Sushan Khadka

Evaluation of Radio Anechoic Chamber

Helsinki Metropolia University of Applied Sciences

Bachelor of Engineering

Degree Programme in Electronics

Bachelor’s Thesis
27 April 2017
 Abstract

Author(s) Sushan Khadka

Title Evaluation of Radio Anechoic Chamber

Number of Pages 44 pages + 3 appendices

Date 27 April 2017

Degree Bachelor of Engineering

Degree Programme Electronics

Specialisation option

Instructor(s) Matti Fischer, Principal Lecturer

The main goal of this project was to evaluate the radio anechoic chamber located on 6th floor
of the electronics department building of Helsinki Metropolia University of Applied Sciences
at Albertinkartu 40-42, 00150 Helsinki. From the results obtained, the performance of the
anechoic chamber was determined; how well the chamber was absorbing the signals gen-
erated inside the chamber; if the antenna measurements that were being carried out inside
the chamber were accurate.

The chamber was evaluated using APC method and VSWR method which are the two most
common type of techniques used for determining the reflectivity of an anechoic chamber. In
each method, two identical patch antennas tuned at 735 MHz frequency were used and the
measurements were recorded using the network analyzer. The final value of reflectivity cal-
culated from both methods were compared to the commercial standard and thus the evalu-
ation of the chamber was realized.

From the calculated results, the reflectivity of the chamber was found to be quite supporting
with the tested frequency and the performance of the pyramidal absorber. In addition, the
anechoic chamber seems to be complying with the commercial standard for radiated emis-
sion test.

The main target of the project fulfilled the requirement of the frequency that was used for the
measurements. However, an anechoic chamber cannot be evaluated relying on one fre-
quency only. The reflectivity of the chamber can be investigated at various frequencies and
proper evaluation of the chamber can be achieved. The reflectivity value of the anechoic
chamber calculated during this project can give an individual idea to some extent regarding
the performance of the chamber and inconsistency in the measurements that is being carried
out inside the chamber.

Keywords RF Anechoic Chamber, Anechoic Chamber Reflectivity, Py-

ramidal Absorber, Ferrite Tiles, VSWR Method, APC Method
Contents

1 Introduction 1

2 EM Waves 2

3 Antennas 5

3.1 Types of Antennas 6

3.1.1 Dipole Antenna 6
3.1.2 Microstrip or Patch Antenna 7
3.1.3 Biconical Antenna 9
3.2 Antenna Measurements 9
3.2.1 Radiation Pattern 10
3.2.2 Gain, Directivity and efficiency measurements 13

4 Anechoic Chamber 14

4.1 RF Absorbers 16
4.1.1 Pyramidal Absorbers 20
4.1.2 Ferrite Tile Absorbers 24

5 Anechoic chamber facility at Metropolia 28

6 Reflectivity of the Anechoic Chamber 32

6.1 VSWR Method 32

6.1.1 Measurement Procedure 33
6.1.2 Measurement Results and Calculations 35
6.2 APC Method 38
6.2.1 Measurement Procedure 38
6.2.2 Measurement Results and Calculations 38

7 Conclusion 41

References 42

Appendices
Appendix 1. Transversal Scan Data
Appendix 2. Longitudinal Scan Data
Appendix 3. Transversal Scan Data at different angles of antenna
List of Abbreviations

dB Decibel

MHz Megahertz

GHz Gigahertz

EM Electromagnetic

RF Radio Frequency

EMC Electromagnetic Compatibility

EMI Electromagnetic Interference

VSWR Voltage Standing Wave Ratio

APC Antenna Pattern Comparison

CISPR International Special Committee on Radio Interference

 1

1 Introduction

Technology is becoming more sophisticated and inevitable part of the modern world.
Various new inventions and innovations have been made over the past few decades.
Every big electrical and electronic company are always in search of a new idea so that
they could attract customers to their products. If a company successfully manufactures
an electronic equipment, they could not just launch it in the market. Since every elec-
tronic device radiates certain amount of EM (Electromagnetic) fields, they must pass the
EMC (Electromagnetic Compatibility) tests. EMC test is what defines an electronic de-
vice eligible to be sold on the market, whether it is functioning as desired and if it is
emitting EM waves as mentioned in EMC standards.

Every year, Metropolia offers different courses related to EMC and EMI (Electromagnetic
Interference) measurements. Students must complete many laboratory exercises re-
garding the study of RF (Radio Frequency) emission of various electronic devices and
its impact on other electronic equipment. As a part of laboratory exercise, students are
also supposed to study the behaviour of different types of antennas. Besides, many stu-
dents write their bachelor thesis based on RF related fields. It is very much essential for
them to know the behaviour of the equipment they have designed.

It is very hard to study the characteristics of an equipment in an open environment as

there are lot of noises present in the environment. Each electronic device present in the
test site can interfere with the measurements being taken. Therefore, an anechoic cham-
ber is what comes in use at these conditions as it provides reflection free zone where no
signals can enter from the outside world and absorbs all signals generated inside the
chamber.

The sole purpose of this thesis project was to evaluate the anechoic chamber facility
provided by Metropolia located at the 6th floor of electronics department building at Al-
bertinkartu. The project was mainly focused on reflectivity level measurement of the an-
echoic chamber using the available antennas and a network analyzer in the campus.
The evaluation of the chamber was achieved as a function of location and as a function
of frequency. Thus, based on the obtained measurements, the anechoic chamber was
determined if it was suitable for accurate measurements (maybe even commercially).
 2

2 EM Waves

Whenever there is transmission or receiving of signals in space by an antenna, there

exists radio waves. Radio waves are EM waves and are often called EM radiations. In
1865, James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) published a paper ‘A dynamical Theory of the
Electromagnetic Field’ which demonstrated that EM waves are vibrations of both electric
and magnetic fields perpendicular to each other and travel with the speed of light.

The wave equation of electric field 𝐸𝑥 oscillating in x-axis direction and travelling in z-
axis direction and magnetic field 𝐻𝑦 oscillating in y direction and travelling in z-direction
as shown in the Figure 1 can be represented as [1]:

𝐸𝑥 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐸0 sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑧 + 𝜙) (1)

𝐻𝑦 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐻0 sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑧 + 𝜙) (2)

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑘 = 𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒⁡𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝜔 = 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟⁡𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦⁡[𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑]
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒⁡𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑⁡𝑓𝑜𝑟⁡𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒⁡𝑡𝑜⁡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒⁡𝑜𝑛𝑒⁡𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒⁡[𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠]
𝑓 = 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔⁡𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒⁡𝑖𝑛⁡𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠⁡𝑝𝑒𝑟⁡𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑⁡[𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧]
𝑡 = 𝐴𝑛𝑦⁡𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑧 = 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑧 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠⁡𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒⁡𝑎𝑡⁡𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒⁡𝑡
𝜙 = 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒⁡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠; 𝑎𝑡⁡𝑧 = 0⁡𝑎𝑛𝑑⁡𝑡 = 0

The conclusion of Maxwell’s equation relates electric field and magnetic field as:

1
𝐻𝑦 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐸𝑥 (z, t)
𝑐
1
𝐻0 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑧 + 𝜙) = 𝐸0 sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑧 + 𝜙) (3)
𝑐

Hence, at any points, the ratio of magnitude of electric filed to the magnetic field as shown
in equation (4) gives the speed of light or EM wave in space denoted by ‘c’.

|𝐸|
𝑐= (4)
|𝐻|
 3

Figure 1. Electromagnetic wave in free space [1]

