
a ten-day-long katha (religious discourse) at Girnar. At least 10,000 followers were expected

(continued)
292 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR, MAMATA PANDYA AND AVANISH KUMAR

(continued)
to attend the katha. Knowing what a few hundred visitors could do to the environment, the
school and college students who were members of the Junagadh FYC feared that such a
large influx would create havoc on the natural environment. Rare flowers would be plucked,
innumerable insects would be trampled, and animals and birds would be disturbed. Twigs
and branches would be indiscriminately cut to light fires for cooking. Cigarette butts not
properly extinguished could cause forest fires. Dirt and soap added to the water of the clear
streams would affect not only the forest denizens, but also innumerable people downstream.
Concerned about the damage that the prolonged presence of so many people would cause
to Girnar, the young members of the FYCs launched an intensive campaign to prevent the
katha from being held there.
Considering the large following of Morari Bapu all over Gujarat, the FYC of Junagadh
decided to seek the support of all the FYCs in the state. Members of the youth clubs organized
public meetings at several places, at which they explained the environmental damage that
the katha would cause. They argued and urged that as no religion encourages or approves of
harm being caused to Mother Nature, the katha should not be held at Girnar.
FYC members contributed money and bought 10,000 postcards. They set up counters in
different parts of Junagadh city and distributed the postcards free of charge with the request
that people write to Morari Bapu opposing the venue of the katha. At least 8,000 complied.
The intense concern and involvement of these young people won them the support of their
families, relatives and friends in their campaign. So determined were these youngsters that
they refused to yield even to political pressure. Realizing that he faced such overwhelming
opposition, Morari Bapu finally gave in. The katha at Girnar was called off. The determination
of the youth of Saurashtra had won the day.

INDIVIDUAL ACTION
It is important to recognize that we do not have to be activists to bring about change.
Mahatma Gandhi once said:

I think it is necessary to emphasize this fact: No one need wait for anyone else to
adopt a human and enlightened course of action. Men generally hesitate to make a
begin-ning if they feel that the objective cannot be achieved in its entirety. It is
precisely this attitude of mind that is the greater obstacle to progress—an obstacle
that each man, if he only wills it, can clear a way himself and so influence others.

Collective action, in fact, is often seen to have snowballed from individual initiative
which provided the leadership.
Students acting individually or collectively can make a difference. They can participate
in the work of environmental groups or organize themselves and mobilize others in their
own community. They can contribute by:

l writing letters to the editor about local environmental issues and what can be
done about them,
 CITIZEN ACTION 293

l bringing local environmental issues to the attention of the local radio or television
station,
l participating in citizen action campaigns,
l setting up an environmental group or ‘Eco Club’ and recruiting other members,
l lobbying decision makers at the local level, such as the municipal commissioner,
corporators, panchayat members, and MLAs,
l studying disciplines useful for future careers in voluntary work (other Indian
languages, economics, ecology, rural management, social work, public health,
natural resource policy, hydrology, anthropology, etc.) and,
l when necessary, by seeking court intervention through public interest litigations.

There are several actions that an individual can take to make a difference. For real
effectiveness and wider impact, it is necessary that actions of individuals coalesce into
collective action.

COLLECTIVE ACTION
People have long recognized that there is power in numbers. They have organized them-
selves, formally or informally, temporarily or on a long-term basis, around specific issues
or broader ideological considerations, whenever they have felt the need to do so.
When working towards a common goal, there is synergy in working together. By pool-
ing their skills, experience, knowledge and resources, people can usually achieve much
more than they would if each one worked alone. Together people can plan, organize and
act to demand or create change.
Citizen action is becoming important in influencing environmental and development
policy in many parts of the world. It is likely to assume an even greater role in the future.
The stories in this chapter bear out what the famous anthropologist Margaret Mead
once said, ‘Never doubt that a group of thoughtful, committed individuals can change
the world. Indeed it is the only thing that ever did.’

Working for change

The difference between the success and failure of an action campaign can lie in the organizing
techniques. The following are some components of effective local citizen action campaigns.

Identifying issues and goal(s)

l Begin with an understanding of overall concerns, and narrow the issues as much as
possible.
l Set a specific, simple goal.
l Start with a local objective.

(continued)
294 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR, MAMATA PANDYA AND AVANISH KUMAR

(continued)
Identifying the target audience
l Find out which part of the larger community has the power to make the required change—
a government agency, an industry, an elected official, or college authorities.
l Find out how the target audience works, and what motivates its actions.

Identifying secondary audience

l Find out who has influence over the target audience. It could be the press, public opinion,
NGOs, boards of governors, stockholders, etc.
l Research the secondary audience. What are their interests, what will get them to lend
their assistance?
l Analyse who and what factors are supporting the cause, and which are likely to pose
obstacles.

Tailoring the communication

l Become well informed about the issues.
l Research and communicate technical information carefully. Sloppy preparation can lead
to wrong decisions, damage credibility, and negate efforts.
l Recognize the fact that people join a citizen action campaign or group for many reasons;
take these into account.
l Sharply focused and clearly spelt out issues help to enlist the support of a wide range of
individuals and groups, cutting across ideological differences.

Recruiting allies
l Persuade other groups that want the same changes to join forces.
l Look for groups that can contribute the different skills that might be needed such as legal
advice, funding, access to large audiences, etc.
l Identify other groups that have power and influence over the target audience.

Choosing strategies and tactics

l Design an overall strategy. Most social change efforts require a series of events, not just
one big effort. It is best to combine a number of tactics and communications tied to the
goal and strategy and work out the sequence of events.
l Create group identity. Make everyone feel they are participating in a common cause.
l Involve members in planning. People who need to be involved in the campaign will be
more willing to carry out the plan if they took part in forming it.
l Choose actions appropriate for membership and budget. Don’t expect members to do
something they cannot do or cannot afford.
l Choose tactics that will hit the target. Tactics range from quiet deeds that members can do
at home to mass political actions that appear on the front pages of newspapers and on the
local radio and TV news.

Tactics that have helped citizen action battles

l Letters-to-the-editor campaigns (newspapers, magazines).
l Letters to lawmakers at local, state and national levels.

(continued)
 CITIZEN ACTION 295

(continued)
l Inviting radio, television, newspapers, etc., to cover events, and sending them news releases
about the activities.
l Petition drives.
l Endorsing or disclaiming political candidates.
l Organizing marches and rallies.
l Boycotting environmental offenders.
l Setting good examples, such as tree-planting, clean-up drives, etc.
l Workshops to demonstrate alternatives (alternative technologies, agricultural methods,
community hygiene methods).
l Performing protest drama, street plays and dance dramas.
l Filing legal actions, such as public interest lawsuits.
l Creating physical barriers (such as tree-hugging in the Chipko movement).
l Theme parades, celebrations.
l Creating music. Spontaneous and catchy songs about environmental or social change can
have a powerful effect.

Make sure that your tactics are lawful. If the plans ignore laws about public gatherings,
parades, demonstration and boycotts, members may be put at legal risk.

Evaluating Action Campaigns

Review and consider: Did the campaign work? Did it achieve the goal? Why or why not?
Which tactics worked? Why? Which steps failed? Why? How could it have been organized
better? What’s the next step?

I QUESTIONS

1. List five actions that you can take or initiate as an individual that would
make a difference to your immediate environment at home.
2. List five actions that can be undertaken collectively to tackle environment-
related problems or improve the environment in or around each of the
following: your college, your hostel, your residential neighbourhood, your
community, your town or city.
3. What are some of the common components that you can identify in all the
stories described in this chapter? Which of these are essential for the success
of any citizen action? Why?
4. How did the KSSP create support for its campaign to save the Silent Valley?
5. Advertisers make effective use of persuasion techniques—an essential
component of most campaigns. Review at least five advertisements of
products that you find very appealing or convincing or both. Which elements
296 KIRAN B. CHHOKAR, MAMATA PANDYA AND AVANISH KUMAR

or techniques of communication used in the ads make them persuasive?

Which of these elements or techniques could be effectively used in a citizen
action campaign? How?
6. Do you know of any environmental NGOs in your area? What are they
working on? If you would like to find out, e-mail [email protected] or
write to ENVIS, Centre for Environment Education, Thaltej Tekra,
Ahmedabad—380054, Gujarat.

II EXERCISES

1. Think of an environment-related issue in your college (it could be water

wastage, unkempt and littered surroundings, unnecessary use of petrol-
driven vehicles, or any other). Plan and work out a strategy for a campaign
to involve all the students as well as staff in tackling the identified issue.
Describe the steps in the campaign, in the planned sequence, and discuss
the different tactics/media you would use for this. Develop a systematic
strategy document.
2. Review the newspapers for a citizen action campaign that is currently taking
place, or has taken place in the recent past, in your area. It need not neces-
sarily be an environmental campaign. Collect all the information you can
about it through news reports, organizational literature and interviews with
leaders. Based on all the information, do you think the campaign will be (or
was, depending on whether it is continuing or is over) successful or not,
and why? What are your criteria of success?

III DISCUSS

The Silent Valley campaign raised questions that added a new dimension to the
environmental movement in the country. The debate on environmental issues began
to criticize more sharply the economic and industrial growth-oriented model that
developing countries had adopted from the industrialized world. During the Silent
Valley movement a new paradigm was articulated: ‘Development without Destruc-
tion’, that is, development that can be sustained without compromising the interests
of either the environment or the people who depend on it.
 CITIZEN ACTION 297

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
Agarwal, Anil and M.C. Mehta. n.d. Environmental movement: India factsheet 5. New Delhi: Centre for
Science and Environment.
Agarwal, Anil and Sunita Narain. 1992. Participatory environmental management: Cases from India.
In Towards a green world: Should global environmental management be built on legal conventions or human
rights? New Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment.
CEE, MoEF, UNDP. 2002. Towards sustainability: Stories from India. Ahmedabad.
Centre for Science and Environment. 1982. ‘The Chipko Andolan.’ The state of India’s environment 1982:
A citizens’ report, pp. 42–43. New Delhi.
Chander, Mahesh. 1996. ‘Mehta bags Goldman environment prize.’ The Times of India, 23 April.
D’Monte, Darryl. 1991. Storm over Silent Valley. Ahmedabad: Centre for Environment Education.
Kane, Raju. 1990. Ralegan Siddhi: Green revolution in a capsule. The Independent. 25 May.
Korten, David C. 1992. Getting to the 21st century: Voluntary action and the global agenda. New Delhi:
Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.
Mehta, M.C. 1992. ‘What the judiciary can do.’ The Hindu survey of the environment 1992, pp. 161–63.
Panjwani, Narendra. 1995. ‘On behalf of the Taj.’ The Sunday Review. (12 March).
‘Pani Panchayat—a successful model.’ 1996. News EE, 2(2) 5 March.
Prasad, M.K. n.d. The Silent Valley crusade: A case study. Kochi: Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishat.
Sharma, Anju and Rajat Banerji. 1996. ‘The blind court.’ Down to earth, 4(23): 22–34.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 1993. ‘People in community organisations.’ Human
Development Report 1993, pp. 84–99. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
World Resources Institute. 1992. ‘Policies and institutions: Non-governmental organizations.’ World
resources 1992–93, pp. 215–32. New York: Oxford University Press.
 APPENDIX 1

ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS IN INDIA

Environmental laws are generally framed and implemented to protect natural resources. In
effect, they may be framed to regulate the production or emission of pollutants, to minimize
the effect of pollutants or to regulate production processes that affect the environment. How-
ever, it is to be noted that the implications of enforcing environmental laws are also reflected
on the economic, political, social and cultural status of a country. Hence, laws as an instrument
for enforcing cleaner and efficient practices to safeguard the environment will keep on evolving
and being modified as new concepts in environment and development emerge. In a way,
laws that are currently evolving in India reflect the role of an informed judiciary that is sensitive
to inputs from national and global scientific research, peoples’ needs and socio-economic
issues.
Given ahead is a list of the various environmental laws in India. It has been arranged chrono-
logically to give some idea of how environmental laws have evolved in our country. We need
to keep in mind the political, social and economic status of the country at the time each of
these laws was being framed. There could be many challenges in fulfilling the purpose of the
law. They could be apparent (inbuilt) flaws existing in the framing of the law; differences in
the perception of stakeholders for the need for a particular law; inadequate understanding
and awareness of complex environmental issues amongst the public, the judiciary and
enforcement agencies; inadequate enforcement of the laws or the implementation machinery,
etc. Therefore, it is necessary to view environmental laws from a broader perspective.

ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION, ACTS,

RULES, NOTIFICATIONS AND AMENDMENTS

The Constitution of India clearly states that it is the duty of the state to ‘protect and improve
the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country’. It also imposes a
duty on every citizen ‘to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes,
rivers and wildlife’. Reference to the environment has also been made in the Directive Principles
 APPENDIX 1 299

of State Policy as well as the Fundamental Rights. Over the years, the Government of India
has promulgated a number of Acts, Rules and Notifications for the preservation and protection
of the environment.

I. ENVIRONMENTAL ACTS
The Indian Forest Act (1927) deals with the setting up and management of reserved, protected
and village forests, and controls the movement of forest produce. The Forest Act is administered
by forest officers who are authorized to compel the attendance of witnesses and the production
of documents [sic], to issue search warrants and to take evidence in an inquiry into forest
offences. Such evidence is admissible in a magistrate’s court.
The Forest (Conservation) Act (1981) provides for the protection of and the conservation
of the forests.
The Forest (Conservation) Act (1984) primarily focuses on prohibiting or regulating non-
forest use of forest land.
The Mines and Minerals (Regulations and Development) Act (1957) provides for the
regulation of prospecting, grant of lease and for mining operations under the control of the
central government.
The Atomic Energy Act (1962) requires the central government to prevent radiation hazards,
guarantee public safety and the safety of workers handling radioactive substances, and ensure
the disposal of radioactive wastes.
The Insecticides Act (1968) regulates the manufacture and distribution of insecticides
through licensing, packaging, labelling and transporting. It also provides for workers’ safety
during the manufacture and handling of insecticides.
The Wildlife Protection Act (1972) and The Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act (1991)
provide for the protection of birds and animals and for all matters that are connected to it,
whether it be their habitat or the waterhole or the forest that sustains them. These also deal
with the setting up and management of sanctuaries and national parks, setting up of the
Central Zoos Authority, control of zoos and captive breeding. They also control trade and
commerce in wild animals, animal articles and trophies. An amendment to the Act in 1982
introduced provisions permitting the capture and transportation of wild animals for the
scientific management of animal populations. Comprehensive amendments to the parent act
in 1991 resulted in the insertion of special chapters dealing with the protection of specified
plants and the regulation of zoos. The new provisions also recognized the needs of tribals and
forest dwellers, and introduced changes to advance their welfare.
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (1974) establishes an institutional
structure for preventing and abating water pollution. It establishes standards for water quality
and effluent. Polluting industries must seek permission to discharge waste into effluent bodies.
The Pollution Control Board was constituted under this Act.
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (1981) provides for the control and
abatement of air pollution. It entrusts the power of enforcing this Act to the Central Pollution
Control Board (CPCB).
300 UNDERSTANDING ENVIRONMENT

The Environment Protection Act (1986) was formulated in the wake of the Bhopal Gas
Tragedy in December 1984. It is considered as an umbrella legislation, which was put forward
by the Ministry of Environment and Forests to create comprehensive legal measures for safe-
guarding the environment, through the framing of rules, notification of standards, notification
of environmental laboratories, delegation of powers, identification of agencies for management
of hazardous chemicals, setting up of Environmental Protection Councils in the States, etc.
The laws have been made so stringent that even an individual or organization not directly
affected by the pollution may bring before the authorities a ‘Public Interest Litigation’.
The Factories Act (1948) and The Amendment Act (1987) concern the working environment
of the workers. The 1987 amendment empowers the states to appoint site appraisal committees
to advise on the initial location of factories using hazardous processes. The occupier of every
hazardous unit must disclose to the workers, the factory inspector and the local authority all
particulars regarding health hazards at the factory, and the preventive measures taken. These
preventive measures must be publicized among the workers and nearby residents. Every oc-
cupier must also draw up an emergency disaster control plan, which must be approved by
the chief inspector. The Factories Act, after its 1987 amendment, defines ‘occupier’ as a very
senior-level manager. Such a person is held responsible for compliance with the Act’s new
provisions relating to hazardous processes. Non-compliance exposes the occupier to stiff
penalties.
The Motor Vehicles (Amendment) Act (1989) states that all hazardous waste must be
properly packaged, labelled and transported.
The National Environmental Tribunal Act (1995) was passed to award compensation for
damages to persons, property and the environment arising from any activity involving
hazardous substances. The Act empowers the Centre to establish a national tribunal at New
Delhi with powers to entertain applications for compensation, hold an inquiry into each such
claim, and make an award determining the compensation to be paid.
The Energy Conservation Act (2001) aims at promoting the efficient use of energy and its
conservation by adopting energy efficiency measures in various sectors of the economy. Ap-
propriate guidelines for energy conservation, creating consumer awareness and disseminating
information on efficient use of energy, certification procedures, etc., have been incorporated
into the Act.
The Biological Diversity Act (2002) aims at regulating access to biological resources to en-
sure equitable sharing of benefits arising from their use. The main intent of this legislation is
to protect India’s rich biodiversity and associated knowledge against their use by foreign
individuals and organizations without sharing the benefits arising out of such use, and check
bio-piracy. The Act provides for the setting up of a National Biodiversity Authority (NBA),
State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) and Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) in local
bodies. The NBA and SBB are required to consult BMCs in decisions relating to the use of
biological resources/related knowledge within their jurisdiction and the BMCs are to promote
conservation, sustainable use and documentation of biodiversity.
 APPENDIX 1 301

II. ENVIRONMENTAL RULES

The Forest (Conservation) Rules (1981) provide for the protection of and the conservation of
the forests.
The Forest (Conservation) Rules (1984) focus primarily on prohibiting or regulating non-
forest use of forest land.
The Environment (Protection) Rules (1986) lay down procedures for setting standards of
emission or discharge of environmental pollutants. Broadly, there are three types of standards:
source standards, which require the polluter to restrict at source the emission and discharge
of environmental pollutants; product standards, which fix the pollution norms for new manu-
factured products such as cars; and ambient standards to set maximum pollutants loads in
the air, and to guide regulators on the environmental quality that ought to be maintained for
healthy living.
The Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules (1989) seek to control the
generation, collection, treatment, import storage and handling of hazardous waste.
The Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemical Rules (1989) define the
terms used in this context, and sets up an authority to inspect, once a year, the industrial
activity connected with hazardous chemicals and isolated storage facilities. The Rules spell
out the responsibilities of those handling hazardous waste. Under these Rules, a hazardous
industry is required to identify major accident hazards, take adequate preventive measures and
submit a safety report to the designated authority. An importer of hazardous chemicals must
furnish complete product safety information to the competent authority and must transport
the imported chemicals in accordance with the Central Motor Vehicle Rules of 1989.
The Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous Micro-organisms/
Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells Rules (1989) were introduced with a view to
protect the environment, nature and health, in connection with the application of gene tech-
nology and micro-organisms.
The Hazardous Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules (1998) bind health-
care institutions to streamline the process of the proper handling of hospital waste such as
segregation, disposal, collection and treatment.
The Public Liability Insurance Rules (1992) were drawn up to provide for public liability
insurance for the purpose of providing immediate relief to the persons affected by accident
while handling any hazardous substance. The Rule obligates every owner to take out an insur-
ance policy covering potential liability from an accident. The ‘owner’ is defined to mean a
person who owns or has control over the handling of any hazardous substance at the time of
the accident.
The Environment (Siting for Industrial Projects) Rules (1996) provide guidelines for the
establishment of new units with certain conditions, and prohibit the setting up of some
industries in certain locations.
The Recycled Plastic Manufacture and Usage Rules (1999) were notified to regulate the
use of plastic carry bags, containers, packaging materials, etc. The Rules prohibit the use of
302 UNDERSTANDING ENVIRONMENT

carry bags or containers made of recycled plastics by vendors for storing, carrying, dispensing
or packaging foodstuffs.
The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulations) Rules (2000) regulate production of ODS,
use and sale of ODS, export and import, and new investment on ODS.
The Noise Pollution (Regulations and Control Rules) (2000) deal with ambient air quality
standards in respect of noise for different areas/zones and enforcement of noise pollution
control measures. The state government may categorize the areas into industrial, commercial,
residential or silence areas/zones for the purpose of implementation of noise standards. The
state government shall take measures for [the] abatement of noise including noise emanating
from vehicular movements and ensure that the existing noise levels do not exceed the ambient
air quality standards specified under these rules. All development authorities, local bodies
and other concerned authorities, while planning developmental activity or carrying out func-
tions relating to town and country planning, shall take into consideration all aspects of noise
pollution as a parameter of quality of life to avoid noise menace and to achieve the objective
of maintaining the ambient air quality standards in respect of noise. An area comprising not
less than 100 m around hospitals, educational institutions and courts may be declared as [a]
silence area/zone for the purpose of these rules.

III. ENVIRONMENTAL NOTIFICATIONS

The Coastal Regulation Zone Notification (1991) regulates various activities, including con-
struction. It gives some protection to the backwaters and estuaries. This regulation strictly
controls development activity including tourism within a strip of 500 m from the seashore,
along the entire coast of India. While some activities such as setting up a new industry and
the expansion of existing factories are completely prohibited, other types of commercial activity
are restricted. Building activity is regulated depending upon the level of urbanization and the
ecological sensitivity of the coastal region.
The Environmental Standards Notification (1993) gives industry specific standards
adopted for effluent discharge and emissions for 24 designated industries.
The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of Development Projects Notification (1994)
makes it mandatory to get environmental clearance from the MoEF for 30 categories of projects
including paper and pulp, dyes, cement, etc. The guidelines set out certain areas to be avoided,
i.e. where these 30 industries cannot come up. These include ecologically sensitive areas,
coastal areas, major settlements, flood plains, etc. The notification mandates a public hearing
and requires the project proponent to submit an EIA report, an environment management
plan, details of the public hearing and a project report to the impact assessment agency for
clearance, with further review by a committee of experts in certain cases.
The Dumping and Disposal of Fly Ash Notification (1999) seeks to protect the environment,
conserve topsoil and prevent the dumping and disposal on land of fly ash discharged from
coal or lignite-based thermal power plants.
 APPENDIX 1 303

Some definitions:
Act—Statute which has been approved by a law-making body; decision which has been
approved by Parliament and so becomes a law.
Rules—General order of conduct which says how things should be done.
Notification—A formal announcement; a notice.
Amendment—An alteration or change of something proposed in a Bill or approved in an Act.