The components of electric field and magnetic field are in phase in space and time as
shown in the Figure 1. This means that the minimum and the maximum value for the
electric and magnetic field occurs for the same values of time t and fixed value of z
(points at waves oscillating direction). [1]

Frequency or wavelength of the EM radiations could be determined knowing either of

the terms in free space. Since the speed of light is the speed of radio wave, the relation
between velocity, frequency and wavelength of the EM or radio wave is given by:

𝑣0 = 𝜆 ∙ 𝑓 (5)

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑣0 = 𝑐 = 3 × 108 ⁡𝑚/𝑠 = 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑜⁡𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒⁡𝑖𝑛⁡𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚
𝜆 = 𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝐸𝑀⁡𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒⁡[𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒]
𝑓 = 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑐𝑦⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝐸𝑀⁡𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒⁡[𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧]

The propagating nature of EM radiations are much like water waves. The velocity, am-
plitude and direction of the radio waves vary and are absorbed when it propagates
through different medium. For example, the propagative nature of radio wave changes
when it passes through concrete walls and trees. Similarly, taller buildings can reflect
 4

radio waves scattering it into various directions. In addition, radio waves with certain
higher frequencies (f ≥10 GHz) are absorbed largely by bigger rain droplets.

When EM wave is radiated from its source, it spreads out in all directions as if it is cov-
ering the surface of the sphere [2]. More the wave travels, more the distance between
the source and the radiation is increased thus, increasing the area of the sphere. In other
words, the power density (PD) at any point in space is inversely proportion to the distance
between the source and at that point. Mathematically,

1
𝑃𝐷 ∝ (6)
𝑅𝐷2

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
⁡𝑅𝐷 = ⁡𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒⁡

Equation (7) is also called the inverse square law. Hence, the power density at any point
can be calculated by knowing the transmitted power from the source as shown in the
equation (7) below:

𝑃𝑡
𝑃𝐷 = (7)
4𝜋𝑅𝐷2

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
⁡𝑃𝑡 = ⁡𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙⁡𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑⁡𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒

The signal levels of free space EM wave are very low, that is, in the order of -100 dBm
(3 V). Since there are lot of other energies present in the environment, the signal can
be easily masked off by these energies. Consequently, it becomes very difficult to char-
acterize an electrical equipment based on EMC in an open environment. Shielding en-
closures could be a choice that provides an isolation performance of about 100 dBs. But
EM waves are reflected back and forth around all the corners of the shielded enclosure
due to which a complex wavefront is formed at the test antenna region preventing the
formation of uniform plane wave. So, a closed site what we call an anechoic chamber
that is free from all sorts of wave interferences and reflections is required to evaluate an
electronic device. [3]
 5

3 Antennas

Webster’s Dictionary defines an antenna as “a usually metallic device (as a rod or wire)
for radiating or receiving radio waves.” The IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms for Antennas
(IEEE Std 145–2013) defines an antenna as “a part of the system designed for radiating
and receiving EM waves.” In other words, an antenna acts a transitional system between
transmitting line (guiding device) and free space which can be seen in the Figure 2. The
transmitting line can be any form such as a coaxial cable or a waveguide that can be
used for transporting radio waves from an antenna to the receiver, or from a transmitter
to an antenna. [4]

Figure 2. An antenna represented as a transitional device [4]

In modern wireless system, antennas are not only used for transmitting and receiving
radio energy, but also for optimizing or emphasizing the radio energy in desired direc-
tions and suppressing it in others. Hence, antennas also act as a directional device. They
can be used in different form as required by the system; an antenna can be a piece of
electric wire, a lens, a reflector, an array and so on. [4]

Antennas are key element to bring revolution in the communication system. Over the
past 60 decades, antenna technology developed so much that most of the major ad-
vancements that happened during this era are in daily use today. Almost all the electronic
 6

equipment that has wireless communication system contain or require an antenna as a

main component. A good example can be a television or a radio whose broadcasting
performance can be improved by installing a suitable antenna. An antenna is required to
a communication system for the same purpose that eyes and eyeglasses are required
to a human. [4]

3.1 Types of Antennas

There were three different types of antennas available to measure in this project. The
antennas were pair of dipole antennas, a pair of microstrip patch antennas and an EMC
biconical antenna. Two of the dipole antennas and microstrip patch antennas were de-
veloped by the past students, whereas the biconical antenna was a company manufac-
tured antenna.

3.1.1 Dipole Antenna

Dipole antenna is the most common type of antenna that has been widely used since
the beginning days of radio. The simplicity and the efficiency that a dipole antenna pro-
vides in communications can be a reason for it to be considered as a popular and a
worthy device. The construction of the dipole antenna is simple and most of the calcula-
tions involved in its design are quite straightforward. However, in-depth calculations are
more complex like any other antennas. Dipole antennas are also used as an important
element in different other antennas. [5;6]

The name dipole itself suggests that it is an antenna that consists of two poles (radiating
element) or terminals such as conducting wires or metal rods in which RF current flows.
The poles of the dipole antennas are symmetrical; both poles are equal in sizes and
extends from the feed point to the opposite directions. These poles are the main part of
a dipole antennas as its length can be used to determine impedance, operating fre-
quency and many of the other properties. [6]

The electrical length of each radiating element in a typical dipole antenna is quarter
λ λ
wavelength (4) making the antenna half wavelength (2) long [6]. This is done for reso-

nant condition and the resonance occurs when there is presence of only resistance in
the impedance but no reactance at the given frequency [5].
 7

Figure 3(a) and Figure 3(b) shows the basic structure of dipole antenna and typical half
wavelength antenna respectively.

Figure 3(a). Basic structure of dipole antenna, Figure 3(b). Half wavelength dipole antenna [6]

The length of a half wave dipole antenna can be calculated by using the simple mathe-
matical formula as shown in equations (8) and (9) below.

𝐴
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝑖𝑛⁡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠) = 150 × ⁡[𝑀𝐻𝑧] (8)
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝐴
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝑖𝑛⁡𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠) = 5905 × ⁡[𝑀𝐻𝑧] (9)
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:⁡
𝐴 = 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛⁡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

The multiplication factor ‘A’ mainly depends upon the ratio of the antenna’s length to the
thickness of the radiating element and is generally between 0.96 and 0.98 [7]. The elec-
trical length of the radiating element can vary from the actual length of the EM wave in
free space because the wave is affected by various factors of the radiating element. In
free space, the radiating elements are little bit shorter than the EM wave length [6].

3.1.2 Microstrip or Patch Antenna

Microstrip antennas are mainly used for microwave frequency. They are becoming more
popular these days as they can be directly implemented in PCBs (Printed Circuit Board).
At present, they are widely used in mobile phones and any other portable wireless com-
munication devices. The basic structure of microstrip antenna consists of patch (conduc-
tive metallic strip) as radiating element and a ground plane that are separated by a die-
lectric substrate as shown in the Figure 4.
 8

Figure 4. Basic structure of microstrip antenna [4]

The thickness t of the metallic strip and the height ‘h’ (usually⁡0.003λ0 ≤ h ≤ 0.05λ0) of
the substrate in a microstrip antenna is very much smaller than the free space wave-
length⁡(λ0 ). Similarly, the length ‘L’ of a patch (radiating element) in a rectangular patch
λ0 λ
antenna is usually between and⁡ 0 . The design of a patch can be also triangular,
3 2

square, elliptical etc. The patch of the microstrip antenna is designed so that maximum
of the pattern is normal to the patch. This can be achieved by choosing suitable field
configuration below the patch. [4]

The resonant frequency (fr ) of the patch antenna is a function of the length ‘L’ of the
radiating element. Therefore, the resonant frequency at which the patch antenna is tuned
can be obtained by using the equation (10) as represented below.