Sources: State of the Environment, India, UNEP 2001; <http://edugreen.teri.res.in>; Shyam

Divan and Armin Rosencranz 2002, Environmental Law and Policy in India. New Delhi:
Oxford University Press.

(Compiled by Shriji Kurup)

304 UNDERSTANDING ENVIRONMENT
APPENDIX 2

INTERNATIONAL
ENVIRONMENTAL AGREEMENTS

There has never been a single overarching blueprint for the evolution of international law
and institutions. Environmental conventions and treaties have been adopted in response to a
specific environmental challenge at a specific point of time.
The world’s governments have adopted several multilateral treaties and conventions on the
environment over the past 70 years. From protecting wild animals, to reducing toxic industrial
emissions, these legally-binding agreements form the basis for international environmental law.
They also play a vital role in setting international norms and strengthening cooperation
amongst countries with differing national interests. This has also in a way helped in the devel-
opment of national policies and legislation, environmental-risk management and solutions.

WHAT ARE CONVENTIONS AND PROTOCOLS?

Convention is a term generally used for formal multilateral treaties with a broad number of
parties. Conventions are normally open for participation by the international community as a
whole, or by a large number of states. Usually the instruments negotiated under the auspices
of an international organization are entitled conventions (e.g., The Convention on Biological
Diversity of 1992, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 1982, the Vienna
Convention on the Law of Treaties of 1969). The generic term ‘convention’ is synonymous
with the generic term treaty.
The term protocol is used for agreements less formal than those entitled ‘treaty’ or ‘con-
vention’. The term could be used to cover the various kinds of instruments. A protocol deals
with ancillary matters such as the interpretation of particular clauses of the treaty, those formal
clauses not inserted in the treaty, or the regulation of technical matters.
A protocol based on a framework treaty is an instrument with specific substantive obligations
that implements the general objectives of a previous framework or umbrella convention.
Ratification of the treaty will normally ipso facto involve ratification of such a protocol.
 APPENDIX 2
1 305

OTHER TERMS

ADOPTION
‘Adoption’ is the formal act by which the form and content of a proposed treaty text are estab-
lished. As a general rule, the adoption of the text of a treaty takes place through the expression
of the consent of the states participating in the treaty-making process.

ACCEPTANCE AND APPROVAL

The instruments of ‘acceptance’ or ‘approval’ of a treaty have the same legal effect as ratification
and consequently express the consent of a state to be bound by a treaty. The practice of certain
states is to use ‘acceptance’ and ‘approval’ instead of ‘ratification’ when, at a national level,
constitutional law does not require the treaty to be ratified by the head of state.

ACCESSION
‘Accession’ is the act whereby a state accepts the offer or the opportunity to become a party
to a treaty already negotiated and signed by other states. It has the same legal effect as
ratification. Accession usually occurs after the treaty has entered into force.

PARTY
By signing a convention, a state expresses, in principle, its intention to become a ‘party to the
convention’. However, signature does not, in any way, oblige a state to take further action
(towards ratification or not).

ENTRY INTO FORCE

Typically, the provisions of the treaty determine the date on which the treaty enters into force.
In cases where multilateral treaties are involved, it is common to provide for a fixed number
of states to express their consent for entry into force. Some treaties provide for additional
conditions to be satisfied, for example, by specifying that a certain category of states must be
among the consenters.

RATIFICATION
Ratification defines the international act whereby a state indicates its consent to be bound to
a treaty if the parties intend to show their consent by such an act.
 Some important international conventions and protocols
Convention/ Contracting Entry into
Protocol Objective parties Secretariat Comments force
Basel The Basel Convention on Transboundary 158 Secretariat of India ratified Entry into
Convention Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their as of 17 the Basel on 24 June 1992 force in
Disposal was adopted in response to concerns October Convention 1992
about toxic waste from industrialized 2003 administered
countries being dumped in developing by UNEP
countries and countries with economies in www.basel.int
transition.
Its objectives are
– to minimize the generation of hazardous
wastes in terms of quantity and
hazardousness;
– to dispose of them as close to the source of
generation as possible;
– to reduce the movement of hazardous
wastes.
Stockholm The Stockholm Convention on Persistent 151 Interim India signed on Yet to enter
Convention Organic Pollutants (POPs) is a global treaty signatories Secretariat of 14 May 2002 into force
on POPs adopted to protect human health and the the Stockholm
environment from POPs—chemicals that are Convention,
highly toxic, persistent, bioaccumulate and UNEP
move long distances in the environment. The www.pops.int
Convention seeks the elimination or
restriction of production and use of all
intentionally produced POPs (i.e., industrial
chemicals and pesticides). It also seeks the
continuing minimization and, where feasible,
ultimate elimination of the releases of
unintentionally produced POPs such as
dioxins and furans.
(continued)
(continued)
Convention/ Contracting Entry into
Protocol Objective parties Secretariat Comments force
UNCCD The United Nations Convention to Combat 190 parties UNCCD India: entry into Entry into
Desertification in those countries experiencing Secretariat force on force on 26
serious drought and/or desertification, Bonn, 17 March 1997 December
particularly in Africa. The treaty acknowledges Germany 1996
that the causes of desertification are many and www.unccd.int
complex, ranging from international trade
patterns to the unsustainable land management
practices of local communities.
UNFCCC The United Nations Framework Convention on 188 parties Climate India: entry into Entry into
Climate Change (UNFCCC) is the foundation of as of 17 Change force on force on 21
global efforts to combat global warming. The February Secretariat 21 March 1994 March 1994
objective of this Convention is stabilization of 2003 Bonn,
greenhouse gas concentrations in the Germany
atmosphere at a level that would prevent www.unfccc.int
dangerous anthropogenic interference with the
climate system. Such a level should be achieved
within a time frame sufficient to allow
ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change,
to ensure that food production is not threatened
and to enable economic development to proceed
in a sustainable manner.
Ramsar The Convention on Wetlands, signed in Ramsar, 138 parties Ramsar In India it Entry into
Convention Iran, in 1971, is an intergovernmental treaty as of Convention entered into force in
which provides the framework for national September Bureau, force on 1975
action and international cooperation for the 2003 Gland, 1 February 1982.
conservation and wise use of wetlands and their Switzerland There are 19
resources. It is known popularly as the ‘Ramsar www.ramsar.org Ramsar sites in
Convention’. India covering a
surface area of
648,507 sq km
(continued)
(continued)
Convention/ Contracting Entry into
Protocol Objective parties Secretariat Comments force
Kyoto In December 1997, more than 160 nations 120 parties Climate It shall enter into force Yet to enter
Protocol met in Kyoto, Japan, to negotiate binding as of 26 Change when not less than 55 into force
limitations on greenhouse gases for the November Secretariat parties to the
developed nations, pursuant to the 2003 www.unfccc.int Convention, which
objectives of the Framework Convention accounted in total for
on Climate Change of 1992. The outcome at least 55 per cent of
of the meeting was the Kyoto Protocol, in the total carbon
which the developed nations agreed to dioxide emissions for
limit their greenhouse gas emissions, 1990, have ratified or
relative to the levels emitted in 1990. acceded. The 120
parties that have so far
ratified or acceded to
the Kyoto Protocol
account for 44.2 per
cent emissions.
Convention The three objectives of the CBD are: the 188 parties CBD India ratified on Entry into
on Biological conservation of biological diversity, the as of Secretariat 18 February 1994 force on 29
Diversity sustainable use of its components, the fair December administered December
(CBD) and equitable sharing of the benefits 2003 by UNEP 1993
arising out of the utilization of genetic www.biodiv.org
resources.
CITES The Convention on International Trade in 164 parties CITES India ratified on Entry into
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and secretariat 20 July 1976 force in
Flora, CITES, aim is to ensure that administered July 1995
international trade in specimens of wild by UNEP,
animals and plants does not threaten their www.cites.org
survival. Since the trade in wild animals
and plants crosses borders between
countries, the effort to regulate it requires
international cooperation to safeguard
certain species from over-exploitation.
(continued)
(continued)
Convention/ Contracting Entry into
Protocol Objective parties Secretariat Comments force
Montreal The Montreal Protocol on Substances 186 parties Ozone India acceded on Entry into
Protocol That Deplete the Ozone Layer as of 12 Secretariat, 19 June 1992 force on
stipulates that the production and January UNEP 1 January
consumption of compounds that 2004 www.unep.org/ 1989
deplete ozone in the stratosphere, ozone
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons,
carbon tetrachloride, and methyl
chloroform be phased out.
The Vienna Convention for the
Protection of the Ozone Layer (1985),
which outlines states’ responsibilities
for protecting human health and the
environment against the adverse effects
of ozone depletion, established the
framework under which the Montreal
Protocol was negotiated.
(Compiled by Rajeswari Namagiri)
 GLOSSARY

abiotic components: The non-living components present in the biosphere. These include soil,
water, air, and energy from the various sources.
acid rain: Acidic fumes from automobile exhaust and industrial combustion combine with
water vapour in the atmosphere and fall on the earth as droplets of acid or acid-forming
compounds.
activist: An individual, often working in association with others, committed to bringing about
change through direct action.
adaptation: Any genetically controlled structural, physiological, or behavioural characteristic
that helps an organism survive and reproduce under a set of environmental conditions.
advocacy: A form of persuasion to influence opinion and policy.
agroforestry: Plantation on individual farmlands of appropriate tree species chosen for their
fuel value.
appropriate technologies: Form of technology that is typically fairly simple, locally adaptable,
gentle, earth-friendly, resource-efficient, and culturally suitable; that depends mostly on
local resources and labour; that can be easily expanded, reduced, moved, and repaired;
and whose failure temporarily jeopardizes or inconveniences a fairly small number of
people.
aquaculture: Farming of plants and animals that live in water, such as fish, shellfish, and
algae.
aquifer: Porous, water-saturated layers of sand, gravel or bed rock that can yield an eco-
nomically significant amount of water.
bioaccumulation/biomagnification: The process by which certain chemicals in the environ-
ment become concentrated as they move from one organism to another in the food chain.
biodegradable: Substances that can be readily decomposed by living organisms.
biodiversity: Short for biological diversity, it is the totality of genes, species and ecosystems
in a region or the world.
bioenergy: Short for biomass energy, it includes energy from all plant matter (tree, shrub,
crop) and animal dung. Currently biomass energy is characterized by a low efficiency of
use and a low quality of life due to the drudgery associated with its gathering and use.
However, biomass, unlike other renewables, is a versatile source of energy which can be
 GLOSSARY 311