𝑐
𝑓𝑟 = (10)
2𝐿√𝜖𝑟

Different kinds of substrates can be used for designing patch antennas. The dielectric
constant of these substrates is generally in the range of⁡2.2 ≤ ϵr ≤ 12. For the better
performance of the antennas regarding wide bandwidth, efficiency and loosely bound
EM fields, the substrates are made thicker with dielectric constants as low as possible.
But this results in the bigger radiating element size that increases the expenses. On the
contrary, thin substrates are used in microwave circuits as it provides tightly bound EM
fields that helps to reduce unwanted coupling and radiation, and hence, results in the
smaller radiating element. [4]
 9

3.1.3 Biconical Antenna

Biconical antenna is a broadband antenna that has dipole like characteristics made by
placing two cones of infinite length together [4]. It can be used for EMC testing frequency
ranging from 30-300 MHz [8]. Figure 5 shows the basic structure of biconical antenna.

Figure 5. Biconical antenna [8]

As a broadband antenna, Biconical antenna provides a larger bandwidth with impedance

closer to 50 ohms. Thus, a complicated tuning network is not required to match the im-
pedance with the transmission line. As a practical antenna, learning about the properties
and behaviour of a biconical antennas helps engineers who are interested in antenna
design to understand other different types of antennas. [9]

Some general purpose for using biconical antennas are as follows:

 For emission testing at the frequency range of 20-300 MHz

 For immunity testing mainly at low frequencies
 For evaluating the testing sites such as anechoic chamber

3.2 Antenna Measurements

Most of the antenna measurement techniques were developed before and during Sec-
ond World War. However, many new and advanced technologies have been introduced
with the rapid development of wireless telecommunications. The basic techniques for
antenna measurements, such as antenna patterns, impedance, gain, polarization and
 10

directivity were introduced in parallel with the design of new radiating elements that are
required for emerging radio and radar technologies. [10]

It was soon realized that not only good theoretical background is sufficient to determine
antenna characteristics but also a sophisticated device that provides sound and accurate
results. Much later in the 1960s, equipment for antenna measurements became very
much necessary due to growing space, aerospace and defence industries. Hence, meas-
uring equipment specifically designed for antenna measurements were launched com-
mercially to meet this requirement during this period. This equipment had functions like
pattern recorders, antenna ranges, signal generators, antenna positioners, antenna gain
standards, etc. Nowadays, measuring equipment with advanced computer system are
available that can automatically control pattern measurements, calculate antenna di-
rectivity faster, converts 2D pattern to 3D pattern and so on. [10]

The main parameters of the antenna measurements are pattern measurements and im-
pedance measurements. Pattern measurements are the main measurement technique
in antenna measurements with many subcategories such as beamwidth measurement,
gain, minor lobe level and characteristics of polarization. In some cases, noise and effi-
ciency measurements are also desired. Impedance measurement refers to the measure-
ment of input impedance of an antenna. [1]

3.2.1 Radiation Pattern

Radiation pattern or antenna pattern is one of the fundamental property of an antenna.

It can be defined as a representation of the radiative properties of an antenna either
graphically or as a mathematical function. Generally, far field region is chosen for deter-
mining the radiation pattern of an antenna as function of directional coordinates. Radia-
tion intensity, flux density, field strength, polarization and directivity are the main proper-
ties of radiation. [4]

The standard coordinate system used for representing the radiation properties of an an-
tenna is spherical coordinate system which can be seen in the Figure 6. All the radiation
properties are measured on the surface of the sphere with constant radius. Since the
radius is always constant, only the angular coordinates (𝜃, 𝜙) are required for identifying
the position. Thus, the representation of radiation properties of any radiator as a function
 11

of two angular coordinates 𝜃 and 𝜙 for fixed radius and frequency is called the radiation
pattern of an antenna. [4]

Figure 6. Geometry of spherical coordinate system [11]

An antenna radiates in all directions. Therefore, the radiation pattern of an antenna must
be three dimensional. Due to impracticality, two-dimensional system is generally pre-
ferred. However, three-dimensional pattern can be constructed from the function descrip-
tion and with sufficient time and funds. The preferred coordinate system for two-dimen-
sional pattern are rectangular coordinate system and polar coordinate system. These
coordinate systems mainly represent the orthogonality of electric (E) and magnetic (H)
field patterns. [11]

The radiation pattern of the test antenna is measured by making it as receiver antenna.
The test antenna is rotated with a help of turn table at various angles at a difference of 5
degree till 360 degrees for better measurements. Once the angle reaches 360 degrees,
the turn table is again rotated backward till 0 degree at a difference of 5 degrees. In case
if the receiver antenna (test antenna) and the transmitting antenna (source) are recipro-
cal, the test antenna can be made either a transmitter or a receiver; the test antenna is
made as receiver antenna in this situation. The test antenna is always kept in receiver
mode unless stated. [11]
 12

Figure 7 shows the radiation pattern of half-wavelength dipole antenna in E-plane and
H-plane.

Figure 7. Radiation pattern of a dipole antenna

In the Figure 7, E-plane refers to the orientation or polarization of the radio wave and H-
plane refers to the direction of maximum radiation when an antenna is vertically polar-
ized. E-plane and H-plane are perpendicular to each other.

Similarly, Figure 8 shows the general measurement setup for antenna measurements
inside the anechoic chamber with test antenna as a receiver antenna. The similar type
measurement setup will be used in this project.

Figure 8. Measurement setup inside the anechoic chamber

 13

3.2.2 Gain, Directivity and efficiency measurements

The IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms for Antennas (IEEE Std 145–2013) defines gain as the
“The ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction to the radiation intensity that would
be produced if the power accepted by the antenna were isotropically radiated.” If R is the
radius of sphere, 𝑃𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎 is the antenna power density and 𝑃𝑖𝑛 is input power of an
antenna, mathematically,

4𝜋𝑅 2 𝑃𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛⁡(𝐺) = (11)
𝑃𝑖𝑛

The IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms for Antennas (IEEE Std 145–2013) defines directivity
as “the ratio of power radiated by the antenna in certain direction to the average power
radiated by the antenna in all possible directions.” If R is the radius of sphere, 𝑃𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎
is the antenna power density and 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 is output power of an antenna, mathematically,

4𝜋𝑅 2 𝑃𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦⁡(𝐷) = (12)
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡

From the equations (11) and (12), the relation between gain and directivity can be con-
cluded as:

𝐺 = 𝑘𝐷 (13)

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐾= = 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑎𝑛⁡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎
𝑃𝑖𝑛
 14

4 Anechoic Chamber

A simple definition of an anechoic chamber can be a room that is covered with RF ab-
sorbing materials to minimize the reflection of waves that results in the formation of
standing waves.

An anechoic chamber is used for different types of antenna measurements, EMI and
EMC measurements. In case of this project, it is a room that provides a platform to meas-
ure an antenna behaviour in the outside world by rotating receiver antenna through dif-
ferent angles. An anechoic chamber is not only a reflection free room but also a shielded
room. Therefore, the destructive signals coming from the surrounding environment are
blocked and the RF signals generated are absorbed by different foam absorbers and
ferrite tile absorbers present inside the chamber. [12]

Figure 9 show the plain view of the rectangular anechoic chamber that uses pyramidal
absorber as main RF absorbing material.