converted to ‘modern’ forms such as liquid and gaseous fuels (biogas, methanol), electri-
city, and process heat.
biogas digester: A device which converts organic matter such as cattle dung or agricultural
waste by way of fermentation into a gas which is a 60:40 mixture of methane and carbon
dioxide.
biogeochemical cycle: Natural processes that recycle nutrients in various chemical forms
from the non-living environment, to living organisms, and then back to the non-living
environment, e.g., carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle.
biogeographical region or bioregion: A land and water territory whose limits are defined not
by political boundaries but by the geographical limits of human communities and
ecosystems.
biological oxygen demand (BOD): The amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic
decomposers to break down the organic materials in a given volume of water at a certain
temperature over a specified time period.
biological resources: Genetic resources, organisms, or parts thereof, population, or any other
biotic component of the ecosystem that have actual or potential value for humanity.
biomass: Organic matter produced by plants and other photosynthetic producers; wood, wood
wastes and by-products; agricultural and animal wastes; and municipal solid waste that
can be burned to provide heat or electricity, or converted to liquid or gaseous biofuels.
biomass gasifier: A device in which biomass can be converted to a high-energy combustible
gas.
biomes: Major ecosystems of the biosphere, they are usually spread over large geographic
areas with distinctive climates and are characterized by a dominant vegetation and animal
life.
biosphere: That part of the earth and its atmosphere that is inhabited by living organisms.
The earth’s surface and the top layer of the hydrosphere (water layer) have the greatest
density of living organisms.
biosphere reserves: Areas designated by the Man and Biosphere Programme of UNESCO.
These areas are meant to conserve biodiversity while allowing local communities to
continue to live within the reserve and follow their traditional lifestyles.
biota: Living organisms.
biotechnology: Any technological application that uses biological systems, living organ-isms,
or derivatives thereof to make or modify products or processes for specific use.
biotic components: All life forms present in the biosphere constitute the biotic component.
blow-out: The term is used to describe the explosive effect of rising oil or gas at a well that is
insufficiently capped or controlled. This can happen accidentally during the exploration
and production of oil and natural gas.
BOD: See biological oxygen demand.
buffer zone: The region near the border of a protected area in which some human settlement
and resource use is allowed.
by-law (also bye-law): Law or regulation made by a local, not a central, authority.
carbon sink: Land, forests and oceans which absorb carbon dioxide and act as its reservoirs.
312 UNDERSTANDING ENVIRONMENT

carcinogen: Chemicals, ionizing radiation, and viruses that cause or promote the development
of cancer.
carnivores: Meat-eating animals.
carrying capacity: The maximum number of individuals of a given species that can be sup-
ported by a particular environment.
catalytic convertor: A pollution-control device fitted near the exhaust pipe of automobiles to
reduce the amount of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons in the exhaust. The convertor
contains a catalyst (a substance that promotes a given chemical reaction without itself
being consumed or changed by the reaction) that oxidizes these compounds to carbon
dioxide and water as the exhaust passes through. Catalytic convertors need unleaded
petrol, which is at present available only in a few cities in India.
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): Organic compounds made up of atoms of carbon, chlorine, and
fluorine.
city: Large group of people with a variety of specialized occupations, who live in a specific
area and depend on a flow of resources from other areas to meet most of their needs and
wants.
climate change: According to FCCC usage, a change of climate which is attributed directly or
indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and
which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.
cogeneration: The production of two useful forms of energy such as high-temperature heat
or steam and electricity from the same fuel source.
coliforms: All aerobic and anaerobic, gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria
that ferment lactose with gas formation within 48 hours at 35°C.
commensalism: The cooperative relationship between organisms where one partner gains
from the arrangement while the other is neither benefited nor harmed.
commercial fuels: Fuels used commercially include the fossil fuels: oil, coal and natural gas;
nuclear energy; and hydro, wind and geothermal power.
community: A collection of interacting populations within a specific habitat.
competition: The struggle between two or more individuals or populations in a habitat for
the same resource.
compost: Partially decomposed organic plant and animal matter that can be used as a soil
conditioner or fertilizer.
conservation: The management of human use of the biosphere so that it may yield the greatest
sustainable benefits to present generations, while maintaining its potential to meet the
needs of future generations.
contour: An imaginary line that connects points of equal value, e.g., the elevation of the land
surface above or below some reference value.
contour bund: A narrow-based embankment built at intervals across the slope of the land on
a level, that is, along the contour. It is an important measure that conserves soil and
water in arid and semi-arid areas.
contour farming: Ploughing and planting across the changing slope of land rather than in
straight lines to help retain water and reduce soil erosion.
core zone: The region within a protected area that is ‘sacrosanct’ and free of all human
interference.
 GLOSSARY 313

coriolis force: An apparent force which, due to the rotation of the earth, acts normal to, and to
the right of the velocity of a moving particle in the northern hemisphere, the movement
of the particle being considered relative to that of the earth.
covenant: A formal agreement that is legally binding.
DDT: Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, a chlorinated hydrocarbon which has been widely
used as a pesticide but is now banned in some countries.
decomposers: Organisms that feed by degraded organic matter.
deforestation: The removal of trees from forested areas without adequate replanting; con-
verting forest land to other uses such as agriculture.
demographic transition: The hypothesis that as countries become industrialized, they first
experience a decline in death rates, which is followed by a decline in birth rates.
desertification: The conversion of rain-fed cropland or irrigated cropland to desert-like land,
with a drop in agricultural productivity of 10 per cent or more.
dissolved oxygen (DO): The amount of oxygen gas dissolved in a given volume of water at a
particular temperature and pressure.
domesticated or cultivated species: Species in which the evolutionary process has been
influenced by humans to meet their own needs.
drip irrigation: Also termed as ‘trickle irrigation’, it involves the slow application of water,
drop by drop, as the name signifies, to the root-zone of a crop. In this method, water is
used very economically, since losses due to deep percolation and surface evaporation
are reduced to the minimum.
drought: A condition in which an area does not get enough water because of lower-than-
normal precipitation or higher-than-normal temperatures that increase evaporation.
eco-efficiency: The production of goods in ways that damage the environment less and use
less resources without increasing the cost of the goods.
ecological niche: The unique functions, roles and habitat of an organism in an ecosystem.
ecology: The study of the interrelationships among micro-organisms, plants and animals,
and the interactions between living organisms and their physical environment.
ecosystem: A dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their
non-living environment interacting as a functional unit with the non-living components
including sunlight, air, water, minerals and nutrients. The term implies a partly bounded
system, with most interactions inside it. Ecosystems can be small and ephemeral; for
example, water-filled holes in trees or rotting logs on a forest floor, or large and long-
lived, like forests or lakes (IUCN 1992).
ecosystem diversity: Differences among groups of organisms in different physical settings.
ecotone: The transitional area between two or more communities.
effluent: Liquid waste matter like sewage or industrial discharge.
endemic species: A species that is native to a particular region, and found only in that region.
energy: The capacity to do work by performing mechanical, physical, chemical or electrical
tasks, or to cause a heat transfer between two objects at different temperatures.
energy conservation: Reducing or eliminating unnecessary energy use and waste.
energy efficiency: The percentage of the total energy input that does useful work and is not
converted into low-quality, usually useless heat in an energy-conversion system or
process.
314 UNDERSTANDING ENVIRONMENT

equity: Fairness in the allocation of and unhindered access to resources so that their benefits
are enjoyed by all, especially the weak and the deprived.
erosion: The process or group of processes by which loose or consolidated earth materials are
dissolved, loosened, or worn away and removed from one place and deposited in another.
estuary: The tidal mouth of a river where the salt water of the tide meets the fresh water of the
river current. Estuaries are a delicate ecosystem.
ethnobotany: The study of how different human societies utilize plants.
eutrophication: The enrichment of a body of water with plant nutrients—mostly nitrates and
phosphates—from natural erosion and run-off from the surrounding land. This leads to
an increase in the growth of organisms to a level where the oxygen supply in the
waterbody is depleted.
ex-situ conservation: Preserving life forms away from the natural habitat, in a zoo, botanic
garden, aquarium, gene bank or other facility.
exotic organism: A species, subspecies, or a lower taxon that occurs outside its natural ranges
and dispersal potential.
extinction: The death of a species, which occurs when the last individual of the species dies.
flood: The rising of a body of water and its overflow on to normally dry land.
fluorescent light: Light generated when an electric current excites gaseous mercury atoms;
these atoms then emit ultraviolet radiation that causes a chemical called a phosphor to
glow.
fly ash: Fine particulate, essentially non-combustible material, carried out in a gas stream
from a furnace, as opposed to the ash that remains at the bottom.
food chain: A series of organisms, each eating or decomposing the previous one.
food pyramid: A graphical representation of the food relationships of a community, with
producers (plants, etc.) forming the base of the pyramid, and successive levels repre-
senting consumers (animals—herbivores and carnivores).
fossil fuel: Any substance, such as oil, coal or natural gas, generated by the decay of organic
matter over millions of years.
gene: The basic unit of hereditary information.
gene pool: The collective name for all the genes of a particular population.
genetic diversity: The variation of genes within a species.
genetic engineering: The technique of altering the genetic make-up of an organism to suit a
specific purpose.
genetically modified organism (GMO): An organism whose genetic make-up has been
modified by genetic engineering.
geologic fault: A crack or fracture in the rocks of the earth’s crust with an associated move-
ment of the strata on either side. Faulting is caused by plate tectonics, when movements
in the crust create stress and tension in the rocks, causing them to stretch and crack.
geothermal power: The use of steam produced naturally in deep underground wells to run a
turbine and generate electricity.
germplasm: Genetic material, especially its specific molecular and chemical constitution, which
comprises the physical basis of the inherited qualities of an organism.
global warming: The warming of the earth’s atmosphere as a result of increases in the
concentrations of one or more greenhouse gases.
 GLOSSARY 315

greenhouse effect/gases: A natural effect that traps heat in the atmosphere (troposphere)
near the earth’s surface. Some of the heat flowing back towards space from the earth’s
surface is absorbed by water vapour, carbon dioxide, ozone, and several other gases in
the atmosphere, and is then radiated back towards the earth’s surface. If the atmospheric
concentrations of these greenhouse gases rise, the average temperature of the lower
atmosphere will gradually increase leading to global warming.
green revolution: A popular term for the introduction of scientifically bred or selected varieties
of grain that, with high enough inputs of fertilizer and water, can greatly increase crop
yields.
gross domestic product (GDP): A measure of the total flow of goods and services produced
by a country’s economy over a specified time period, normally a year. It is the sum of the
final outputs of the various sectors of the economy (agriculture, manufacturing, govern-
ment services, etc.) after subtracting inputs to production. GDP includes only domestic
production. Gross national product (GNP) includes overseas production.
groundwater: Water that sinks into the soil and is stored in slowly flowing and slowly renewed
underground reservoirs called aquifers.
gully plug: An artificial structure constructed on the gullies (channels) to check the speed of
running water, thereby preventing erosion and increasing percolation. It can be made of
wood, metal or stones.
habitat: A place or site where an organism or population naturally occurs.
hazard: Something that can cause injury, disease, economic loss or environmental damage.
herbicide: A chemical that kills a plant or inhibits its growth.
herbivores: Plant-eating animals.
homeostasis: The tendency of an ecosystem to return to a state of equilibrium.
humus: The complex mixture of decayed organic matter that is an integral part of healthy
soil.
hydrocarbon: Organic compound of hydrogen and carbon atoms.
hydroelectric power (also hydropower): The production of electricity using the force of water
falling from a height. The falling water turns huge turbine blades, which in turn create
the power to turn a magnet inside an AC generator.
hydrosphere: All the water on the earth—liquid water (oceans, lakes, other bodies of surface
water, and underground water), frozen water (polar ice caps, icebergs, glaciers ice in
soil), and the water vapour in the atmosphere.
immigration: The migration of people into a country or area to take up permanent residence.
incandescent light: Light generated by the electrical heating of a thin filament; as the filament
heats up it gives off light, as in an ordinary light bulb.
insecticides: Chemicals that kill insects.
in-situ conservation: Preserving wild plants and animals in their natural habitat, or
domesticated plants and animals in their areas of domestication or cultivation, and use.
invasive: A species occurring as a result of human activities beyond its accepted normal
distribution and which threatens valued environmental, agricultural or personal resources
by the damage it causes.
isotopes: Two or more forms of a chemical element that have the same number of protons but
different mass numbers due to different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei.
316 UNDERSTANDING ENVIRONMENT

land-use planning: The process for deciding the best present and future use of each parcel of
land in an area.
least-cost end-use energy planning: The planning of an energy system that delivers energy
services using the least possible energy.
limiting factor: An environmental factor which, when in excess or insufficient amounts, inhibits
the growth or reproduction of an individual or a population.
lumens: A measure of the amount of light produced by a light source. The efficiency of a light
source is indicated by the unit lumens per watt—a measure of the relation between the
amount of light produced and the amount of energy consumed.
mass transit: Buses, trains, trolleys, and other forms of transportation that carry large numbers
of people.
mechanical energy: The energy of a moving object. It is the moving force behind all machinery.
metabolism: The ability of a living cell or organism to capture and transform matter and
energy from its environment to supply its needs for survival, growth, and reproduction.
micro-watershed: See watershed.
monoculture: The cultivation of a single crop, usually on a large area of land.
mutagen: The chemical or form of ionizing radiation that causes inheritable changes
(mutations) in the DNA molecules in the genes found in chromosomes.
mutualism: An interaction between two species in such a manner that both species are mutually
benefited.
nala bund: A permanent structure made of stones and cement to check the flow of water in
the low-lying area between two hillocks. The arrested water percolates underground,
raising the groundwater level. The bund has a causeway for draining surplus water.
national park: A category of protected area designated under the Wildlife (Protection) Act,
1972, e.g., Corbett National Park. It is given a high level of protection, and certain activities
such as grazing are not permitted within the national park.
native species: A species that normally lives and thrives in a particular ecosystem.
niche: See ecological niche.
nitrogen fixation: The conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to nitrogen compounds that can
be used by plants.
noise pollution: Any unwanted, disturbing or harmful sound that impairs or interferes with
hearing, causes stress, hampers concentration and work efficiency or causes accidents.
non-degradable pollutant: Material that is not broken down by natural processes.
non-native species: A species that has been accidentally or deliberately introduced into an
ecosystem from another place, and does not naturally occur there.
non-renewable resource: A resource that exists in a fixed amount in various places in the
earth’s crust and has the potential for renewal only by geological, physical and chemical
processes taking place over hundreds of millions to billions of years. Examples include
copper, aluminium, coal and oil.
nuclear energy: A method of generating electricity in which the heat from radioactive decay
is used to boil water; the resulting steam is used to spin a turbine.
nutrient: Any food or element an organism needs to take in to live, grow or reproduce.
occupational hazard: A condition in an occupation that increases the peril of accident, sickness,
or death.
 GLOSSARY 317

organic compounds: Compounds containing carbon atoms combined with each other and
with atoms of one or more other elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur,
phosphorous, chlorine, and fluorine.
organic farming: Producing crops and livestock naturally by using organic fertilizer (manure,
legumes, compost) and natural pest control instead of using commercial inorganic
fertilizers and synthetic pesticides and herbicides.
ozone depletion: The decrease in the concentration of ozone in the stratosphere.
parasitism: Individuals of one species living in or on individuals of other species.
patent: The sole right for a term of years to the proceeds of an invention.
pathogen: An organism that produces disease.
perpetual resource: A resource, such as solar energy, that is virtually inexhaustible on a human
timescale.
pest: Unwanted organism that directly or indirectly interferes with human activities.
pesticide: Any chemical designed to kill or inhibit the growth of an organism that people
consider to be undesirable.
pH: Numeric value that indicates the relative acidity or alkalinity of a substance on a scale of
0 to 14, with the neutral point at 7. Acid solutions have pH values lower than 7, and basic
or alkaline solutions have pH values greater than 7.
photochemical smog: See smog.
photovoltaic cell: A device in which the sun’s radiant energy (sunlight) is directly converted
into electrical energy.
photovoltaic conversion: The conversion of the sun’s radiant energy into electrical energy,
usually through a device called a photovoltaic or solar cell.
plankton: Small plant organisms and animal organisms that float in aquatic ecosystems.
point source: A single identifiable source that discharges pollutants into the environment.
pollutants: Material or heat, the presence of which in undesirable amounts causes the
contamination of air, water, or soil. It may be a natural substance, such as phosphate, in
excessive quantities, or it may be very small quantities of a synthetic compound, such as
dioxin, which is exceedingly toxic.
pollution: An undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of air,
water, soil or food that can adversely affect the health, survival or activities of humans
or other living organisms.
population: A group of naturally interbreeding individuals of one species of plant or animal
living in a defined area and usually isolated to some degree from similar groups.
population density: The number of organisms in a particular population found in a specified
area.
population distribution: The variation of population density over a particular geographic
area.
population dynamics: Major abiotic and biotic factors that tend to increase or decrease the
population size and the age and sex composition of species.
poverty line: A level of income below which people are deemed poor. A global poverty line of
$1 per person per day was suggested in 1990 (World Bank 1990). This line facilitates the
comparison of how many poor people there are in different countries. But, it is only a
318 UNDERSTANDING ENVIRONMENT

crude estimate because the line does not recognize differences in the buying power of
money in different countries, and, more significantly, because it does not recognize other
aspects of poverty than the material, or income poverty.
predation: The consumption of one animal by another.
pro bono publico: For the public good.
producers: These are organisms which make their own food (also called autotrophs).
protected area: A geographically defined area which is designated or regulated and managed,
to achieve specific conservation objectives, primarily the conservation of wildlife.
public interest litigation: Lawsuits filed by any individual or group to seek redress or
intervention in actions that are harmful to public interest.
radioactivity: The energy released when an atomic nucleus breaks up.
rainwater harvesting: The process of collecting and storing rainwater from rooftops, land
surfaces or rock catchments using simple techniques.
recycling: Collecting and reprocessing a resource so that it can be made into new products.
renewable energy: Energy derived from sources which have the potential of being continually
replenished, for instance, solar radiation, energy from flowing or falling water, from
wind, etc.
renewable resource: A resource that theoretically can last indefinitely without reducing the
available supply because it is replaced rapidly through natural processes. Examples
include trees, grasses, wild animals, fresh surface water in lakes and streams, most
groundwater, fresh air and fertile soil. If such a resource is used faster than it is replenished,
it can be depleted and converted into a non-renewable resource.
reserves: Resources that have been identified and from which a usable mineral can be extracted
profitably at present prices with current mining technology.
run-off: Fresh water from precipitation and melting ice that flows on the earth’s surface into
nearby streams, lakes, wetlands, and reservoirs.
salinization: The accumulation of salts in soil, which can eventually make the soil unable to
support plant growth.
sanctuary: A category of protected area designated under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972,
e.g., the Shoolpaneshwar Wildlife Sanctuary. Sanctuaries are accorded a lower level of
protection than national parks.
seismic activity: Activity pertaining to or produced by an earthquake or other vibrations of
the earth and its crust.
sludge: A mixture of toxic chemicals, infectious agents, and settled solids removed from waste
water at a sewage treatment plant.
smog: Originally a combination of smoke and fog; but the term is now used to describe other
mixtures of pollutants in the atmosphere. Photochemical smog, for example, is a complex
mixture of air pollutants produced in the atmosphere by the reaction of hydrocarbons
and nitrogen oxides under the influence of sunlight.
social forestry: A term used by the National Commission on Agriculture in 1976 to denote
tree-raising programmes to supply firewood, fodder, small timber and minor forest
produce to rural populations.
solar cell: See photovoltaic cell.
 GLOSSARY 319

solar power: The process of generating electricity from the sun. Heat from the sun can be
used to turn water into steam to drive a turbine, or sunlight can be used to power a solar
cell.
solid waste: Any unwanted or discarded material that is not a liquid or a gas.
species: The unit used to classify the millions of life forms on earth.
species diversity: The variety of species within a region.
styrofoam: A light, resilient foam of polystyrene.
subsistence economy: An economic system where the primary goal is to produce enough
goods to meet basic survival needs.
succession: The process by which ecosystems and their communities evolve over time, altered
by, while at the same time altering, their local environment.
sustainable development: Development that ‘meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’.
sustainable management: The use and management of natural resources in a way and at a
rate that do not lead to the long-term decline of the resources, thereby maintaining their
potential to meet the needs and aspirations of present and future generations.
sustainable use: The use of components of biological diversity in a way and at a rate that
does not lead to the long-term decline of biological diversity, thereby maintaining its
potential to meet the needs and aspirations of present and future generations.
symbiosis: The relationship between two or more species that have a mutual interaction.
synergisms: The phenomenon in which two factors acting together have a very much greater
effect than would be indicated by the sum of their effects separately.
taxon (plural taxa): Any group of organisms or population considered to be sufficiently distinct
from other such groups to be treated as a separate unit.
thermal inversion: The layer of dense, cool air trapped under a layer of less dense, warm air.
This prevents upward flowing air currents from developing.
tiger reserve: A management category designated under Project Tiger and not under the
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. A tiger reserve may include within it national parks and
sanctuaries. For example, the Ranthambhore Tiger Reserve includes the Ranthambhore
National Park and the Kela Devi Sanctuary.
toxin: A poisonous substance.
traditional fuel: Firewood, dung and agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered
and not bought. Since it is difficult to monitor, traditional fuel use is not included in most
assessments of national, regional or global energy use.
transpiration: The process in which water is absorbed by the root systems of a plant, moves
up through the plant, passes through pores (stomata) in the leaves, and then evaporates
into the atmosphere as water vapour.
trophic level: Those organisms in a food chain that are the same number of steps away from
the original source of energy.
tropical rainforest: A dense forest that is comprised of tall trees, developed in hot, totally
frost-free conditions, where rainfall is both abundant and well distributed throughout
the year. The forests are dominated by broadleaved evergreen trees, which shed old
leaves and grow new leaves continuously.
320 UNDERSTANDING ENVIRONMENT