Figure 9. Typical view of an anechoic chamber with pyramidal absorber

In the Figure 9, it can be seen that the chamber is completely lined with pyramidal ab-
sorbers. There is high possibility of damaging the pyramidal absorbers with the equip-
ment or the antennas that are going to be tested inside the chamber. So, foam absorbers
or ferrite tiles are laid on the floor where receiver antenna and transmitting antenna are
placed. Similarly, for antenna measurements, polarization of the antenna and distance
 15

between the transmitter and the receiver antennas must be changed time to time. There-
fore, walkway absorbers are used so that antennas can be accessed and other different
types of antennas can be used whenever it is required.

To test an equipment inside the anechoic chamber, a transmitting source that emits EM
signal and a device under test (DUT) as a receiver is required to receive the transmitted
signal. The transmitter and receiver could be any type of antenna. The transmitted signal
field strength is sampled by the receiver antenna that can be used for calculating the
desired results. [13]

Within an anechoic chamber, the EMC and EMI test of electronic equipment such as
radios, televisions, computers etc. and its compatibility with the standards can be evalu-
ated with less interference from the external radiation sources like mobile phones, radios,
international and local television radio stations that transmits at some point higher signal
strength than the ERS (Emission Reference source). [13]

The outer surface (shell) of the anechoic chamber is metal so that it reflects signals that
try to enter the chamber. Somehow if signals enter the chamber through the small holes
between the wall and the door, the RF absorbers lined to the walls, ceiling and floor of
the chamber helps to attenuate these signals to desired level. [13]

The working principle of an anechoic chamber is quite straightforward. Suppose an EM

plane wave radiated from an antenna hits the wall of the chamber at normal incidence.
This can be designed as a signal passing through a transmission line with characteristic
impedance of 377 ohms as shown in the Figure 10 below. [14]

Figure 10. Anechoic chamber modelled as a transmission line circuit [14]

 16

In the Figure 10, the antenna is modelled as a voltage source (Osc) and metallic wall acts
as a load (ZWall). The reflectionless chamber can be created if the signal sent from the
voltage source is blocked from being reflected. Since the walls of the chamber are me-
tallic, the transmission line is short circuited at its termination. This means, all the signals
are reflected as there is no dissipation of any energy in the load. Hence, the materials
with absorptive property know as RF absorbers are required that absorbs so much of
these energies preventing the signal from being reflected. [14]

The actual inside view of the anechoic chamber with horizontally polarized microstrip
dipole antennas; antenna on the right side attached to the turn table where all the an-
tenna measurements need to be done and thus, based on those measurements whose
characteristics need to be determined is shown in the Figure 11 below.

Figure 11. Inside view of the anechoic chamber

4.1 RF Absorbers

In the world of RF or microwave, absorbers are the materials that weaken the energy in
an EM wave. Besides, the frequency range that an anechoic chamber operates is also
determined by the type of RF absorbers that are used for lining the floor, ceiling and walls
 17

of the chamber. The first known absorber is a quarter-wave resonant type absorber op-
erating in the 2 GHz region which was investigated at the Naamlooze Vennotschap Ma-
chinerieen, Netherlands in 1936 [15].

There are variety of radio wave absorbers available in the market for vast range of ap-
plications to diminish undesirable radiations that could hamper operation of a system.
RF absorbers can be used for both external and internal purposes. Externally, they can
be used for attenuating the reflection from and transmission to certain objects. Similarly,
they can be used internally for attenuating the oscillations caused by chamber reso-
nance. In addition, they can be used for creating a free space environment (anechoic
chamber) independent of all-weather condition by reducing the reflections. [16]

Figure 12. Different types of RF absorbing materials [17]

RF absorber are made of different materials and can be of any shape and sizes as shown
in Figure 12. They can be in flexible polymer like elastomers or firm epoxy or foam or
plastics. The characteristics of absorbers can be determined as per the need of test
requirements. In some systems, they are used to minimize interference between circuit
components [16].

The various types of RF absorbers and its characteristics in current technology are as
follows:

 Polyurethane and foam absorbers

- Types: Pyramidal absorber and Wedge absorber
- High cost, larger chamber size, used for high frequency applications
 18

 Ferrite tile absorbers

- Types: Tiles and tile panels
- Smaller chamber size, longer life of chamber, heavy, very expensive (cost three
times more than the foam absorbers
- Suitable for frequency measurements (30 MHz-1 GHZ)

 Polystyrene foam absorbers

- Types: Pyramidal absorber and Wedge absorber
- Expensive, longer life of chamber, increased chamber size than ferrite

 Hybrid absorbers
- Types: Traditional styrene, urethane, new taper styrene, urethane
- Maximum use of ferrite tiles above 1-60 GHz

Absorber Theory

Most of the RF or microwave absorbers contain a filler material inside a material matrix.
The filler contains one or more elements which do most of the absorbing. The physical
properties of an absorber can be obtained from the material matrix.

Electric permittivity and magnetic permeability determine the characteristics of an ab-

sorber. Permittivity can be defined as the measurement of resistance generated when
electric field is developed inside a medium. Similarly, permeability determines an ability
of a medium to assist in the development of magnetic field within itself. Mathematically,
permittivity and permeability could be represented as complex which can be seen in
equations (14) and (15) respectively. [16]

When an EM wave propagates through different medium, the wave is either fully trans-
mitted or part of it is reflected or absorbed. However, amplitude of the reflected wave is
the main part of interest in the anechoic chambers [12].

Figure 13 gives the basic idea how any planar EM wave generated from the source
behaves inside an anechoic chamber.
 19

Figure 13. Basic characteristic of EM wave inside the anechoic chamber

𝑇ℎ𝑒⁡𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑠⁡𝑖𝑛⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡Figure⁡13⁡𝑎𝑟𝑒:
𝜖0 = 8.85 × 10−12 ⁡[𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟⁡ = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 ⁡[ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦/𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟] = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝜖𝑟 = 𝜖𝑟′ − 𝑗𝜖𝑟′′ = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑎𝑛𝑦⁡𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚⁡(𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟⁡𝑖𝑛⁡𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠⁡𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒) (14)
𝜇𝑟 = 𝜇𝑟′ − 𝑗𝜇𝑟′′ = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑎𝑛𝑦⁡𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚⁡(𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟⁡𝑖𝑛⁡𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠⁡𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒) (15)

𝜖𝑟′ is often called dielectric constant and varies with frequency.⁡𝜖𝑟 ′′ is the measurement
of electric field loss caused by any medium [16]. Mathematically, the tangential loss in
electric field could be represented as:

𝜖𝑟′′
tan 𝛿𝐸 = (16)
𝜖𝑟′

Both components in magnetic permeability 𝜇𝑟′ and 𝜇𝑟′ ′ contributes for compressing the
wavelength inside medium [16]. The tangential loss of magnetic field is defined as:

𝜇𝑟′′
tan 𝛿𝑀 = (17)
𝜇𝑟 ′
 20

The main concerned part in the Figure 13 is the reflected wave. Even small reflection
from the absorber creates interference in receiving antenna. With reflectivity level of an-
echoic chamber known, error in test results can be known. Hence, the accurate results
can be obtained by subtracting the reflection loss from the obtained test result. The re-
flection loss (RL) can be determined by calculating the following parameters.