turbidity: A measure of fine suspended matter in liquids.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): Also called the
Climate Change Convention, the UNFCCC is the centrepiece of global efforts to combat
global warming. It was adopted in June 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janerio, and
entered into force on 21 March 1998. The convention’s primary objective is the stabilization
of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent danger-
ous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. Such a level should be achieved
within a time frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change
to ensure that food production is not threatened and to enable economic development to
proceed in a sustainable manner.
urban growth: The rate of growth of an urban population.
vascular plants: Plants with a vascular system, i.e., vessels that translocate water and nutrients
from roots to stems and leaves, and products of photosynthesis to other parts of the
plant. They include seed-bearing plants and ferns or fern-like plants.
water cycle: The process by which water travels in a sequence from the air (condensation) to
the earth (precipitation) and returns to the atmosphere (evaporation).
water table: The upper surface of the zone of saturation, in which all available pores in the
soil and rock in the earth’s crust are filled with water.
waterlogging: The saturation of the soil with irrigation water or excessive precipitation, so
that the water table rises close to the surface.
watershed: Land area from which water drains towards a common watercourse in a natural
basin. The size of a watershed forms a basis for classification into different categories.
One such classification is: sub-watershed (100–500 sq km), milli-watershed (10–100 sq km),
micro-watershed (1–10 sq km) and mini-watershed (less than 1 sq km). The size helps in
computing many parameters, e.g., precipitation received, retained and drained off.
watershed development: The process of carrying out a soil and water conservation programme
with optimal physical measures within the boundaries of a watershed for enhanced
agricultural production.
watershed management: Planning development and other activities for an entire water-shed
so as to maintain the overall water-flow characteristics of the area.
wetland: Land that is covered all or part of the time with salt water or fresh water, excluding
streams, lakes, and the open ocean.
wind farm: A cluster of wind turbines set up to generate electricity.
windmill/wind machine: A device that generates electricity inexpensively, reliably, and in a
non-polluting way by capturing the power of the wind. A basic windmill consists of one
or more blades, a mechanism to keep the blades rotating at a constant speed in the face
of changing winds, and a generator.
 ABOUT THE EDITORS
AND CONTRIBUTORS

THE EDITORS

Kiran B. Chhokar is a cultural geographer. She heads the Centre for Environment
Education’s (CEE) Higher Education Programme, and has been visiting faculty at the
Portland State University, USA. Dr Chhokar is also co-editor of Asian Women and Their
Work: A Geography of Gender and Development (1998), and is the series editor of the
EnviroScope series of thematic manuals for college teachers, developed in collaboration
with the World Resource Institute, USA. She is currently working with the University of
Lancanshire, UK, on developing a blended learning programme on Ecotourism,
Conservation and Development.

Mamata Pandya has been working at CEE since 1985. She previously taught at Lady
Shri Ram College, University of Delhi. Mamata Pandya’s primary focus is on development
of environmental education materials, in a variety of media, for both teachers and
students. She has published extensively and her previous publications include Guide to
Green Citizenship (2003) and Towards Sustainability: Learning from the Past, Innovating for
the Future (2002).

Meena Raghunathan is currently Coordinator, Networking and Capacity Building, at

CEE. She has been working in the area of environmental education for over 18 years. She
has been involved in the development of educational materials for teachers and students,
and has over several publications to her credit including The Green Reader: An Introduction
to Environmental Concerns and Issues (co-editor). Ms Reghunathan is the Vice-Chair (South
Asia) of the IUCN–Commission on Education and Communication, an international
network of environmental educators.
322 UNDERSTANDING ENVIRONMENT

THE CONTRIBUTORS

Seema Bhatt is an independent consultant working on biodiversity issues. She has

worked with World Wide Fund for Nature–India in its Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ Con-
servation Programme and was subsequently the South Asia Coordinator for the USAID-
supported Biodiversity Conservation Network. Since 2000, she has been part of the
Technical and Policy Core Group which has facilitated the formulation of India’s National
Biodiversity Strategy Action Plan.

Sunil Jacob joined CEE in 1991 after completing a Masters degree in Environmental
Science. He has been involved in developing environmental education material for
educators and children using a variety of media, and also in conducting training
programmes for pre-service and in-service professionals. His special interest is in the
use of ICT for environmental education.

Hema Jagadeesan has a Ph.D. in plant sciences from Madurai Kamaraj University. She
worked at CEE from 1996 to 2000. She is currently at the Hong Kong Baptist University
as Research Associate where she is working on phytoremediation of heavy metal pollution
and on urban waste management.

Shivani Jain holds an M.Sc. (Ed.) Life Science degree and a PG Diploma in Management,
Ecology and Environment. She has been at CEE since 1996 where she has been primarily
involved in networking, training and capacity building programmes. She has authored
a manual on ecology for teachers.

Kalyani Kandula completed her Masters in Social Work from the Tata Institute of Social
Sciences, Mumbai, where she worked for a year as a project officer. She joined CEE in
1996, and is currently heading their programmes in Andhra Pradesh. She has authored
Towards a Green Future: A Trainer’s Manual on Educating for Sustainable Development.

Vivek S. Khadpekar studied architecture in Ahmedabad and did his post-graduation in

Urban Studies in London. He is involved in the Urban and Cultural Heritage programmes
of CEE. His area of special interest is the historical evolution of cities and its impact on
their present form and environment.

Avanish Kumar worked as a research scholar at the Environmental Sciences Division,

National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, after completing his Masters in
Environmental Science in 1996. He joined CEE in 2000, where he has been involved in
developing reports, case study documents and organizing consultations for international
summits and meetings. He has also been involved in projects on education for disaster
preparedness.
 ABOUT THE EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS 323

Kartikeya V. Sarabhai is the founder Director of CEE. He did his Tripos in Natural
Science from Cambridge University, UK, and postgraduate studies at MIT, USA. He was
awarded the ‘Tree of Learning Award’ of The World Conservation Union in 1988 in
appreciation of his contributions to the field of environmental education and communi-
cation. He has been the Chair of the IUCN–Commission on Education and Com-
munication for South and South East Asia, and is the Vice-Chair of the IUCN National
Committee for India.

Sarita Thakore has been working at CEE since 1997 and was involved in the writing of
a teachers’ manual entitled Building Blocks: From Environmental Awareness to Action.
 INDEX

Abiotic components, 23, 36–37 Aquatic ecosystem, 24 Biological Diversity Act, 2002, 65,
Acid rain, 138 Aquifer, 77 300
Aesthetic pleasure, and biodi- Arya Vaidya Pharmacy (Coimba- Biomass, 106–07, 115–16, 121;
versity, 51–52 tore) Ltd., 67 potential of, 121
Agarwal, Anil, 78 Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecol- Biomedical wastes, pollution due
Agrawal, G.D., 97 ogy and Environment (ATREE), to, 143–44
Agricultural crops, diversity of, 165 66 Biopesticides, 164
Agricultural droughts, 85 Autecology, 21 Biosphere, 20
Agricultural sector, energy conser- Autotrophs, 21 Biotic components, 21–22, 36–37
vation in, 126; energy ineffi- Birth rate, 240
ciency in, 114; use of water in, Basel Convention, 306 Blue Revolution, 268–70
78–80 Bhagwati, P.N., 288 Bombay Natural History Society,
Agriculture, challenge ahead, 170– Bhatt, Seema, 47, 55 59, 286
71; classification of, 154; defin- Bhopal Gas Tragedy, 206, 300 Bose, Ashish, 243
ition of, 153; environment and, Bichhri village, water pollution in, Buildings and architecture, energy
161–67; evolution of, 153; ferti- 91 conservation in, 126–27
lizers, 161–62; genetic diversity, Biodiversity, aesthetic pleasure
164–67; Green Revolution, 157– and, 52; conservation of, 61–69; Carbon dioxide, 217
61; in India in post-Independ- definition of, 47; domesticated, Catchment area, 76
ence period, 157–61; inputs effi- 49; ecological services, 52; eco- Causes of loss of biodiversity,
cient use, 168; modern system, system, 48–49; erosion of, 53–54; changing agricultural and for-
155–56; pesticides, 162–64; pro- ethical reasons, 52; food secu- estry practices, 56; environ-
duction process, 156–57; Save rity and, 51–52; genetic, 47–48; mental pollution, 57–58; global
Our Seeds, 168–69; shifting greenhouse gases, and, 221–22; climate change, 58; growing de-
agriculture, 154; site, species health, healing and, 50–51; hot mands, 60; habitat destruction,
and variety selection, 167; soil spots of, 29; importance of, 54, 56; international trade, 60;
management, 168; soil pollution 50–53; of India, 27; loss of, 15, invasion by introduced species,
due to, 141–42; sustainable agri- 54–60; micro-organism, 49–50; 56–57; loss of traditional know-
culture, 167; traditional agricul- religious and culture purposes, ledge, 58; management systems,
ture, 154–55 52–53; survival and, 50 60; nature of legal systems, 58–
Air pollutants, sources and effects Biodiversity Act, 2002, 61 59; over-exploitation for com-
of, 139–40 Biodiversity Conservation Net- mercial gain, 57; unplanned
Air pollution, 138–40, 185–86; level work (BCN), 66 development, 54, 56
in selected cities, 185 Biofertilizers, 162 Central Council for Research in
Ali, Salim, 286 Biogeochemical cycles, 36–37 Ayurveda and Siddha (CCRAS),
Aquaculture, 268–70 Biohazard symbol, 144 64
326 UNDERSTANDING ENVIRONMENT