𝜇𝑟 2𝜋𝑓𝑑
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = √ ∙ tanh (𝑗 ∙ √𝜇𝑟 𝜖𝑟 ) (18)
𝜖𝑟 𝑐

𝑍𝑖𝑛 − 𝑍0
𝜌𝑙 = (19)
𝑍𝑖𝑛 + 𝑍0

𝑅𝐿 = −20 ∙ log10(𝜌𝑙 )⁡ (20)

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
Z𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡⁡𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙⁡𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑑⁡𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑔⁡𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟⁡[𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠]
𝑑 = 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟⁡𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠⁡[𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟]
𝑓 = 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑚𝑐𝑒⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑜⁡𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒⁡[𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧]
𝑐 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡⁡[𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟/𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑]
𝜌𝑙 = 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛⁡𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙⁡𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑑⁡𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝑍0 = 377⁡𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐⁡𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑎𝑖𝑟

Broadband pyramidal absorbers and ferrite tiles are extensively used in the anechoic
chamber design. So, only these two types of absorbers are discussed in this document.

4.1.1 Pyramidal Absorbers

Pyramidal absorbers are dielectric absorbers and are the most common type of absorber
product that are used in most of the anechoic chamber for antenna measurements and
radar measurements. They are available in different shapes and sizes that provides de-
sired impedance match between the resistive absorber medium and free space.

Pyramidal absorbers are generally made from polyurethane or polystyrene foam that is
filled with conductive carbon. The absorption of RF energy from microwave frequencies
from 0.5 GHz can be achieved by balancing the carbon with the shape of the foam; the
foam’s length can be greater than one wavelength [18]. While applying carbon to the
 21

foam or as a secondary treatment, the carbon filled absorber should be treated with in-
flammable substances as per the safety standard. [12]

The carbon loaded foams are painted with different colours as the request of the cus-
tomer. However, the foams are mostly painted with latex blue for good light reflectivity
purpose. These paints seem not to affect the operation of the absorber for long and even
modest wavelengths, but it can be disturbing at shorter wavelengths (less than an inch
or so). For example, the latex blue paint degrades the reflectivity of the chamber approx-
imately 5 dB at frequency of 95 GHz. [12]

The amount of carbon introduced in the absorbers during the production process can
hugely vary the reflectivity level of the absorbers. These variations can be seen in the
Figure 14 below that illustrates change in reflectivity on loading carbon with various thick-
ness in the foam absorber corresponding to the test frequency. [12]

Figure 14. Variation in reflectivity with variation in thickness of carbon coating in an absorber [12]

In the Figure 14, reflectivity is same as the reflection loss or return loss as mentioned in
the equation (20). In the figure, solid black line represents the favourable amount of
carbon load in the foam. On increasing the quantity of carbon in the foam, the reflectivity
 22

curve is shifted to left which means that a lot of carbon must be introduced onto the foam
to achieve the same optimal amount of reflectivity characteristics.

Wavelength and frequency of the radio wave are inversely proportional to each other.
Thus, the length of the pyramidal absorber can be from 10 cm to 25 cm depending upon
the wavelength of the smallest possible frequency specified for the anechoic chamber.
Pyramidal absorber of a length greater than or equal to 20 cm are mainly used for meas-
uring the distance up to 10 m in an anechoic chamber where the requirement for NSA
(National Security Agency) correlation of radiated RF immunity better than ±4 dB must
be fulfilled for the frequency ranging from 30 MHz to 1 GHz. According to IEC/EN 61000-
4-3, the requirement for immunity test starting at 80 MHz can be fulfilled already with a
pyramid of length 7.5 cm. Even pyramids of sizes 20 cm to 30 cm are sufficient for the
measurement in the frequency range of greater than or equal to 1 GHz. [18]

Figure 15 is a technical drawing of square shaped broadband pyramidal absorber that is

used in the anechoic chamber.

Figure 15. Technical drawing of square shaped pyramidal absorber [19]

The minimal height C (in Figure 15) of the pyramidal absorber can range from 2 or 3
inches for millimetre-wave absorbers to 12 feet for UHF (Ultra High Frequency) and VHF
(Very High Frequency) absorbers. Almost all the square shaped pyramidal absorbers
are manufactured with a 2 × 2⁡(A × B) feet base which has become the standard size in
all the industries. [20]
 23

Typical reflectivity of the pyramidal absorber at normal incidence based on its thickness
and the frequency specified can be seen in the Table 1. The reflectivity of the absorber
is stated in the table as –dB.

Table 1. Typical performance of pyramidal absorber [12]

Similarly, the reflection coefficient of the pyramidal absorber as a function of incident

angle can be seen in the Figure 16 below.

Figure 16. Carbon-filled pyramidal absorbers performance as a function of incident angle [21]
 24

In the Figure 16, the reflection coefficient of the pyramidal absorbers is plotted against
its thickness in wavelengths measured at 3 different angles (50, 60 and 70 degrees) of
the incident wave. The plot suggests that the thickness of the absorber increases (com-
pared to the wavelength) for the better performance of the anechoic chamber. Similarly,
the plot also illustrates that the reflectivity is increased when angle of incident wave is
increased and vice versa. This means that pyramidal absorbers give the best result when
its tip are pointed towards the incident wave source. In some narrow anechoic chambers
when the angle of incidence at the sidewalls reaches 70 degrees, Figure 16 suggests
that the reflection coefficient for the 4λ pyramidal absorber can be as high as -25 dB. [20]

4.1.2 Ferrite Tile Absorbers

Ferrite tiles absorbers are magnetic absorbers [22]. They can be a suitable alternative to
the traditional foam-type absorber for building new or upgrading the older anechoic
chambers for radiated emission and immunity measurements. They are used in the an-
echoic chambers where maximum absorption (below 100 MHz) and compact size is re-
quired for attenuation of plane wave reflections. For example, a small box anechoic
chamber can be made from the ferrite tiles for low frequency measurements. Ferrite tiles
by nature are resistant to fire, chemicals and humidity. [23]

Ferrite tile absorbers are manufactured from solid ferrite which is a class of ceramic ma-
terial with cubical crystalline structure and the molecular formula MOFe2O3; MO is com-
bination of two or more divalent (two electrons in valence shell) metal oxides where
Fe2O3 are iron oxides. These different types of metal oxides establish magnetic and ab-
sorptive properties in the ferrite. The metal oxides are generally soft metal oxides like
zinc, copper, nickel or manganese oxides. [24]

Ferrite tile absorbers are available in two different forms, flat ferrite tiles and grid ferrite
tiles. Flat ferrite tiles are about 6 mm in thickness, whereas the thickness is approxi-
mately 20 mm in a grid construction. Loss tangent and permeability are the two key ele-
ments that determines the behaviour of a ferrite tile absorber. Since loss tangent and
permeability changes with frequency, it is quite difficult to design the frequency response
of a ferrite tile over a wide frequency range. But with appropriate design, decent absorb-
ing performance can be obtained over the frequency range between 30 MHz to 1000
MHz. [22;4]
 25

The main principle that ferrite tiles work is that its impedance is matched to the imped-
ance of free space. Besides, both permittivity and permeability of ferrite tiles are complex
that make it lossy. This is achieved such that the ratio of permeability to the ratio of
permittivity is approximately 377 ohms which is the impedance of the free space. The
typical property of the ferrite tile is given by the equation (21).