Central Pollution Control Board community participation in, Degradable pollutants, 137
(CPCB), 100, 268 65–66; legislation for, 61–64; Desert Development Programme
Centre for Environment Education, livelihoods link with, 66 (DPP), 100
13 Constitution of India, 74th Amend- Desert region, ecology of, 27
Centre for Environment Educa- ment Act, 1992, 196; article, 21, Desertification, 160
tion’s News and Features Ser- 289; article 48, 288, 290; article Development, economic growth
vice, 290 51, 287 and, 264–66; environment and,
Centre for Science and Environ- Consumer Education and Research 266–69; international initiatives,
ment, 290 Society (CERS), 290 272; meaning of, 263–64; quality
Chemical fertilizers, 162 Consumers, 21 of life and, 266; sustainable
Chemical pollution, indirect effects Consumption, change in patterns development, 270–72, 274
of, 90 of, 255–56; climate change and, Disease-causing agents, 140
Chernobyl disaster, 119–20 250; deforestation and, 248–49; Domestic sector, energy ineffi-
Cherrapunji, wettest spot on earth, impact on environment, 248– ciency in, 114
87 51; in India, 251; needs, wants Domestic use of water, 81–82
Chhokar, Kiran B., 104, 215 and luxuries, 246; over con- Domesticated biodiversity, 49
Chipko Andolan, 283–84 sumption, 245–47; population Doon Valley case, 288
Chlorination, 94 and environment links, 238–39, Double-cropping, 158
Chlorofluorocarbons, 218–19, 231 248–51, 257; soil erosion and, Down to Earth, 290–91
Cities, 176; migration into, 180 249–50; strategies for change, Drinking water, availability of,
Climate change, Convention, 224– 255–56; sustainable consump- 82–83; quality of, 92–94; quality
25; Indian concerns and, 223– tion, 254 specifications for, 92–93; treat-
24, 228–29; study of, 216 Contaminated drinking water, ment, 94
Coal, environmental costs of use of, diseases from, 88 Drought Prone Areas Programme
116–17; source of commercial Contract farming, 156 (DPAP), 100
energy, 110–11 Convention Concerning the Pro- Droughts, 84–87
Coastal Regulation Zone Notifi- tection of the World Cultural Dumping and Disposal of Fly Ash
cation (1991), 302 and Natural Heritage, 68 Notification (1999), 302
Coasts, ecology of, 31 Convention on Biological Diversity
Commensalism, 43 (1992), 68, 304, 308 Early marriage, and high birth rate,
Commercial energy, 108 Convention on International Trade 241
Commercial farming, 156 in Endangered Species of Wild Eco-Development Committee, 66
Communities, 20; characteristics Flora and Fauna (CITES), 68, Eco-Development Project, 66
of, 41–43; commensalisms, 43; 256, 308 Eco-fridge, 234
competition, 42; ecological suc- Convention on Wetlands of Inter- Ecological footprints, 254–55
cession, 42; exploitation, 42; national Importance, 68 Ecological profile, coastline and
interference, 42; living inter- Cook, Earl, 105 sea, 31; Deccan Peninsula, 30;
actions, 42; mutualism, 43; Corbett National Park, 57, 62 desert region, 27; Gangetic
parasitism, 43; predation, 42; Crop-based livestock-rearing sys- Plain, 28; Himalayas, 26–27;
species diversity, 41–42; sym- tems, 155 islands and wetlands, 30; of
biosis, 42–43 Crop genetic diversity, 164 India, 24–31; semi-arid zone,
Community-based conservation, Cultural heritage, loss of, 184 27–28; Trans-Himalaya region,
282–83 24, 26; Western Ghats, 29
Community participation, in biodi- DDT, impact on ecosystem, 45 Ecological services, 52
versity conservation, 65–66 D’Monte, Darryl, 286 Ecology, definition of, 18; levels of
Conservation and management, of Dal Lake, Srinagar, 37 organization, 18–21
water, 95–100 Daly, Herman, 257 Ecosystem, abiotic component, 23;
Conservation strategies, at inter- Damodar river, pollution of, 89 aquatic, 24; biochemical pro-
national level, 67–69; at na- Death rate, 240 cesses in, 32–37; biodiversity,
tional level, 61–66; building on Deccan Peninsula, ecology of, 30 48–49; biological magnification,
indigenous knowledge, 65, 67; Decomposers, 22 37; biotic components, 21–22;
 INDEX 327

classification of, 23–24; com- individual action for, 292–93; Forests (Conservation) Rules (1981),
ponents of, 21–23; concerns for, industries affect on, 202–05; in- 301
37–38; energy flow in, 32–36; spiring models to protect, 280– Forests (Conservation) Rules (1984),
food chains, 34–36; greenhouse 83; international agreements 301
gases and, 221–22; living on, 304–09; law in India, 298– Forests Protection Committee
components, 21–22, 36–37; non- 300; legal redress, 287–89; noti- (FPC), 65
living components, 23, 36–37; fications, 302; population and Foundation for the Revitaliza-
nutrient cycling in, 32, 36–37; of consumption links, 238–39, tion of Local Health Traditions
India, 24–31; productivity of, 33; 248–51, 257; role of youth in, (FRLHTs), 63
terrestrial, 23–24; transitional 291–92; rules, 301–02; sense of Framework Convention on Cli-
zones, 31 place in, 14, 16–17; soil erosion, mate Change (FCCC), 224, 229
Ecotones, 31 249–50; understanding of, 13–16 French, Hilary F., 151
Ehrlich, Paul, 45 Environment (Protection) Act, Fresh water, 76
Energy, alternative resources and 1972, 59, 61 Fuels, energy efficiency of, 109
technologies, 122; biomass, 115– Environment (Protection) Act, Fuller, R. Buckminster, 133
16, 121; coal, 116–17; commer- 1986, 61, 116, 148, 208, 300 Fungicides, 162
cial energy, 108, 125; conserva- Environment (Protection) Rules,
tion, 124–29; consumption in (1986), 148, 301 Gandhi, Indira, 14, 285–86
development of human society, Environment (Siting for Industrial Gandhi, Mahatma, 292
104–05; conventional resources, Projects) Rules (1996), 301 Ganga Action Plan (GAP), 95, 100
121; daily per capita consump- Environment (Siting for Industrial Gangetic Plain, ecology of, 28
tion of, 105; dependence on im- Projects) Rules, 1999, 208 Genetic biodiversity, 47–48
ported oil, 112; environmental Environmental impact assessment Genetic diversity, 159, 164–67
costs of use of, 115–20; flow in (EIA), 206–07 Genetic farming, 156
ecosystems, 32–36; future sce- Environmental Impact Assessment Genetically Modified Organisms
nario, 120, 129–30; hydroelectri- (EIA) of Development Projects (GMOs), 166
city, 118; inefficiency, 114–15; Notification (1994), 302 Gir ecosystem, 20
inequities, 112–14; ladder, 108– Environmental studies, multi- Gir Lion Sanctuary Project, Gujarat,
09; non-commercial energy, 107; disciplinary nature of, 13 62
non-renewable sources, 106; Estuaries, disturbances in, 32 Gir National Park, Gujarat, 20
nuclear power, 119–20; oil and Ethical reasons, for biodiversity, 52 Global warming, 217, 229; con-
natural gas, 117–18; problems, Eutrophication, 37–38, 87 troversies, 225–27; differing
111–15; renewable sources, 106– Eutrophy, 38 contributions, 226–27; ozone
08; scenario in India, 108–11; Everybody Loves a Good Drought, 86 depletion and, 228; scientific
shortage, 111–12; solar energy, uncertainty, 225–26; solutions,
122–23; sources of, 106–08 Factories Act (1948), 300 227–28
Energy Conservation Act (2001), Famine, 85 Globe, potent warmers of, 217
129–30, 300 Farming areas, expansion, 158 Godd, William, 157
Energy-efficient equipment, 128 Fertilizers, 161–62 Goldemberg, Jose, 133
Energy-efficient products, 128 Filtration, 94 Green Revolution, in India, 157–61
Energy-wasting habits and life- Fisheries Act, 1897, 61 Greenhouse effect, 216
styles, need for change in, 129 Floods, 83–84 Greenhouse gases (GHGs), 216–24;
Environment, advocacy and sup- Fly ash, 117 agricultural production and,
port action, 289–91; agriculture Food chains, 34–36; types of, 34– 221–22; carbon monoxide, 219;
and, 161–67; campaigns for, 35; understanding of, 35–36 carbon dioxide, 217; chloro-
283–86, 293–95; citizen action Food security, and biodiversity, 51 fluorocarbons, 218–19; ecosys-
towards, 279–93; climate Forest Act, 1927, 61 tems and biodiversity, 221–22;
change, 250–51; collective ac- Forest-based agriculture, 154 effects, 220–23; human health
tion for, 293; deforestation, 248– Forest Youth Clubs (FYCs), 291–92 and, 223; human sources of,
49; development and, 14–15, Forests (Conservation) Act, 1980, 219–20; hydrofluorocarbons,
263–74; health and, 197–98; 61 219; methane, 217–18; nitrous
328 UNDERSTANDING ENVIRONMENT

oxide, 218; ozone, 219; per- Indus Civilization, 176 Kandula, Kalyani, 153, 238, 263
fluorocarbons, 219; sea level Industrial effluents, 142 Kaziranga National Park, Assam,
and, 220–21; species and, 222– Industrial sector, use of water in, 69
23; sulphur hexafluoride, 219; 80 Keoladeo National Park, Rajasthan,
water resources and, 221; Industries, causes of soil pollution, 57, 59, 69
weather and, 220 142–43; cleaner production Kerala Kani Samudaya Kshema
Gross domestic product (GDP), 264 practices, 209; common effluent Trust, 67
Gross national product (GNP), 264 treatment plant, 206; consum- Kerala Sastra Sahithya Parishat
Groundwater, 75–77, 80–81, 91 ers responsibility, 211; eco- (KSSP), 285
efficiency, 208; eco-industrial Khadpekar, Vivek S., 175
Hall, D.O., 112 networking, 209–10; effect on Kumar, Avanish, 73
Halons, 232 environment, 202–05; energy Kunds, in Rajasthan, 98
Hawkes, Nigel, 133 conservation in, 124–25; en- Kurien, John, 269
Hazardous Bio-medical Waste vironment impact assessment, Kyoto Protocol, 225, 308
(Management and Handling) 205–06; environmental impact
Rules (1998), 301 of product use, 204–05; environ- Land-use patterns, change in, 159,
Hazardous waste, 204 mental management plan, 206; 189
Hazardous Waste (Management laws and rules, 208; location of, Livestock-based pastoral systems,
and Handling) Rules (1989), 205; packaging, 204; produc- 155
208, 301 tion process, 204; raw material, Livestock genetic diversity, 166
Hazare, Baburao, 271
202–03; reducing environmental
Herbicides, 162 Madras Crocodile Bank, 64
impact, 205–10
Herbivores, 21 Maganbhai’s story, 172–74
Infant mortality, 240–41
Heterotrophs, 21 Malthus, Thomas, 244
Informal sector and slums, 180–82
Himalayas, ecology of, 26–27 Manas National Park, Assam, 64, 69
Inorganic chemicals, 140–41
Housing and Urban Development Manufacture, Storage and Import
Inorganic plant nutrients, 141
Corporation (HUDCO), 194 of Hazardous Chemical Rules
Insecticides, 162
Human society, consumption of (1989), 301
Inter-governmental Negotiating
energy in development of, Manufacture, Use, Import, Export
Committee (INC), 224
104–05 and Storage of Hazardous
Inter-governmental Panel on Cli-
Hydroelectric power, 110–11 Micro-organisms/Genetically
mate Change (IPCC), 215, 220,
Hydroelectricity, 118 Engineered Organisms or Cells
Hydrofluorocarbons, 219 228 Rules (1989), 301
Hydrological cycle, 74 International Convention on Bio- Markham, A., 223
Hydrological droughts, 85 logical Diversity, 61–62 Mechanized and chemical-based
Hydrosphere, 73 International Organization for farming, 155–56
Standardization (ISO), 209 Medicinal Plants Conservation
Illiteracy, and high birth rate, 241 International Rice Research Insti- Areas (MPCAs), 63
Imported oil, dependence on, 112 tute (IRRI), 159, 161 Megacity, 178
India, biodiversity, 27; biogeo- Irrigated agriculture, 154 Mehta, M.C., 288–89
graphic zones of, 25; ecological Islands, ecology of, 30 Mendha Lekha village, community-
profile of, 24–31 based conservation in, 281–83
Indian Council for Agricultural Jacob, Sunil, 175 Menon, Sanskriti, 192
Research, 158 Jacobson, Jodi L., 134 Mesotrophy, 38
Indian Renewable Energy Devel- Jagadeesan, Hema, 136 Meteorological droughts, 84–85
opment Agency (IREDA), 123 Jain, Shivani, 18 Methane, 217–18
Indian treasure house, 52 Jambaji, Guru, 59 Metropolis, 178
Indigenous systems of medicine, 51 Jardhari, Vijay, 169 Micro-organism diversity, 49–50
Indore Development Authority, Johads, revival of, 96–97 Migration into cities, 180
193 Joint forest management (JFM), Miller, Tyler G., 24
Indore Habitat Project, 193 65–66 Minamata Bay, pollution of, 90
 INDEX 329