𝜇𝑟 = 𝜖𝑟 = 60(2 − 𝑗) (21)

From Equation (21), the character impedance of the ferrite tile same as that of free space
can be calculated as:

𝜇
𝑍0 = 377√ 𝜖 𝑟 = 377⁡Ω (22)
𝑟

The reflection coefficient and the wave impedance of the ferrite tile can be calculated by
using equations (18) and (19) respectively. Since the tile thickness is smaller than the
wavelength at about 30 MHz frequency which is also the minimum frequency required
by the FCC (Federal Communications Commission) and European standards, therefore
[22]:

2𝜋𝑓𝑑 2𝜋𝑓𝑑
tanh (𝑗 ∙ √𝜇𝑟 𝜖𝑟 ) → 𝑗 (√𝜇𝑟 𝜖𝑟 ) (23)
𝑐 𝑐

Hence, equation (18) can be expressed as:

2𝜋𝑓𝑑
𝑍𝑖𝑛 ≈ 𝑗𝜇𝑟 ∙ (24)
𝑐

Thus, at low frequency wherever equation (23) is valid, the impedance of the ferrite tile
(equation (24)) does not depend on the complex permittivity at low frequency [22]. Sub-
stituting equation (24) and⁡𝜇𝑟 = 𝜇𝑟′ − 𝑗𝜇𝑟 ′′, equation (19) cab be written as:

2𝜋𝑓𝑑 ′′ 2𝜋𝑓𝑑
( 𝑐
𝜇𝑟 − 1) + 𝑗 ( 𝑐
𝜇𝑟 ′)
𝜌𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑑 2𝜋𝑓𝑑
(25)
( 𝑐 𝜇𝑟′′ + 1) + 𝑗 ( 𝑐 𝜇𝑟 ′)
 26

2𝜋𝑓𝑑
The tile thickness at 30 MHz frequency is designed so that⁡ ∙ 𝜇𝑟 → 1, substituting
𝑐

equation (20) reflection loss (equation (20) can be written as:

2𝜇𝑟′′
𝑅𝐿 = 20 log10(𝜌𝑙 ) ⁡ ≈ −20 ∙ log10 ( ) ≈ −20 log10(2 ∙ tan 𝛿𝑀 ) (26)
𝜇𝑟 ′

Equation (26) shows the ferrite tile relation with reflectivity and tangential loss of the
intrinsic permeability. Better performance can be achieved by increasing the tangential
loss of the intrinsic permeability of the ferrite tile absorber. [22]

The responsive bandwidth of the ferrite tile can be also increased by placing ferrite tiles
on the top of a dielectric spacer. Dielectric spacer is generally made up of wood and
hence, the maximal responsiveness of the ferrite tile can be achieved by differing the
thickness of the wood. Optimizing the thickness of both tile and dielectric spacer can shift
the reflection loss performance from 600-1500 MHz. In case, if more bandwidth is re-
quired, engineered hybrid absorbers using specially designed and matched dielectric
absorbers to the ferrite tiles like pyramidal and wedge-shaped absorber are needed. [23]

The ferrite tile with dielectric spacer attached to the metallic surface can be seen in the
Figure 17 below.
.

Figure 17. Ferrite tile mounted on metal surface [23]

Similarly, Figure 18 shows the variation of bandwidth with the increasing thickness of a
dielectric spacer. The data shown in the figure can be used to calculate the effective
(equation (27)) permeability of the tile if there are any air gaps present in between the
tiles.
 27

Figure 18. Variation of reflection loss with dielectric spacer thickness [23]

When placing the ferrite tile next to each other, it is very much essential to maintain
minimal gap between each tile. Since ferrite tiles have permeability much bigger than 1,
the air gaps present in between the tile can seriously affect the performance of an ab-
sorber. Therefore, many EMC and RF related companies are manufacturing the ferrite
tiles in 20 mm2 rather than manufacturing the tiles of normal dimension 100 mm2 that
helps to reduce the possible number of gaps remarkably. [12;22]

It has been found out that the impact of air gap between the tiles is analogous to the air
gap that exists in between the iron core of the AC (Alternating Current) power trans-
former. Based on the formula of transformer core air gap, a theory has been introduced
to determine the tiles effective permeability with air gaps as shown in equation (27). [22]

𝜇𝑟
𝜇𝑟𝑒 = ∆ (27)
1 + (𝜇𝑟 − 𝜇𝑎𝑖𝑟 )
𝑙

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
∆= 𝐴𝑖𝑟⁡𝑔𝑎𝑝⁡𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛⁡𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡⁡𝑖𝑠⁡𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟⁡𝑡𝑜⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐⁡𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑⁡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑙 = 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒⁡𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒
 28

5 Anechoic chamber facility at Metropolia

The inside view of the anechoic chamber facility at Metropolia campus can be seen in
the Figure 11. Similarly, the cross-sectional view of the chamber can be also seen in the
Figure 19 below.

Figure 19. Model of the anechoic chamber facility the Metropolia

The chamber mainly uses pyramidal absorbers as a RF absorbing material. The pyra-
mids are painted with latex blue to provide the chamber with good light reflectance [12].
The pyramids are on a square base like in the Figure 15 with 6×6 pyramids (36 pyramids
in total). The dimension of each square shaped block with pyramids is 3600 cm2. Figure
20 shows the geometry of a pyramid on a square base used in the chamber.

Figure 20. Pyramidal absorber dimensions

 29

Looking at the dimension and the number of pyramids on the square base, the general
characteristics of the pyramidal absorber used in the chamber can be determined from
the Table 1 as represented in Table 2.

Table 2. General performance of the pyramidal absorber used in the chamber

Frequency (GHz) 0.5 1 3 6 10 18 30

Reflectivity (-dB) 30 35 40 45 50 50 50

There are also few black coloured rectangular box looking like structure inside the cham-
ber called walkway absorbers which encapsulates the pyramidal absorbers. These ab-
sorbers are used inside the chamber so that antennas can be accessed whenever
needed without damaging the pyramidal absorbers.

The transmitter antenna is attached to the Brüel & kjær type 9640 turntable that can
support up to 100 kg load [25]. The turntable can be controlled from the separate room
by Brüel & kjær turntable controller type 5997. With the help of the controller, the trans-
mitter antenna can be rotated from 0-360 degrees and vice versa with the spacing of
desired angle and acceleration. In addition, the turntable can be also controlled from the
computer through LabVIEW software by using the NI (National Instruments) GPIB-USB-
HS. The turntable and turntable controller used in the anechoic chamber and NI GPIB-
USB-HS is shown in the Figure 21(a) and Figure 21(b) respectively.

Figure 21(a). Turntable and turntable controller [25], Figure 21(b). NI USB-GPIB-HS [26]

Though the chamber is fully anechoic, depending upon the performance of the pyramidal
absorbers inside the chamber, resonance can occur at different modes. When the inci-
dent wave meets the reflected wave, the constructive and destructive interference pat-
tern is formed that leads to resonance. The resonance results in the formation of standing
waves in the space inside the chamber. The frequencies at which the resonance occurs
 30

inside the chamber can be calculated from the measured dimensions of the anechoic
chamber as shown in the equation (28) below.

𝑎 2 𝑏 2 𝑐 2
𝑓𝑟(𝑎𝑛) √
= 150 × ( ) + ( ) + ( ) ⁡ (28)
𝑙 𝑤 ℎ

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑓𝑟(𝑎𝑛) = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒⁡𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐⁡𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟⁡[𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧]
𝑙 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐⁡𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 4.865⁡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝑤 = 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐⁡𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 4.42⁡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠
ℎ = 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐⁡𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 2.24⁡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝑎, 𝑏⁡𝑎𝑛𝑑⁡𝑐 = 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒⁡𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟⁡𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠

Some possible resonant modes of the space inside the Metropolia anechoic chamber
can be seen in the Table 3 below. Only one of the constants can be zero at a time for a
resonance to occur.

Table 3. Resonance frequencies of the anechoic chamber

𝒂 𝒃 𝒄 𝒇𝒓(𝒂𝒏) ⁡𝑴𝑯𝒛
1 0 1 73.72148392
1 1 0 45.85125899
1 1 1 81.15758444
1 1 2 141.559882
1 2 1 100.2079967
1 2 2 153.2784693
2 1 1 97.1518317
2 1 2 151.2981331
2 2 1 113.5498453
2 2 2 162.3151689
3 2 2 176.3502827
3 2 3 231.3449805
3 3 2 191.9841238
3 3 3 243.4727533
 31

The maximum perpendicular distance from the transmitter antenna to the receiver an-
tenna that can be considered for far filed measurement inside the chamber is 2.5 metres.
Therefore, the minimal frequency that can be used for far field measurement inside the
anechoic chamber can be calculated using the well-known formula,

2𝐷 2
𝑅≥ (29)
𝜆

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑅 = 𝐹𝑎𝑟⁡𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑⁡𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐷 = 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟⁡𝑜𝑟⁡𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑎𝑛⁡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎
𝜆 = 𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑜⁡𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒

Therefore, if an antenna is half wavelength long and far field starts at 2.5 metres distance
from the transmitter antenna, equation (29) gives the minimum radio frequency that can
be considered for testing a DUT (Device Under Test) inside the anechoic chamber as:

𝑐
2.5 ≥
2𝑓

𝑓 ≥ 60⁡𝑀𝐻𝑧
 32

6 Reflectivity of the Anechoic Chamber

The reflectivity of the anechoic chamber was measured using two different types of
method which are VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio) method and APC (Antenna
Pattern Comparison) method. In the beginning, the main idea was to use only VSWR
method. Later, it was decided to use APC method also so that results from both methods
can be compared and hence, it can be investigated if calculated reflectivity values from
both methods are similar. Consequently, this also helped to know if the calculated reflec-
tivity value of the chamber was correct.

6.1 VSWR Method

When two identical waves oscillating either in the same direction or in the opposite di-
rection meet each other either, there of the conditions are valid which are as follows:

1) They pass right through each other

2) They momentarily cancel out each other totally which is called destructive inter-
ference

3) They momentarily strengthen each other increasing the amplitude of the of the
wave which is called constructive interference

When transmitter antenna is kept stationary and the receiver antenna is moved along
the perpendicular, parallel and upward direction with respect to the axis of the chamber,
VSWR method assumes that there exists a point P in the free space inside the anechoic
chamber where the direct signal and the reflected signal meet each other and thus, in-
terference pattern is formed. [27]

The oscillating reflected signal are superimposed with the direct signal and thus varies
the amplitude of the direct signal at that point. Though the amplitude of the signal varies
on changing the distance between the antennas and variations in the far-field conditions,
the place where the two wave meets forms a ripple like that of standing wave. The max-
imum and minimum value of the ripple can be used to find the reflectivity of the anechoic
chamber. [27]
 33

6.1.1 Measurement Procedure

Figure 22 shows the measurement setup for the VSWR method. Two identical microstrip
dipole antennas tuned at 735 MHz were used as a transmitter and a receiver antenna.
Since the reflectivity measurement is based on the maximum and minimum value of the
electric filed, the antennas were vertically polarized. For a standing wave detector, Ag-
ilent 8741ET RF network analyzer was used which was placed outside of the anechoic
chamber.

Figure 22. Measurement setup for VSWR method and APC method

At first, the receiver antenna Rx and transmitter antenna Tx were placed directly facing
to each other at point d0 which was also taken as a reference point. The transmitter
antenna was kept stationary but it can be rotated for pattern measurements with the help
of turn table and the turntable controller.

For recording the standing wave curve, the receiver antenna was moved along the axis
of the chamber (transversal line from the transmitter antenna) and towards the antenna.
Besides, three conditions were considered for recording the VSWR curve which are de-
scribed in short below:

1) The distance between the receiver antenna and the transmitter antenna was 225
centimetres from the reference point. The receiver antenna was moved from the ref-
erence point towards the transmitter antenna with the spacing of 2 centimetres. Total
of the 30 standing wave magnitudes were recorded and the final distance between
 34

the antennas was 80 centimetres when it was decided to record the final magnitude
for the longitudinal scanning.

2) The receiver antenna was moved along the axis of the anechoic chamber with the
spacing of 2 centimetres from the reference point until the distance from the refer-
ence point was 40 centimetres. Total of the 21 standing wave magnitudes were rec-
orded for this measurement process.

3) The receiver antenna was moved along the axis of the chamber with the spacing of
10 centimetres from the reference point till the corner of the chamber which lies 121
centimetres away from the reference point. The measurements were taken at 13
different positions. At each position, the receiver antenna was turned towards 5 dif-
ferent directions (roughly 18 degrees at a time) until it was totally cross polarized with
the transmitter antenna. The average magnitude was calculated from the recorded
measurements for each position.

The reflectivity of the chamber R was then calculated from maxima (δ1 ) and minima (δ2 )
of the recorded interference pattern using the equations below.

𝛿
𝐸𝑟 1020 − 1
𝑅(𝑑𝐵) = 20 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ⁡) = 20 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( 𝛿 ⁡⁡) (30)
𝐸𝑑
1020 + 1
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝛿 = 𝛿1 − 𝛿2

As per the CISPR 16-4-1 [28], the value of VSWR should not exceed 6 dB to pass the
radiated emission test site that is,

𝐸𝑀𝑎𝑥 [𝑉/𝑚]
𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅[1] = ≤2 (31)
𝐸𝑀𝑖𝑛 [𝑉/𝑚]

𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅[𝑑𝐵] = 𝐸𝑀𝑎𝑥 [𝑑𝐵𝜇𝑉] − 𝐸𝑀𝑖𝑛 [𝑑𝐵𝜇𝑉] ≤ 6⁡𝑑𝐵 (32)

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝐸𝑀𝐴𝑋 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚⁡𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐⁡𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑⁡𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐸𝑀𝐴𝑋 = 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚⁡𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐⁡𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑⁡𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
 35

6.1.2 Measurement Results and Calculations

The measurements taken at different conditions were plotted in the Excel and the VSWR
curve obtained can be seen in the Figure 23, Figure 24 and Figure 25. The VSWR curve
were then enveloped to get the maxima and minima of the interference pattern which
can be seen in all the three figures. The pattern level ‘a’ was considered 0.00 dB as the
aspect angle is 0 degree.

Since the amplitude varies at different points in the chamber, it is certain to get more
than one values of reflectivity. So, two areas A and B were selected in each VSWR curve
and two reflectivity values were calculated in each case. The maximum value calculated
from all the curves was considered as the reflectivity of the anechoic chamber.