Mining, source of soil pollution, Non-timber forest produce (NTFP), industrial contribution of, 204;
143 66 laws to control, 148; noise pollu-
Ministry of Non-Conventional Nuclear power, 110–11; environ- tion, 144–45, 188; radiation pol-
Energy Sources (MNES), 123, mental costs of use of, 119–20 lution, 145–46; soil pollution,
125 141–44; technological solutions
Mono-cultures, 159 Occupational health and hazards, to, 148; types of, 138–46; water
Monsoon, 75–77 207 pollution, 87–94, 140–41, 186–87
Montreal Protocol, 1987, 233–34, Oceans, 99 Pollution Control Boards, 208
309 Oil, source of commercial energy, Pollution Under Control (PUC)
Motor vehicles, in India, 190 110–11 certificates, 147
Motor Vehicles (Amendment) Act Oil and natural gas, environmental Pols, 184
(1989), 300 costs of use of, 117–18 Population, 20; characteristics of,
Mutualism, 43 Oil spills and accidents, 118 41; climate change and, 250–51;
Oligotrophy, 38 deforestation and, 250; environ-
Nanda Devi National Park, Uttar Omnivores, 21 ment and consumption links,
Pradesh, 69 Operation Kachhapa, 63 238–39, 248–51, 257; factors
Narayan Sarovar Sanctuary, 290 Organic (carbon containing) com- responsible for high birth rate,
National Agriculture Policy of pound, 141 240–42; growth pattern, 243;
2001, India, 228 Organic fertilizers, 162 impact on environment, 248–
National Biodiversity Authority Organism, 20; adaptations, 39; at 51; limits to growth, 244; of
(NBA), 61 trophic level, 36; features of, 39
India, 243, 251, 260–61; over-
National Biodiversity Strategy and Over-consumption, 245–47
population, 245; patterns, 240;
Action Plan (NBSAP), 62 Overpopulation, 245, 247
soil erosion and, 250
National Bureau of Animal Genetic Oxygen-demanding waste, 140
Poverty, and high birth rate, 241;
Resources (NBAGRs), Karnal, Ozone, depleting substances, 231–
line, 251–52
64 33; depletion of, 229–31; effects
Power sector, energy conservation
National Bureau of Plant Genetic of depletion of, 231; Global
in, 126; energy inefficiency in,
Resources (NBPGRs), New warming and, 229; hole, 230;
114
Delhi, 64 India and issue of, 233–34; inter-
Prasad, M.K., 285–86
National Environmental Tribunal national efforts to save, 233
Act (1995), 300 Ozone Depleting Substances Prevention and Control of Water
National Forest Policy of 1988, (Regulations) Rule (2000), 302 Pollution Act, 208
India, 228 Prevention, Control and Abate-
National Lake Conservation Plan Padwardhan, Sujit, 192 ment of Air Pollution Act, 208
(NLCP), 100 Pandya, Mamata, 215 Project Crocodile, Breeding and
National Population Policy, India, Pani Panchayat programme, 280–81 Management, 62
242 Paryavaran, 198 Project Elephant, 62
National River Conservation Plan Peoples’ Biodiversity Registers Project Tiger, 62–63
(NRCP), 100 (PBRs), 65 Protection and Improvement of the
National water policy, 99 Perfluorocarbons, 219 Environment Act, 208
Natural gas, source of commercial Persistent pollutants, 137 Public Liability Insurance Rules
energy, 110–11 Pesticides, 162–64; pollution, 163 (1992), 301
Nature, levels of organization in, Pollutants, 137 Purchasing power parity (PPP), 266
18–21 Polluter Pays Principle, 210 Pygmy Hog Conservation Pro-
Nitrous oxide, 218 Pollution, air pollution, 138–40, gramme (PHCP), 64
Noise pollution, 144–45, 188 185–86; causes of, 137; control,
Noise Pollution Regulations and 146–49; due to war, 146; eco- Radiation pollution, 145–46
Control Rules (2000), 302 friendly traditional practices Radioactive substances, 141
Non-commercial energy, 107–11 and, 147–48; education and Raghunathan, Meena, 202, 215
Non-degradable pollutants, 137 awareness to control, 149; ef- Rainwater harvesting, 86, 97–98
Non-renewable sources, of energy, fects of, 137–38; environmental- Ralegan Siddhi, case of sustainable
106 monitoring programmes, 147; development, 271–72
330 UNDERSTANDING ENVIRONMENT

Ramsar Convention, 68, 307 Sulphur hexafluoride, 219 vegetation, 189; water avail-
Ranthambhore National Park, Sunderbans, West Bengal, 69 ability and pollution, 186–87
Rajasthan, 59, 69–70 Survival, and biodiversity, 50 Urban growth, 177–80; urban-
Rashtriya Barh Ayog (National Sustainable agriculture, 167 ization and, 178–80
Flood Commission), 84 Sustainable development, 270–72, Urban Local Bodies (ULBs), 195–96
Ravindranath, N.H., 112 274 Urban places/areas, advent and
Recycled Plastic Manufacture and Swaminathan, M.S., 157, 170 evolution of, 175–76; classifi-
Usage Rules (1999), 301 Symbiosis, 43 cation of, 177; environment and
Reddy, Amulya K.N., 133 Synecology, 21 health, 197–98; growth, 177–80;
Retreat, residential training facility informal sector and slums, 180–
of TERI, 127–28 Taj Mahal case, 288–89 82; management of, 195–96; mi-
Rice field, and methane, 218 Tankas, in Gujarat, 98 gration into cities, 180; planning
Rich and poor, 253 Temples pond, 98 for, 189–95; transport planning,
Richharia, 165 Terrestrial ecosystem, 23–24 191–94; urban environment is-
River action plans, 95 Thakore, Sarita, 73 sues and, 183; urbanization and
Rodenticides, 162 Thermal Luminescent Dosimetry growth of, 178–80, 182; waste
Rural Litigation Entitlement (TLD) badge, 146 management, 197–98
Kendra (RLEK), 288 Thermodynamics laws, 33 Urban solid waste, causes of soil
Towns, see, Urban places pollution, 143
Sainath, P., 86 Traditional agriculture, 154 Urban transport planning, 191–94
Salinization, 160 Trans-Himalayan region, ecology Urban waste, participatory man-
Salunke, Vilasrao, 280–81 of, 24, 26 agement of, 197–98
Sanjay Gandhi National Park, 52 Transport sector, energy con- Urbanization, in India, 182–83;
Sarabhai, Kartikeya V., 13 servation in, 125–26; energy urban growth and, 178–80
Sea and coasts, 31 inefficiency in, 114
Sedimentation, 94 Tropical Botanic Garden and Vegetation, 189
Self-Employed Women’s Associ- Research Institute (TBGRI), 67 Vienna Convention on the Law of
ation (SEWA), 194 Treaties (1969), 304
Self-feeders, 21 UN Conference on Environment Vivekanandan, V., 269
Semi-arid zone, ecology of, 27–28 and Development (UNCED)
Shifting agriculture, 154–55 (Earth Summit), Rio de Janeiro, WWF-India, 62
Ship-breaking industry, 267–68 15, 68, 224, 272–74, 307 Wars, pollution due to, 146
Silent Valley campaign, 283–86 UN Conference on Human En- Waste-water treatment, 94
Singh, M.P., 158 vironment, Stockholm, 14 Water, agricultural run-off, 90; agri-
Slum networking, in Indore, 193–94 UNFCCC, 307 cultural use, 78–80; conser-
Slums, 180–82 United Nations Convention on the vation and management of,
Socio-economic droughts, 85 Law of the Sea (1982), 304 95–100; domestic sewage pollu-
Soil pollution, 141–44 United Nations Development Pro- tion, 88; domestic use, 81–82;
Solar energy, 122–23 gramme (UNDP), 266 drinking water quality, 92–94;
Solar radiation, 94 United Nations Environment Pro- droughts, 84–87; floods, 83–84;
Solid waste, 187 gramme (UNEP), 62, 146 fresh water, 76; government
Sons, preference for, 241 United Nations Population Fund initiatives for conservation of,
Species, 20; biodiversity, 48; char- (UNPF), 244 99–100; groundwater pollution,
acteristics of, 39–40; climate Urban environment, air pollution, 91–92; groundwater, 76–77, 80;
change and, 222–23; diversity, 185–86; issues in, 183; land use hydrological cycle, 74–75; im-
41–42; ecological niche, 39; change, 189; loss of cultural portance of, 73; in nature, 73–74;
evolution and extinction of, 40 heritage, 184; noise pollution, industrial effluents, 88–90;
Stockholm Convention on POPs, 188; pressure on infrastructure, industrial use, 80; logging, 80;
306 183; public spaces and assets, pollution, 87–94, 140–41, 186–
Sugarcane power, 124–25 184; resource consumption and 87; problems, 82; quality, 87–94;
Sulabh International, 198 waste, 183; solid waste, 187; quality measurement, 93–94;
 INDEX 331

quantity, 82–87; rainwater har- 92–93; ground water pollution, Wildlife (Protection) Amendment
vesting, 97–98; reviving johads 91; industrial effluents, 88–90; Act, 1991, 61
for conservation of, 96–97; surface water pollution, 87; Wildlife (Protection) Amendment
sources of, 75–77, 79; surface natural contaminants, 91; pre- Act, 2002, 61
water pollution, 87; sustainable vention, 94 Wildlife Protection Society of India,
future, 100–01; table, 77, 79; Water (Prevention and Control of 63
treatment of, 94–95; use, 78–82 Pollution) Act (1974), 100 World Charter for Nature, 52
Water cycle, 74 Watershed Management Pro- World Heritage Convention, 68–69
Water pollutants, 140–41 gramme, 76, 86, 100 World Heritage Site, 69
Water pollution, 87–94, 140–41, Western Ghats, ecology of, 29 World Population Day, 244
186–87; agricultural run-off, 90– Wetlands, ecology of, 30; uses and World Summit on Sustainable
91; availability and, 186–87; threats, 77 Development (WSSD), 273–74
causes of, 87; domestic sewage Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972, Worldwatch Institute, 133
pollution, 88; drinking water, 52, 59, 61, 290