Calculation 1: When receiver antenna was moved towards the transmitter antenna

Figure 23. VSWR chart on receiver antenna towards the transmitter antenna

𝐴𝑡⁡𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎⁡𝐴:
𝛿(𝐴) = 𝛿1 − 𝛿2 = −58.75 − (−59.941) = 1.191⁡𝑑𝐵
𝐴𝑡⁡𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎⁡𝐵:
𝛿(𝐵) = 𝛿3 − 𝛿4 = −62.75 − (−63.705) = 0.955⁡𝑑𝐵
 36

Thus, using equation (30), the reflectivity of the chamber was calculated at the area A
and area B as,

𝑅(𝐴) = −23.292⁡𝑑𝐵
𝑅(𝐵) = −25.205⁡𝑑𝐵

Calculation 2: When receiver antenna was moved along the axis of the chamber

Figure 24. VSWR chart on moving receiver antenna along the axis of the chamber

𝐴𝑡⁡𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎⁡𝐴:
𝛿(𝐴) = 𝛿1 − 𝛿2 = −71.20 − (−72.191) = 0.991⁡𝑑𝐵
𝐴𝑡⁡𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎⁡𝐵:
𝛿(𝐵) = 𝛿3 − 𝛿4 = −70.55 − (−72.086) = 1.536⁡𝑑𝐵

Thus, using equation (30), the reflectivity of the chamber was calculated at the area A
and area B as,

𝑅(𝐴) = −24.884⁡𝑑𝐵
𝑅(𝐵) = −21.091⁡𝑑𝐵
 37

Calculation 3: When receiver antenna was moved along the axis of the chamber turning
at five different angles at each position

Figure 25. Average VSWR chart on moving receiver antenna at different angles along the chamber axis

𝐴𝑡⁡𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎⁡𝐴:
𝛿(𝐴) = 𝛿1 − 𝛿2 = −70 − (−71.0896) = 1.0896⁡𝑑𝐵
𝐴𝑡⁡𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎⁡𝐵:
𝛿(𝐵) = 𝛿3 − 𝛿4 = −65.80 − (−67.141) = 1.341⁡𝑑𝐵

Thus, using equation (30), the reflectivity of the chamber was calculated at the area A
and area B as,

𝑅(𝐴) = −24.062⁡𝑑𝐵
⁡𝑅(𝐵) = −22.265⁡𝑑𝐵

The 6 reflectivity values calculated in all three cases were quite near. Comparing to all
the reflectivity values, the maximum reflectivity value was obtained at area B (Figure 23)
when receiver antenna was moved towards the transmitter antenna. Hence, the reflec-
tivity of the chamber was determined as:

𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑡ℎ𝑒⁡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐⁡𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟⁡(𝑅) = −21.091⁡𝑑𝐵
 38

6.2 APC Method

When the radiation pattern of an antenna is recorded at discrete positions along the axis
of the chamber (transversal line), there occurs a small variation in the recorded patterns.
These variations can be seen when all the recorded patterns are superimposed on the
top of each other. Hence, the magnitude of these variations can be used to determine
the reflectivity of the anechoic chamber. [27]

6.2.1 Measurement Procedure

The measurement setup for the APC method was same as in the VSWR method. The
difference was that the receiver antenna was moved only along the axis of the chamber.
The antennas were vertically polarized and the radiation patterns of the transmitter an-
tenna were recorded at five different positions from the reference point with the spacing
of 10 centimetres. The reflectivity was then calculated using the equation (30) substitut-
ing the value of maximum and minimum field detected from the variation obtained after
superimposing all the patterns together.

6.2.2 Measurement Results and Calculations

The measured radiation patterns at five different positions on the axis of the chamber
plotted in the rectangular coordinate system can be seen in the Figure 26 below.

Figure 26. Radiation pattern rerecorded at discrete positions on the axis of the chamber
 39

In the Figure 26, solid black line represents the radiation pattern recorded at reference
position (0 cm) i.e. when the antennas were directly facing at each other. Similarly, 𝛿1
and 𝛿2 were the maximum and minimum field detected after superimposing the patterns.

In the Figure 26, it can be seen that there is difference of about -2 dB in magnitude from
the reference radiation pattern to the pattern recorded at 10 centimetres at an angle
between 0-60 degrees. After, the pattern seems to be quite coinciding with the main lobe
of the reference pattern. Similarly, the radiation patterns taken at distance of 10, 20 and
30 centimetres from the reference position are coinciding with each other with little dif-
ference only.

The pattern taken at distance of 40 centimetres from the reference position is coinciding
with the patterns taken at 10, 20 and 30 centimetres only till 100 degrees. The main lobe
of the pattern is deviating outward from 100 degree by -2 dB to -3 dB even from the
reference pattern. The pattern recorded at 30 centimetres is also deviating outward of
the reference pattern from an angle of 125 degree.

Similarly, the radiation patterns plotted in polar coordinates can be seen in in the Figure
27 below. In the figure, it can be clearly seen that how radiation pattern is varying on
moving the receiver antenna along the axis of the anechoic chamber.

Figure 27. Polar plot of Radiation Patterns

 40

Since in APC method, the reflectivity values differ with angles, 6 different angles were
selected to calculate the reflectivity of the chamber. Hence, using the equation (30), the
reflectivity levels of the anechoic chamber with the corresponding angles were calculated
as:

Table 4. Reflectivity levels at corresponding angle

Angle (degree) 20 50 70 100 150 170

Reflectivity (-dB) 12.423 14.181 17.586 23.198 16.005 14.685

From the Table 4 above, the average reflectivity of the chamber was calculated as -
13.846 dB. However, the maximum value was selected to represent the reflectivity of the
anechoic chamber. For an angle⁡𝜃, the highest value of reflectivity can be represented
in the interval⁡0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 180. Similarly, the superimposed radiation patterns (Figure 26 and
Figure 27) also suggest that maximum reflectivity lies in between these angles.
 41

7 Conclusion

The evaluation of the anechoic chamber was achieved by applying the most commonly
used techniques known as VSWR method and APC method. Since the chamber was
evaluated at only one frequency (735 MHZ), it can be said at least that the anechoic
chamber proved to be in quite smooth condition for the tests below 1 GHz.

Comparing the value of VSWR to the standard mentioned in the CISPR 16-4-1, the
obtained result meet the requirement to pass the radiated emission test site. The maxi-
mum value of VSWR obtained during the entire measurement process was 1.536 dB
which is much less than the required VSWR value as mentioned in the standard CISPR
16-4-1. Similarly, anechoic chamber of reflectivity at least -20 dB is recommended for
the tests below 1 GHz. The obtained reflectivity value of the chamber using VSWR
method was 1 dB less than the minimum value recommended for the reflectivity. In ad-
dition, looking at the performance of the pyramidal absorber below 1 GHz (Table 2), it
can be said that the value obtained from the VSWR method is quite satisfactory.

Though the results obtained from the APC method varies from the VSWR method, Appel-
Hansen [27,495] suggests that same kind of results can be obtained using VSWR
method on moving the receiving antenna towards the transmitting antenna with different
aspect angles. However, the reflectivity value did not exceed 6 dB which means the test
site passed the radiated emission requirement as mentioned in CISPR 16-4-1. Besides,
larger number of patterns should be taken to get the accurate results in APC method
which requires considerable amount of time and analysis work. On the contrary, the
specifications of anechoic chamber nowadays generally include the maximum value of
reflectivity calculated using VSWR method as it helps to know the maximum incon-
sistency in the measured results.

For the better characterization of the chamber, the values of reflectivity can be calculated
at various frequencies. Similarly, the attenuation of the chamber can be investigated to
study its shielding effectiveness. The resonance frequencies of the chamber can be iden-
tified and thus improvement can be done in those areas if measurements must be done
in those frequency ranges. Better performance of the anechoic chamber complying with
the industrial standards can be achieved by replacing the damaged pyramid blocks as
there are lot of pyramids with broken tips and with proper arrangement of absorbers
around the testing region.
 42

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 43

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 44

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 Appendix 1

Longitudinal Scan Data

 Appendix 2

Transversal Scan Data

 Appendix 3

Transversal Scan Data at different angles of antenna